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Siege of Tsingtao

The Siege of Tsingtao, fought from 27 August to 7 November 1914, was the principal land engagement involving Japanese forces during the First World War, pitting a combined Anglo-Japanese expeditionary force against the German garrison defending the leased territory of Tsingtao (modern Qingdao) in China.^[1]^[2] Commanded by Major General Mitsuomi Kamio, the Japanese 18th Division—comprising approximately 23,000 infantry supported by 142 artillery pieces—landed in early September and methodically advanced under cover of naval gunfire from British and Japanese warships, including the seaplane carrier Wakamiya, which conducted the conflict's first aerial reconnaissance and bombing raids.^[3]^[2] The outnumbered German defenders, numbering around 4,000 under naval captain Alfred Meyer-Waldeck, relied on fortified positions such as Bismarck Hill and Hui-ch'üan Point, scuttling their warships and mounting a determined resistance that inflicted disproportionate casualties before surrendering on 7 November, yielding nearly 5,000 prisoners.^[1]^[3] This operation, initiated at Britain's request to neutralize the German East Asia Squadron's base, marked the first joint British-Japanese military campaign and expelled Imperial Germany from its Pacific foothold, though Japan later leveraged the victory to assert expanded influence in China.^[2]^[3]

Historical Background

German Acquisition and Development of Kiautschou

The Juye Incident occurred on November 1, 1897, when two German Catholic missionaries, Richard Henle and Franz Xaver Nies of the Society of the Divine Word, were killed by Chinese insurgents in Juye County, Shandong Province.^[4] In retaliation, German naval forces under Rear Admiral Otto von Diederichs occupied Jiaozhou Bay on November 14, 1897, seizing the strategic inlet on the Shandong Peninsula as a pretext for colonial expansion.^[5] This occupation pressured the Qing government into signing a lease agreement on March 6, 1898, granting Germany a 99-year concession over approximately 552 square kilometers of the Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory, with Tsingtao designated as the administrative center.^[6]^[7] Under German administration, Tsingtao evolved from a small fishing village into a meticulously planned modern port city, emphasizing efficient urban zoning for residential, commercial, educational, and healthcare functions to support colonial governance and economic activity.^[8] Key infrastructure projects included the construction of a deep-water harbor capable of accommodating large ocean-going vessels, an advanced water supply and sewage system to promote public hygiene, and the Shantung Railway, initiated in 1899 to connect Tsingtao inland for resource extraction and trade.^[9] Economic ventures flourished, such as the establishment of the Tsingtao Brewery in 1903 by German settlers to produce lager using local ingredients and imported hops, which became a hallmark of the territory's self-sufficiency.^[10] Militarily, Kiautschou served as the principal base for the Imperial German Navy's East Asia Squadron, functioning as a vital coaling station to refuel warships operating across the Pacific and Indian Oceans amid Wilhelmine Germany's pursuit of global naval projection.^[11] Successive governors oversaw substantial investments in coastal fortifications, including concrete bunkers, artillery batteries, and defensive networks encircling Tsingtao, transforming the enclave into a formidable stronghold designed to deter regional rivals and safeguard imperial interests.^[12] These enhancements underscored Kiautschou's role as a symbol of German imperial ambition during the late 19th-century scramble for concessions in China, prioritizing long-term defensibility through integrated economic and military development.^[13]

World War I Outbreak and Asian Theater Dynamics

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914, triggered a chain of mobilizations and declarations that escalated into global conflict. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, prompting Russia to mobilize in defense of its ally. Germany, bound by alliance to Austria-Hungary, declared war on Russia on August 1 and on France on August 3, while its invasion of neutral Belgium prompted Britain to declare war on Germany on August 4 to uphold the 1839 Treaty of London guaranteeing Belgian neutrality.^[14]^[15] This British entry severed Germany's potential naval and colonial support networks, isolating its East Asian possessions such as the Kiautschou Bay concession at Tsingtao, which had been developed as a naval base since 1898.^[16] Japan, allied with Britain through the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 (renewed in 1905 and 1911), faced obligations to assist if Britain were attacked by multiple powers, though the alliance's scope extended to mutual defense against common threats in Asia. Seizing the opportunity presented by Germany's distraction in Europe, Japan issued an ultimatum to Germany on August 15 demanding the withdrawal of naval forces from Chinese and Japanese waters, followed by a declaration of war on August 23.^[17] This move aligned with Japan's strategic interests in countering German influence in the Pacific and Shandong Peninsula, without immediate risk of entanglement in the European theater, as the alliance permitted focused operations in Asia.^[18] In China, President Yuan Shikai's fragile republic—established after the 1911 revolution—proclaimed neutrality on August 6, 1914, amid internal instability and warlord rivalries, though Yuan privately offered military support to Britain in hopes of post-war concessions.^[19] Japan's entry exploited this nominal neutrality and Yuan's weak central authority, enabling Tokyo to pursue expansionist aims in Shandong without unified Chinese resistance, thereby advancing imperial rivalries in East Asia under the guise of alliance commitments.^[20] Russia, despite its pre-war interests in the Pacific and prior conflicts with Japan, mounted no significant operations against German holdings in 1914, prioritizing the Eastern Front against Germany and Austria-Hungary where its armies faced massive engagements from mobilization onward.^[21] This vacuum allowed Japan unchallenged dominance in the Asian theater, confining Allied efforts against Germany to localized seizures of colonies rather than broader Pacific campaigns.^[18]

Forces and Preparations

German Garrison and Fortifications

The German garrison at Tsingtao, under the command of Vice Admiral Alfred Meyer-Waldeck, who held dual roles as governor of Kiautschou and naval commander, comprised approximately 4,000 troops as World War I commenced.^[22] The core element was the III Seebataillon, a marine infantry unit numbering about 1,200 men trained for colonial defense, augmented by naval ratings, railway guards, Chinese police auxiliaries, and a detachment of Austro-Hungarian sailors from the SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth.^[2] ^[23] Reservists and civilian volunteers from German communities in China further swelled ranks for entrenchment and support roles, though many lacked formal military training.^[24] Fortifications, developed progressively since the 1898 lease of Kiautschou Bay, emphasized a layered defense leveraging the hilly terrain around Jiaozhou Bay. Seaward batteries, including Upper and Lower Iltisberg, Punktkuppe, and others, mounted naval guns such as 105 mm and 120 mm pieces alongside heavier 210 mm L/30 artillery, many repurposed from warships.^[25] Landward redoubts—five in total—incorporated Krupp field guns, machine-gun positions, and concrete casemates with integrated utilities like generators and bakeries for sustained operations. ^[24] Minefields obstructed harbor approaches, complemented by searchlights and observation posts to deter naval incursions.^[2] Resource constraints plagued preparations, with the enclave's isolation curtailing resupply from metropolitan Germany after Allied naval dominance in the Pacific. Ammunition stockpiles sufficed for initial engagements but proved finite, while food rations were stretched by pre-war imports and local foraging, anticipating a prolonged siege.^[26] Morale drew indirect uplift from distant East Asia Squadron exploits, notably SMS Emden's commerce raiding, yet practical logistics hinged on internal efficiencies and the colony's modest industrial base.^[1]

Japanese and British Assembled Forces

The Imperial Japanese Army assembled the main attacking force for the siege, drawing primarily from the 18th Division under Lieutenant General Mitsuomi Kamio, which fielded approximately 23,000 troops equipped with 142 artillery pieces.^[3] These ground elements received substantial naval support from the Imperial Japanese Navy's Second Fleet, which enforced a blockade of Jiaozhou Bay and delivered heavy shore bombardments to soften German positions. This combined arms approach underscored Japan's dominant role in the coalition, leveraging its proximity and military preparedness to project power across the Yellow Sea. Japanese logistical preparations emphasized amphibious operations and secure supply chains, beginning with landings at Longkou—a port north of Tsingtao—around early September 1914 to establish a forward base beyond mined coastal approaches.^[27] From this hub, Kamio's division advanced overland while maintaining resupply via maritime routes from Japan, ensuring ammunition, provisions, and reinforcements flowed steadily despite the campaign's extended timeline. This setup provided the attackers with a decisive numerical and material edge, enabling sustained pressure without overextension. The British contingent played a supporting role, contributing about 1,000 to 1,500 troops mainly from Indian units such as the 36th Sikhs, supplemented by elements of the 2nd Battalion South Wales Borderers and limited Australian and New Zealand personnel.^[16] British naval assets, including the cruiser HMS Triumph, offered auxiliary gunfire and reconnaissance, though operational command remained fragmented, with Allied forces coordinating under Japanese overall direction per the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. This auxiliary posture highlighted Britain's strategic interest in neutralizing German East Asian assets while relying on Japan's primary effort.^[24]

Prelude

Japanese Ultimatum and Strategic Maneuvers

On 15 August 1914, the Japanese government, invoking the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902, issued an ultimatum to Germany demanding the immediate withdrawal of all German naval vessels from Chinese and Japanese waters, the disarming of German forces in East Asia, and the handover of the Kiautschou Bay concession—including the fortified port of Tsingtao—by 23 August.^[28] ^[29] The demands reflected Japan's opportunistic intent to eliminate German influence in the region amid the European war's outbreak, framing the action as fulfillment of allied obligations to Britain while pursuing territorial expansion.^[20] Germany rejected the ultimatum, refusing to comply with the evacuation or disarmament terms, which prompted Japan to formally declare war on 23 August 1914.^[20] ^[28] In response, German naval assets in the area, including auxiliary vessels, were repositioned or prepared for defensive roles, though the East Asia Squadron had largely dispersed earlier to avoid encirclement.^[2] This declaration marked Japan's calculated entry into the conflict, prioritizing seizure of colonial holdings over broader European theaters. Japanese strategic maneuvers emphasized encirclement over frontal assault, with approximately 23,000 troops of the Imperial Japanese Army's 18th Division landing on 2 September at Rongcheng Bay in the Shandong hinterland, advancing westward along the Jiaoji Railway to sever Tsingtao's supply lines and isolate the garrison.^[29] British forces, numbering about 1,500, landed concurrently at Lao Shan Bay to support the flanking operations, coordinating to compress German defenses from multiple directions.^[20] These incursions violated Chinese neutrality, proclaimed by President Yuan Shikai on 6 August, prompting formal protests to Tokyo and London; however, Yuan's fragile republican government, weakened by internal divisions, lacked the military capacity to resist, allowing the Allies to proceed unhindered.^[27]

Establishment of Blockade and Initial Clashes

On 27 August 1914, Japanese naval forces under Vice Admiral Sadakichi Kato established a blockade of Kiaochow Bay, effectively isolating the German concession at Tsingtao from external support; the fleet included the battleship Suwo and was reinforced by British vessels such as HMS Triumph and HMS Usk.^[2] ^[1] Japanese cruisers commenced sporadic shelling of outer fortifications, including those at Huichuen Point, from positions beyond effective German gun range, while British submarines patrolled to intercept any attempted German breakout.^[1] German defenders responded with counter-battery fire, successfully ranging on Allied ships—such as striking HMS Triumph and causing casualties—and supplemented coastal defenses by minelaying the bay entrance to restrict closer naval approaches.^[1] ^[2] Early aerial reconnaissance supported the blockade, with Japanese Farman MF.11 seaplanes launched from the carrier Wakamiya conducting surveys of German positions starting on 5 September 1914, marking the initial use of naval aviation for intelligence in the campaign.^[2] These flights encountered rudimentary German anti-aircraft fire but provided critical mapping of defenses without significant losses.^[2] The first notable land skirmish occurred on 13 September 1914 at Tsimo, an outpost on the concession's edge, where Japanese cavalry encountered and overwhelmed a small German detachment, prompting a hasty withdrawal after brief fighting.^[24] ^[2] This engagement secured Japanese control over adjacent Kiautschou territory and the railway line but highlighted emerging coordination challenges among Allied forces, as British contingents remained limited in scope and primarily naval, while Japanese advances proceeded independently toward the inner defensive lines around Tsingtao.^[24] German forces methodically fell back to fortified inner positions, conserving strength for the anticipated main siege.^[2]

The Siege

Opening Naval and Artillery Bombardments

The Allied forces initiated systematic bombardments against Tsingtao's outer defenses on September 2, 1914, employing a combination of naval gunfire from Japanese warships and land-based artillery from the Japanese 18th Division, which was supported by over 140 guns including heavy 28 cm howitzers repurposed from coastal defense roles.^[3]^[22]^[30] These initial barrages targeted key German fortifications such as the Bismarck Hill battery and surrounding positions, aiming to suppress artillery and disrupt defensive preparations amid a numerical firepower disparity favoring the attackers.^[24] German defenders, under Vice Admiral Alfred Meyer-Waldeck, mounted resilient counter-fire using pre-sighted artillery positions and entrenched infantry, which allowed for accurate returns that inflicted notable casualties on advancing Allied spotters and forward elements despite the intensity of the shelling.^[1] The garrison's conservation of limited ammunition stocks—prioritizing high-value targets over wasteful responses—combined with robust concrete-reinforced forts, blunted the early impacts and prevented rapid collapse of the perimeter.^[24] Adverse weather, including heavy rains and typhoon conditions prevalent in the region during late summer, intermittently delayed sustained operations, forcing pauses in naval approaches and complicating land artillery emplacement, which extended the preliminary phase beyond initial Allied projections of a swift neutralization.^[16] This interplay of environmental factors and defensive tactics highlighted the fortifications' effectiveness in absorbing punishment, setting the stage for a prolonged engagement rather than an immediate breakthrough.^[24]

Land Invasions and Key Engagements

Japanese forces commenced land operations with an unopposed landing at Longkou on 2 September 1914 to secure the northern approaches, followed by the main amphibious assault at Laoshan Bay on 18 September, approximately 30 kilometers northeast of Tsingtao.^[2]^[27] Commanded by Major General Kamio Mitsuomi, the 18th Division advanced southward across rugged terrain hampered by heavy rains and flooded rivers, aiming to envelop the German defenses from the east.^[22] Concurrently, a smaller British force of around 1,335 troops, including South Wales Borderers and Indian sepoys, landed on the western side near Tschangschu to support the Japanese convergence on Tsingtao, though their role remained limited to holding flanks and minor engagements.^[22] The Allied advance encountered initial resistance at German outposts, but the core ground fighting intensified in late September with the assault on Prince Heinrich Hill, a key elevation dominating the eastern approaches. On 27 September, Japanese infantry launched a frontal attack, only to suffer heavy casualties from interlocking fields of German machine-gun fire and artillery, exacerbated by barbed wire obstacles that funneled troops into kill zones.^[31] The position fell the following day after sustained pressure and supporting fire allowed Japanese troops to overrun the defenses, marking a critical breach in the outer German lines.^[32] In October, fighting shifted to inner fortifications, including assaults on redoubts like Namazuka, where Japanese forces faced similarly entrenched German positions equipped with machine guns and wire entanglements, resulting in high infantry losses during repeated bayonet charges and close-quarters combat.^[2] German defenders, outnumbered approximately 10-to-1, employed disciplined counterattacks and utilized civilian labor—including local Chinese workers under duress—to repair damaged trenches and obstacles, prolonging the siege through effective use of terrain and limited reserves.^[1] These engagements highlighted the defensive advantages of modern fortifications against superior Allied numbers, with Japanese ground casualties exceeding 2,000 wounded and killed across the campaign's infantry phases.^[2]

Aerial Operations and Technological Firsts

The Japanese seaplane carrier Wakamiya pioneered naval aviation during the siege by launching the world's first seaborne airstrikes on September 5, 1914, using Maurice Farman MF.11 floatplanes to bomb German wireless stations and communications infrastructure around Tsingtao.^[33]^[2] These operations, conducted from Jiaozhou Bay, marked the initial integration of carrier-based aircraft into combined arms tactics, with subsequent raids including the war's first nighttime bombing mission to disrupt German defenses.^[22] Over the following weeks, Japanese naval and army aircraft—totaling around four to six floatplanes—performed reconnaissance, spotting for artillery, and limited bombing runs, though payloads were restricted to small bombs and darts due to the era's rudimentary technology.^[34] German forces countered with a single Rumpler Taube monoplane operated by Lieutenant Günther Plüschow from a makeshift airfield near Tsingtao, conducting reconnaissance flights and retaliatory bombing sorties starting in early September 1914.^[35] This aircraft engaged in the conflict's first documented naval air battle on September 7, when Plüschow intercepted a Japanese seaplane, leading to an inconclusive dogfight involving small-arms fire from pistols—a primitive precursor to synchronized machine guns.^[2]^[36] Plüschow's flights provided valuable spotting for German artillery but were hampered by the Taube's vulnerability to weather and ground fire, with the machine suffering damage from antiaircraft rounds during multiple sorties.^[34] Aerial operations demonstrated early potential for air power in siege warfare but yielded limited tactical effects owing to aircraft fragility, short ranges (typically under 200 kilometers), and inaccuracy of ordnance; Japanese planes crashed due to engine failure and enemy fire, while the German Taube endured crashes from overload and battle damage, resulting in at least one total loss per side.^[34]^[22] These engagements foreshadowed aviation's evolution from scouting to decisive striking roles, influencing post-war doctrines despite the technology's constraints in 1914.^[2]

Final Offensive and Surrender Negotiations

Heavy seasonal rains in October delayed the Allied advance, but by early November, Japanese forces had secured the outer German fortifications and initiated assaults on the inner defensive lines.^[2] On the night of 6–7 November 1914, Japanese infantry launched coordinated bayonet charges against the third line of defenses, capturing key redoubts and penetrating toward the central positions of Tsingtao.^[2]^[37] Depleted of ammunition and facing encirclement, German Governor Alfred Meyer-Waldeck ordered a ceasefire on 7 November, initiating surrender negotiations that concluded the 73-day siege.^[22]^[24] The capitulation terms honored military conventions, with over 4,000 German personnel taken prisoner.^[38] German casualties amounted to 199 killed and 504 wounded, inflicting heavy losses on the attackers—236 Japanese killed and 1,282 wounded, plus 12 British killed and 53 wounded—highlighting the garrison's tactical resilience against superior numbers.^[2]^[38]^[22]

Aftermath

Occupation and Treatment of Defenders

![British, Indian and Japanese soldiers in Qingdao, 1914.](./assets/British%252C_Indian_and_Japanese_soldiers_in_Tsingtao_Qingdao Following the German surrender on 7 November 1914, Japanese forces took possession of Tsingtao, with formal occupation proceedings completed by mid-November. The approximately 4,700 German and Austro-Hungarian defenders, including military personnel and civilian volunteers, were disarmed and transported to prisoner-of-war camps across Japan, such as those in Narashino and Bandō.^[2]^[39]^[40] In Japan, the prisoners received treatment aligned with the Hague Conventions, including adequate housing, food rations comparable to Japanese troops, and opportunities for recreation and cultural exchange, such as teaching Western music and crafts to locals. Reports from the era indicate low incidences of mistreatment, with prisoners noting the friendliness of the Japanese populace and guards, contrasting sharply with later wartime practices. Most were repatriated between 1919 and 1920 following the Treaty of Versailles, though around 170 elected to remain in Japan.^[40]^[2]^[39] German naval assets, including small vessels like torpedo boats, were either scuttled by the defenders prior to surrender or captured intact by the Allies. Key civilian infrastructure, such as the Tsingtao Brewery established under German administration, was preserved under Japanese control, facilitating a swift resumption of economic activity. The local Chinese population, numbering tens of thousands in the concession area, showed varied responses: some laborers who had supported the German defenses were displaced or re-employed by the Japanese, while others collaborated with the new occupiers amid ongoing neutrality under the Republic of China government.^[2]

Immediate Territorial Transfers

![British, Indian and Japanese soldiers in Qingdao, 1914](./assets/British%252C_Indian_and_Japanese_soldiers_in_Tsingtao_Qingdao Following the unconditional surrender of German forces on 7 November 1914, Japanese troops immediately occupied Tsingtao, assuming administrative control over the former concession.^[1] The formal surrender terms were signed on 16 November 1914, granting possession to Japanese and British forces, though British involvement was nominal, consisting of a small infantry contingent of approximately 1,000 men placed under Japanese command.^[2]^[27] Under the framework of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, Japan established a provisional military administration, maintaining dominance over the territory with a garrison of 16,000 soldiers by 22 November 1914.^[27] British naval contributions, which had supported the blockade and bombardment, diminished post-surrender, reflecting the alliance's deference to Japanese primacy in East Asian operations.^[2] The occupation neutralized Tsingtao as a naval base, compelling the remnants of the German East Asia Squadron to disperse; subsequent Allied actions led to their internment or destruction, eliminating the immediate Pacific threat from German forces.^[2] The Chinese government, led by President Yuan Shikai, had declared neutrality at the war's outset but faced Japanese diplomatic pressure to acquiesce to the occupation, avoiding escalation into direct conflict.^[27] Yuan's administration reluctantly permitted the provisional Japanese control, prioritizing stability amid internal challenges and Allied assurances, though protests were lodged against the infringement on Chinese sovereignty.^[27] Commerce in the port resumed under Japanese oversight on 21 December 1914, marking the transition to de facto Allied administration dominated by Japan.^[27]

Broader Geopolitical Repercussions

The successful Japanese seizure of Tsingtao in November 1914 facilitated Japan's de facto control over the broader Shandong region, providing leverage at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 to demand—and ultimately secure—formal transfer of German economic and territorial rights there under Articles 156–158 of the Treaty of Versailles.^[41] ^[2] Although Allied powers had informally pledged restoration to Chinese sovereignty post-war, Japan's prior occupation and military contributions to the Entente—coupled with threats to withhold signature on the treaty—compelled acquiescence, marking a pivotal shift in East Asian power dynamics toward Japanese dominance.^[42] This outcome sowed seeds of enduring Sino-Japanese antagonism, as the perceived betrayal eroded trust in Western-led international order and amplified Chinese nationalist fervor. The Shandong transfer directly catalyzed the May Fourth Movement, erupting on May 4, 1919, with over 3,000 Beijing students protesting the Versailles decision, rapidly escalating into nationwide strikes, boycotts of Japanese goods, and intellectual critiques of imperialism that reshaped modern Chinese identity.^[43] ^[44] These demonstrations, fueled by resentment over Japan's opportunistic wartime gains from the Tsingtao siege, not only pressured China's government to reject the treaty but also galvanized anti-foreign sentiment, laying groundwork for ideological currents including communism that influenced 20th-century conflicts.^[43] By demonstrating how a non-Western power could exploit European distraction in a global war to annex colonial holdings, the siege eroded European prestige across Asia, exemplifying "opportunistic colonial grabs" that undermined the legitimacy of distant empires and reinforced U.S. advocacy for the Open Door Policy to preserve commercial access amid fragmenting spheres of influence.^[45] ^[46] Japan's consolidation in Shandong challenged equal-trade principles, heightening trans-Pacific tensions and highlighting the policy's fragility against aggressive expansionism.^[47] Militarily, the engagement validated the resilience of fortified positions under siege warfare, with approximately 5,000 German defenders inflicting heavy casualties on a Japanese-British force exceeding 60,000 through entrenched artillery and disciplined resistance over 73 days, underscoring the pitfalls of numerical superiority without sustained preparation.^[1] It also pioneered aerial operations, including the first naval aircraft sorties for reconnaissance and bombing from the Japanese carrier Wakamiya, influencing doctrines on combined arms integration despite rudimentary technology.^[2] These lessons prefigured interwar emphases on defensive depth and air support, while exposing over-reliance on manpower against modern defenses, factors echoed in subsequent Asian campaigns.^[48]

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Section VIII.—Shantung (Art. 156 to 158) - Office of the Historian
The Japanese declaration of war against Germany of August 23, 1914 was preceded by an ultimatum of August 15 (Naval War College, International Law Documents …Missing: details | Show results with:details
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The Shandong Province and the Paris Peace Conference of 1919
The story, as traditionally told, is that China was betrayed at Versailles (the Paris Peace Conference), set free from the Germans only to fall into the ...
[43]
May Fourth Movement 1919 - The National Archives
At the start of the First World War in 1914, Japan joined Britain ... Japanese troops occupied the German territory in China during the Siege of Tsingtao.Missing: aftermath | Show results with:aftermath
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(2) China's Diplomatic Failure at the Paris Peace Conference
The May Fourth Movement was triggered by the fledging Republic's diplomatic failure, made evident when the imperialist powers treated China unfairly in favor ...<|separator|>
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How Imperial Germany Lost Asia - The Diplomat
Oct 17, 2014 · The German Empire began to acquire Pacific territories. Chief among the German possessions was the naval base at Tsingtao (Qingdao).<|separator|>
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The siege of Tsingtao: how Germany surrendered an empire
Nov 7, 2014 · Casualty numbers – for both sides, in the hundreds – pale in comparison with the carnage that would soon unfold in the West, but the battle's ...
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Three approaches to the open door - Open Door Policy
U.S.–Japanese tensions ... The document demanded that China regularize Japanese gains in Shandong and elsewhere and surrender new concessions in Manchuria.
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[PDF] CHAPTER 3 Japan and the First World War
Japan entered WWI due to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, aiming to capture Tsingtao and German islands, viewing it as a "god-given opportunity" despite strained ...