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Skipping

Skipping, also known as jump rope or rope skipping, is a physical activity and competitive sport involving the rhythmic jumping over a rope that is swung under the feet and over the head, typically performed by individuals or teams to develop coordination, endurance, and agility.^[1] The practice originated from ancient instinctive jumping activities for survival and play, with ancient evidence among Australian aborigines using vines, and early evidence around 1600 A.D. in Egypt using vines and bamboo, later spreading to Europe and North America through Dutch settlers.^[2] By the medieval period, children in Europe were depicted jumping ropes in paintings, and it gained popularity in the 1940s and 1950s as an accessible playground activity for inner-city youth.^[2] In the 1970s, skipping experienced a revival with a focus on fitness, leading to organized events, school programs, and its integration into professional training for sports like boxing and physical therapy for low-impact rehabilitation of ankles and knees.^[2] As a form of exercise, skipping provides numerous health benefits, including improved cardiorespiratory fitness by elevating heart rate and enhancing lung capacity, which reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease.^[3] It strengthens muscles in the lower body (such as calves, thighs, and buttocks), upper body (shoulders and biceps), and core, while also boosting muscular endurance and explosive power.^[3] Skipping burns approximately 241–362 calories in 20 minutes for a 91-kg person, depending on intensity, making it an effective tool for weight loss when combined with a balanced diet.^[3] Additionally, it promotes bone health by increasing bone mineral density through load-bearing impacts, with studies showing significant gains after just 20 minutes twice weekly over 22 weeks.^[3] The activity enhances coordination and balance by requiring precise timing between hand and foot movements, which can help mitigate age-related declines.^[4] It boosts serotonin levels to improve mental health by alleviating depression and anxiety.^[4] Furthermore, skipping is highly accessible, requiring minimal equipment and space, allowing it to be performed anywhere as a warm-up, cardio workout, or fun routine.^[4] In competitive contexts, skipping is governed internationally by the International Jump Rope Union (IJRU), formed in 2018 through the merger of the Fédération Internationale de Saut à la Corde–International Rope Skipping Federation and the World Jump Rope Federation, promoting the sport globally with events like annual World Championships.^[5] Competitions feature disciplines such as speed jumping, freestyle routines, and team events, attracting thousands of athletes worldwide and emphasizing skills like triple unders and endurance jumps.^[6] Organizations like the International Rope Skipping Organization (IRSO) and national bodies, such as the American Jump Rope Federation, further support training, judging standards, and youth development programs to elevate skipping as a recognized athletic pursuit.^[7]^[8]

Fundamentals

Definition and Mechanics

Skipping, also known as jump rope, is a rhythmic physical activity involving jumping over a rotating rope swung under the feet and over the head, typically using a handheld rope.^[9] This exercise combines elements of play and fitness, requiring participants to repeatedly clear the rope with timed jumps while maintaining a steady pace.^[10] The basic mechanics of skipping center on coordinated arm movements that generate a circular rotation of the rope, synchronized with precise jumps to avoid contact as the rope passes beneath the feet.^[11] This process emphasizes footwork for efficient takeoff and landing, along with keen timing and rhythm to sustain the motion.^[10] Single-rope solo skipping serves as the standard form, where one individual handles and jumps the rope, though variations like double Dutch employ two ropes turned in opposite directions by multiple participants.^[12] Jumps are typically low, averaging 1-2 inches off the ground to conserve energy and minimize fatigue.^[13] As an aerobic exercise, skipping shares similarities with running in elevating heart rate and enhancing cardiovascular endurance, but it delivers higher intensity per minute due to the full-body engagement and rapid repetitions.^[14] It originated as a simple play activity but has been formalized as an effective exercise option, requiring minimal space and adaptable for individual practice or group settings.^[15]^[16]

Cultural Role

Skipping has long served as a fundamental element of childhood play, particularly in Western cultures during the 19th and 20th centuries, where it functioned as a communal activity in schoolyards and streets that promoted rhythm, coordination, and social bonding among children.^[17] Traditionally associated with girls, the practice involved group participation, often with one or two individuals turning the rope while others jumped in sequence, fostering teamwork and verbal interaction through accompanying rhymes and chants.^[17] These skipping-rope rhymes, which emerged in Europe as early as the 17th century and evolved through adaptations in the 19th century, drew from diverse sources including singing games, divination, and popular songs, transforming simple jumps into narrative-driven games that conveyed cultural stories, taunts, or life lessons.^[18]^[19] Initially viewed as an activity for boys in 17th-century Europe—introduced by Dutch settlers as a form of play with ropes or vines—skipping shifted toward girls' participation by the 1800s in Western societies, where it became a gendered playground staple despite early cautions against physical exertion for females.^[17] This evolution reflected broader social norms, with girls using skipping to create inclusive spaces for creativity and skill-building, often in urban street culture where minimal equipment allowed broad accessibility across socioeconomic backgrounds.^[17] Today, skipping transcends gender boundaries, appealing universally due to its low entry barrier—no specialized gear or venues required—making it a democratic form of recreation suitable for all ages and abilities.^[17] During the COVID-19 lockdowns from 2020 to 2022, skipping experienced a notable resurgence as a home-based exercise, providing both physical activity and mental relief amid restricted outdoor access and gym closures.^[20] Sales of jump ropes spiked, with brands reporting increased demand as individuals sought portable, solo or family-friendly ways to maintain fitness and alleviate isolation-induced stress.^[20] Symbolically, skipping embodies agility, joy, and simplicity, often integrated into folklore as a lighthearted ritual or rite of passage that celebrates youthful energy and communal harmony.^[21] In various traditions, it represents empowerment and cultural preservation, particularly through rhymes that pass down generational knowledge in playful forms.^[19]

History

Origins and Early Practices

The practice of jumping over ropes or vines traces back to ancient civilizations, with evidence indicating its use in Egypt around 1600 A.D., where individuals jumped over vines during rituals or athletic displays.^[2] Similar rope-jumping activities appear in ancient Chinese traditions, often tied to cultural or recreational purposes.^[22] Accounts from around 1600 A.D. also describe vine-jumping rituals among indigenous communities, such as Australian aborigines, marking early formalized play involving natural materials.^[2] By the 17th century, rope skipping had emerged as a folk game in Europe, particularly among children, and spread to the Americas via Dutch settlers who brought the activity as a simple pastime.^[23] The earliest documented visual evidence comes from European paintings of the 1600s, which depict children jumping ropes on cobblestone streets, illustrating its integration into everyday youth culture.^[24] In the UK, skipping ropes were manufactured specifically for children by the 18th century, evolving into a widespread street game that emphasized rhythm and coordination.^[25] Skipping gained prominence in the 19th century as an urban sidewalk activity for children in the United States and United Kingdom, shifting from rural settings to city environments amid immigration waves and industrialization, which concentrated families in denser populations.^[23] It became a common girls' pastime in America during this period, often accompanied by chants and rhymes that added a performative element to the play.^[26] These traditions persisted, as evidenced by mid-20th-century documentation; for instance, educator Lucy Nulton collected and analyzed American jump rope rhymes in 1948, highlighting their role as folk literature passed down through generations, with examples recorded from North Carolina communities reflecting 19th-century origins.^[19] Beyond recreation, skipping served practical purposes in the late 19th century, notably as an endurance-building tool for boxers, who used it to enhance footwork and stamina in training regimens.^[27]

Evolution into a Sport

In the mid-20th century, skipping transitioned from informal play to a structured fitness activity, particularly gaining traction in the 1940s and 1950s through school and community programs in urban areas. During this period, it became a popular, low-cost exercise for children in inner cities, integrated into physical education curricula to promote coordination, endurance, and play without needing extensive facilities.^[2] By the 1960s, its adoption in boxing training further elevated its status, with boxers like Sonny Liston popularizing it through high-profile demonstrations, such as his 1963 appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show skipping to "Night Train," which highlighted its role in building foot speed, rhythm, and stamina.^[28] The 1970s marked a pivotal shift toward organized competition, with the first national championships in the United States emerging around 1973, driven by efforts to formalize skipping as a sport and encourage youth participation in fitness.^[29] This era saw the establishment of the International Rope Skipping Organization (IRSO) in 1977 by Richard Cendali, which began promoting competitive formats and international standards.^[7] A surge in popularity followed in the 1980s, aligned with the aerobics boom, as skipping was incorporated into group fitness classes and home workout routines for its cardiovascular benefits and accessibility.^[30] International expansion accelerated in the late 20th and early 21st centuries with the formation of additional governing bodies, including the Fédération Internationale de Saut à la Corde – International Rope Skipping Federation (FISAC-IRSF) in 1983 and the World Jump Rope Federation (WJRF) in 2009.^[31]^[32] These organizations hosted biennial and annual world championships, fostering global participation. In 2018, FISAC-IRSF and WJRF merged to form the International Jump Rope Union (IJRU), unifying the sport under a single entity to standardize rules and expand outreach.^[33] The 21st century brought further milestones, including a post-2020 resurgence fueled by the COVID-19 pandemic, as home-based skipping workouts gained prominence for their simplicity and effectiveness during lockdowns.^[34] Modern recognition has grown, with IJRU achieving observer status with the Global Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF) in 2018 and provisional membership in the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) in 2023, positioning skipping for potential inclusion in events like the Asian Games.^[35]^[36] It has also appeared as an exhibition activity in The World Games since the 2010s, highlighting its competitive viability.^[37] In 2025, the IJRU hosted the World Jump Rope Championships in Kawasaki, Japan, from July 27 to August 3, drawing athletes from over 30 countries and underscoring the sport's ongoing international momentum.^[38]

Equipment

Types of Skipping Ropes

Skipping ropes, also known as jump ropes, vary in construction to accommodate different skill levels, training goals, and environments. The primary material classifications include speed ropes, beaded or segmented ropes, licorice ropes, and leather ropes. Speed ropes feature thin vinyl or wire-coated cables, enabling rapid turns and high-intensity workouts.^[39] Beaded ropes consist of a nylon cord threaded with plastic beads, providing durability and audible feedback through a distinctive whirring sound during use.^[40] Licorice ropes are made from soft PVC, offering flexibility and ease for beginners due to their lightweight and tangle-resistant nature.^[39] Leather ropes, often weighted, incorporate thicker leather cords suitable for boxing-style training, adding resistance to build upper-body strength.^[40] Design features enhance performance and user comfort across these types. Most skipping ropes are adjustable in length, typically ranging from 8 to 10 feet for adults, allowing customization by stepping on the center and pulling the handles to armpit height.^[40] Handles often include ball bearings for smooth, low-friction rotation, reducing arm fatigue during extended sessions.^[39] Weighted options, available in 0.5 to 2 pounds, incorporate heavier handles or cords to increase overall resistance and engage additional muscle groups.^[40] Specific attributes distinguish each type for practical applications. Speed ropes facilitate up to 200 jumps per minute, ideal for advanced cardio and footwork drills. Beaded ropes minimize tangling on outdoor surfaces like concrete or asphalt, thanks to the segmented beads that maintain shape and momentum.^[40] The evolution of skipping ropes traces from basic hemp constructions in the 19th century, used in early recreational and training contexts, to modern synthetic materials like PVC and nylon emerging post-1970s for improved durability and performance.^[41] As of 2025, smart ropes represent a recent innovation, integrating sensors and electronics into traditional designs (often PVC or cable) to track jumps, duration, and calories burned, syncing with mobile apps for performance analysis.^[42] Selection criteria depend on user skill, jumping surface, and objectives. Beginners benefit from licorice or beaded ropes for their forgiving handling and reduced speed, while PVC-coated options suit concrete surfaces to prevent fraying.^[39] For speed-focused endurance, thin cable speed ropes excel indoors; weighted leather variants support strength-building goals in boxing or cross-training.^[40]

Additional Gear and Accessories

Beyond the skipping rope itself, various accessories enhance safety, performance, and longevity during sessions. Jump mats, typically made of foam or rubber and measuring around 4x6 feet, provide a cushioned surface that absorbs shock from landings, thereby reducing stress on joints such as the knees and ankles.^[43] These mats help prevent injuries like shin splints by distributing impact forces more evenly across the body.^[44] Proper footwear is essential for minimizing strain during repetitive jumps. Cross-trainers with ample cushioning in the midsole, such as models from Reebok or Inov-8, offer support to the ankles and feet, helping to absorb ground reaction forces and reduce the risk of sprains or overuse injuries.^[45]^[46] For performance enhancement, digital tools like jump counters and apps track metrics to optimize training. Apps such as Jump Rope Fit utilize wearable devices like Apple Watch to detect jumps via motion sensors, providing real-time feedback on count, duration, and calories burned while integrating with health tracking platforms.^[47] Timers, often built into apps or standalone devices, facilitate interval training by structuring high-intensity bursts—such as 30-second jumps followed by rest—commonly used in HIIT routines to build endurance.^[48] Protective gear, including knee sleeves made of neoprene (typically 5-7mm thick), offers compression and warmth to stabilize joints during prolonged or high-impact sessions, aiding recovery and reducing discomfort.^[49] Advanced users may incorporate weighted vests loaded with 5-10 pounds to increase resistance, promoting greater cardiovascular conditioning and muscle engagement without altering jumping form.^[50] Maintenance accessories ensure equipment durability. Storage bags, often included with premium ropes or available separately, protect against tangling and environmental damage by allowing compact, organized transport.^[43] Cleaning involves hand-washing the rope with mild soap and lukewarm water, followed by air-drying away from direct sunlight to prevent material degradation and extend usability.^[51]

Techniques

Basic Jumping Methods

Basic jumping methods form the foundation of skipping rope, emphasizing rhythm, coordination, and endurance for novices. The core techniques include the basic jump, alternate foot jump, and side swing, each designed to build consistency without requiring advanced athleticism. These methods prioritize low-impact movements to minimize injury risk while developing cardiovascular fitness. The basic jump involves a two-foot bounce over the rope, where the participant stands with feet together and jumps approximately ½ to 1 inch off the ground as the rope passes underfoot. Execution begins with slow arm rotations at 120-150 revolutions per minute (RPM), using wrist flicks rather than full arm swings to control the rope's speed. Jump on the balls of the feet with a slight knee bend, maintaining an upright posture with a neutral spine, head up, and shoulders relaxed to ensure efficient energy use. Beginners should progress from 30-second sets, gradually increasing duration as rhythm improves. This method burns approximately 10-15 calories per minute for an average adult at moderate intensity, providing an accessible entry to aerobic exercise.^[13]^[52]^[53] The alternate foot jump simulates a jogging rhythm by running in place, alternating one foot forward with each rope pass to enhance footwork and stamina. Start in the same stance as the basic jump, then step one foot slightly ahead while jumping lightly on the balls of the feet, switching feet per rotation at a controlled 120 RPM pace. Upright posture remains key, with elbows close to the body and wrists driving the motion. This technique, which mimics the cadence of light jogging, allows for sustained sessions building from 30-second intervals.^[13] As a warm-up, the side swing swings the rope to one side of the body without jumping, passing it underfoot laterally before switching sides to build timing and coordination. Hold the rope handles at hip level, using wrist movements to create a figure-eight pattern at a slow tempo, then incorporate minimal jumps as proficiency grows. Maintain balanced posture with feet shoulder-width apart and core engaged. These foundational methods were introduced into 20th-century school physical education programs, particularly gaining popularity in the 1940s-1950s for children's fitness activities.^[13]^[2] For learning, beginners benefit from shadow jumping—practicing the motions without the rope to isolate footwork and timing—before adding the implement. Focus on wrist flicks to avoid fatigue from arm overuse, and use a mirror to check posture symmetry during initial sets.^[54]

Advanced Skills and Variations

Advanced skipping techniques build upon foundational jumping by incorporating rapid rope revolutions and coordinated arm movements, demanding greater explosive power, timing, and endurance. The double under involves two full rotations of the rope per jump, achieved through a higher leap and faster wrist flick, which intensifies cardiovascular demands while enhancing calf and shoulder strength. Triple unders extend this to three rotations, requiring even more precise synchronization and are typically mastered after consistent double under practice. The criss-cross, also known as the crossover, features the jumper crossing their arms to swap the rope handles mid-swing, creating an X-shape before uncrossing for the next pass, which improves hand-eye coordination and agility.^[55]^[56] Team-based variations introduce collaboration and rhythm among participants, elevating skipping from individual exercise to group performance. Double Dutch employs two long ropes turned in opposite directions by two handlers, with one or more jumpers entering the swinging space to perform tricks, a format that originated in mid-20th-century urban U.S. communities and was formalized into competitions starting in 1973 by police officers David Walker and Ulysses Williams. Long rope jumping uses an extended rope manipulated by two turners to allow sequential or simultaneous entries by multiple jumpers, often in games where participants aim to maximize the number inside without tripping, fostering teamwork and spatial awareness. Freestyle skipping integrates dance or gymnastic elements, such as shuffles, spins, or aerial maneuvers, blending rhythmic footwork with rope patterns to create choreographed routines that emphasize creativity and flow.^[57]^[21]^[58] Notable achievements in advanced skipping highlight the sport's technical peaks, including Kirato Hitaka's Guinness World Record for the most revolutions in a single skip—eight—set on July 17, 2023, in Yamaguchi, Japan, after approximately 28 attempts during a 50-minute session. Such multi-revolution jumps, like octuple unders, exemplify the precision required at elite levels. Training for these skills progresses methodically: practitioners often start by sustaining 100 to 300 continuous basic jumps at 160-180 revolutions per minute (RPM) before integrating 10-20 advanced moves per set, such as doubles or crosses, while gradually increasing to 300+ RPM with specialized speed ropes to accommodate the heightened velocity.^[59]^[60]

Health and Fitness

Physical Benefits

Skipping rope provides significant cardiovascular benefits by elevating heart rate during moderate to vigorous sessions, thereby enhancing endurance and aerobic capacity.^[61] Studies demonstrate that regular skipping improves VO2 max, a key measure of cardiorespiratory fitness, with both high-intensity interval and moderate continuous protocols yielding comparable gains in young adults.^[62] This efficiency is highlighted by research showing that 10 minutes of skipping can deliver cardiovascular improvements equivalent to 30 minutes of jogging, making it a time-effective option for building heart health.^[63] In terms of muscular engagement and coordination, skipping targets the calves, core, and shoulders through repetitive jumping and rope handling, promoting strength in the lower body and stabilizers while requiring synchronized upper and lower limb movements.^[64] It enhances agility, balance, and hand-eye coordination by demanding precise timing and footwork, with evidence from training programs showing improvements in motor coordination among adolescents.^[65] Caloric expenditure is substantial, ranging from 600 to 1,000 calories per hour depending on intensity and body weight, supporting weight management and overall metabolic health.^[66] Specific physiological outcomes include reductions in blood pressure, with an 8-week intervention leading to significant decreases in systolic and diastolic pressures among participants.^[67] Skipping also boosts bone density through weight-bearing impacts, as demonstrated in a quasi-experimental study where pubertal girls increased calcaneal bone mineral density after regular sessions.^[68] Skipping promotes endorphin release that physiologically aids stress reduction.^[69] As a low-cost and portable exercise requiring minimal equipment, skipping is accessible for individuals of all ages, with modifications such as slower paces or imaginary ropes enabling low-impact versions for seniors while preserving core benefits.^[4]

Training Applications and Risks

Skipping rope is widely incorporated into fitness routines as an effective form of interval training, where practitioners alternate periods of high-intensity jumping, such as 1-minute bursts, with short recovery intervals like 30 seconds of rest, to enhance cardiovascular endurance and metabolic efficiency.^[70] In boxing, it serves as a staple warm-up exercise to improve footwork, coordination, and agility while minimizing initial strain on the body.^[71] High-intensity interval training (HIIT) protocols integrating skipping rope have demonstrated efficacy in promoting fat loss by elevating post-exercise oxygen consumption and targeting visceral fat reduction over structured programs.^[72] Additionally, in rehabilitation settings, skipping rope is utilized during later stages of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) recovery to rebuild proprioception, strength, and dynamic stability through controlled plyometric progressions.^[73] Despite its benefits, skipping rope carries risks, particularly for joint strain in the knees and ankles due to the repetitive high-impact nature of the activity, which can exacerbate pre-existing conditions like arthritis.^[4] Overuse injuries, such as shin splints characterized by inflammation along the tibia, are common from prolonged sessions without adequate recovery, often resulting from improper landing mechanics or excessive volume. Beginners face heightened tripping hazards from uncoordinated rope handling, potentially leading to falls or minor sprains if technique is not gradually developed.^[74] Health authorities recommend 3-5 skipping sessions per week, lasting 10-20 minutes each, to balance aerobic gains with recovery and minimize overuse risks, aligning with general guidelines for moderate-intensity cardio.^[75] Incorporating a proper warm-up, such as dynamic stretches or light jumping, can reduce overall injury risk by up to 50% by enhancing muscle elasticity and joint lubrication.^[76] However, skipping is contraindicated for individuals with heart conditions, such as recent myocardial infarction or uncontrolled arrhythmias, without prior medical clearance to avoid cardiovascular complications.^[4] To mitigate these risks, maintaining proper form—landing softly on the balls of the feet with minimal knee bend—and progressively increasing intensity from short intervals to longer durations are essential strategies.^[74] Using cushioned mats to absorb impact and supportive athletic shoes with adequate arch and ankle stability further protect lower extremities during sessions.^[77] Adequate hydration before, during, and after workouts prevents dehydration-related fatigue that could compromise form, while incorporating rest days allows tissue repair and reduces cumulative stress.^[78]

Competitions

Governing Organizations

The International Jump Rope Union (IJRU) serves as the primary international governing body for competitive jump rope, also known as rope skipping. Formed in 2018 through the merger of the Fédération Internationale de SAUT à la Corde–International Rope Skipping Federation (FISAC-IRSF) and the World Jump Rope Federation (WJRF), the IJRU establishes unified rules, standards, and protocols for the sport worldwide.^[79]^[80] It oversees global events, promotes fair play through a code of conduct, and enforces anti-doping measures in alignment with the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).^[81] Currently, the IJRU comprises 67 member nations across five continents, facilitating athlete participation and international collaboration.^[82] At the national level, organizations such as USA Jump Rope, established in 1995 as a merger of prior U.S. entities, manage domestic competitions, training, and athlete selection for international events under IJRU guidelines.^[83] In the United Kingdom, the British Rope Skipping Association (BRSA), founded in 1996, promotes the sport through youth programs, championships, and fitness initiatives, serving as a key national body despite operating somewhat independently.^[84] Asian counterparts include the Japan Jump Rope Union (JJRU), which coordinates national teams, hosts domestic championships, and represents Japan in IJRU-sanctioned events.^[85] The IJRU plays a central role in professionalizing the sport by certifying coaches through its Coaching Certification Committee, which provides training resources and accreditation to ensure high standards in instruction.^[86] It also sanctions events via an approval process that verifies compliance with rules to prevent manipulation and maintain integrity.^[87] Additionally, the organization supports athlete development through educational programs on anti-doping, judging, and competition management, as outlined in its strategic plan.^[88] Complementing the competitive focus of the IJRU, the World Rope Skipping Confederation (WRSC) emphasizes educational and school-based rope skipping programs, promoting the activity as a tool for physical education and youth development rather than elite competition.^[89]

Major Events and Records

Major events in competitive skipping, also known as jump rope, encompass a variety of formats that test athletes' speed, power, endurance, and creativity. Speed events typically involve timed performances, such as the single rope speed sprint (30 seconds) where competitors aim to complete the maximum number of jumps, or the speed endurance event (3 minutes) focusing on sustained jumping.^[90] Freestyle routines, lasting 3 minutes, are judged on difficulty, execution, and artistic elements, often incorporating advanced techniques like crossovers and body variations.^[91] Team relays, such as the single rope speed relay (4 athletes × 30 seconds) or double Dutch speed relay, emphasize coordination and rapid transitions among participants.^[92] The premier global competition is the IJRU World Jump Rope Championships, organized biennially by the International Jump Rope Union since the late 1990s, with the first event held in 1997 under predecessor organizations.^[23] The inaugural IJRU-specific tournament took place from July 16-23, 2023, in Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA, attracting over 1,200 athletes from 27 countries across junior (ages 8-18) and senior (adult) categories.^[93]^[94] The 2025 edition, held July 27 to August 3 in Kawasaki, Japan, marked the largest to date, featuring more than 2,600 competitors from over 30 nations and multiple world record breaks in speed and power disciplines.^[38] These championships include individual, pairs, and team events in single rope and double Dutch formats, with categories divided by age and gender to ensure fair competition.^[95] World records in skipping highlight extraordinary athletic feats, often ratified by the IJRU or Guinness World Records. In speed double unders, Zhang Zhixuan of China achieved 184 jumps in one minute on February 16, 2025, showcasing elite rotational speed.^[96] For power, Kirato Hitaka of Japan set the record for most revolutions in a single skip at 8 on July 17, 2023, verified after 28 attempts in a controlled gymnasium setting. Endurance records include Sella Rosa Rega's 168,394 skips over 24 hours on March 30, 2019, in Boiceville, New York, USA, demonstrating sustained physical resilience.^[97] IJRU-sanctioned marks, such as Xiaolin Cen's 119 single rope speed sprints in 30 seconds (male, 2025) and Minjae Kim's 742 triple unders in 3 minutes (male, 2025), further underscore the sport's progression at international events.^[91]

Global and Cultural Aspects

Regional Variations

In North America, skipping emphasizes speed and intricate team routines, particularly through Double Dutch, which gained prominence in urban African American communities during the mid-20th century as a rhythmic playground activity often accompanied by chants and songs.^[21] This form, involving two ropes turned in opposite directions, originated from Dutch settlers in the 1600s but evolved into a cultural staple among Black girls in cities like New York by the 1940s and 1950s, serving as both play and social bonding.^[57] School-based programs in the U.S. integrated skipping into physical education starting in the 1950s, promoting it as accessible exercise in urban schoolyards and contributing to its widespread adoption.^[98] In Europe and the United Kingdom, the term "skipping" predominates, reflecting folk traditions where children use ropes for rhythmic games often paired with rhymes and songs dating back to the 18th century.^[24] These practices emphasize group participation and oral traditions, with variations like single-rope jumps evolving into organized activities. In Europe, skipping has been integrated into youth sports programs highlighting endurance and coordination, influenced by rope-skipping federations established in the late 20th century.^[99] Across Asia and Africa, skipping incorporates long-rope collective games and indigenous adaptations, adapting to local materials and social contexts. In China, traditional long-rope jumping originated in ancient times as the "Hundred Rope Jumping" game during New Year celebrations among ropemakers, involving teams swinging extended ropes for synchronized jumps, while elastic-band variants like Chinese jump rope add complexity with height-based challenges.^[24] Ethiopia features long-rope games in community settings, similar to group skipping rituals that foster cooperation.^[100] Indigenous rope games persist in parts of Africa, such as the South African game "kgati" (also known as ntimo or urqaphu), a long-rope activity promoting coordination and group play.^[101] Japan shows high participation, with national championships organized since the 1980s, blending speed drills and freestyle routines in school and club programs.^[102] Australian skipping, also termed "skipping," has been integrated into youth activities since the 1980s through programs like Jump Rope for Heart, which promotes physical fitness in schools nationwide.^[103] In Latin America, skipping merges with hand-clapping elements akin to pat-a-cake in games like Brazil's pular corda, where rhythmic jumps accompany chants, and Colombia's resorte-chicle uses elastic ropes for progressive height jumps, blending physical play with cultural rhymes.^[104]^[105]

Representation in Media and Folklore

Skipping, or jump rope, has long been embedded in children's folklore through rhymes and chants that accompany the activity, serving as oral traditions passed primarily among peers to enhance play, build rhythm, and transmit cultural values. These skipping rhymes, often chanted in groups, function as verbal folklore that reflects social dynamics, historical events, and community identity, with variations documented across cultures and generations. For instance, the rhyme "Cinderella, Dressed in Yella" involves escalating counts of doctors as the rope speeds up, a game recorded in 1978 among schoolchildren in Ararat, Virginia, highlighting themes of endurance and fate.^[106] In American folklore, certain skipping rhymes draw from darker historical narratives, embedding real tragedies into playful chants. The rhyme "I had a little bird, its name was Enza, I opened the window, and in-flu-enza" originated during the 1918 influenza pandemic, which claimed approximately 50 million lives worldwide, transforming public health horror into a mnemonic for children. Similarly, "Lizzie Borden took an axe, gave her mother forty whacks" references the 1892 axe murders in Fall River, Massachusetts, where Lizzie Borden was acquitted of killing her parents, evolving into a taunt that entered playground lore post-trial. Another example, "Are you a witch or are you a fairy, or are you the wife of Michael Cleary?" alludes to the 1895 Irish case where Michael Cleary burned his wife Bridget to death, convinced she was a fairy changeling, a motif rooted in Celtic folklore about supernatural substitutions. These rhymes illustrate how skipping games preserve collective memory of societal traumas while fostering social bonding among participants.^[107] A prominent folklore variant is the "Ice Cream Soda" game, typically played with one or two ropes by groups of children, predominantly girls, where participants chant, "Ice cream soda, cherry on top, who's your boyfriend, I forgot? A, B, C, D..." until the jumper falters, with the final letter determining a humorous "boyfriend" name. Collected from informants in suburban Connecticut in the late 20th century, this rhyme underscores themes of budding romance and peer teasing in childlore. In African American communities, double Dutch—a style using two ropes turned in opposite directions—carries deep cultural significance as a tradition originating in the 1940s-1950s in northern U.S. cities, promoting sisterhood, resilience, and rhythmic expression among Black girls excluded from other spaces. Formalized as a sport in the 1970s by the American Double Dutch League, it evolved from neighborhood play into a symbol of empowerment and community cohesion.^[108]^[21] In media, skipping has been portrayed as both a nostalgic childhood pastime and a competitive athletic pursuit, often emphasizing themes of personal growth and cultural heritage. The 2007 Disney Channel Original Movie Jump In! centers on a teenage boy from Brooklyn who discovers double Dutch after his father's expectations push him toward boxing; the film showcases intricate routines, team dynamics, and the sport's vibrancy within African American communities, blending comedy, drama, and original hip-hop-infused songs.^[109] Double Dutch's rhythmic chants and footwork directly influenced early hip-hop in 1970s New York, providing beats for rapping and breaking, as seen in the 1981 Emmy-winning documentary on the Harlem group The Fantastic Four and referenced in tracks like Nelly's "Country Grammar" (2000). Frankie Smith's 1981 hit "Double Dutch Bus" popularized the style through playful, coded lyrics mimicking jumpers' chants, bridging playground folklore to mainstream music and underscoring skipping's role in urban cultural expression.^[21]^[110] As of 2025, the International Jump Rope Union (IJRU) continues to promote global cultural exchange through events that highlight regional variations.^[5]

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[PDF] Jump Rope to Fitness - APH — American Printing House for the Blind
Jumping rope improves cardiovascular endurance and upper body strength, and aids endurance, agility, coordination, and balance. The APH kit helps individuals ...
[11]
https://www.acefitness.org/resources/everyone/blog/6395/7-health-benefits-of-jumping-rope/
[12]
Jump Rope/Double Dutch | Playworks
At a recess: One rope grants one jumping turn, two ropes (double dutch) grant two jumping turns. · For both double dutch and single rope jumping, a standard jump ...
[13]
How to Jump Rope: The Complete Beginner’s Guide to Jump Rope Training
### Summary of Basic Jumping Methods from https://www.crossrope.com/blogs/blog/how-to-jump-rope/
[14]
The Health Benefits of Jumping Rope | BIDMC of Boston
Dec 1, 2016 · Jumping rope is extremely posture-specific. It improves the ability to maintain a long spine and has far less impact than sprinting or jogging.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition<|separator|>
[15]
Skipping Rope: Timeless Fitness Partner for Enjoyment and Well-be
Double dutch: Double Dutch involves two ropes being turned in opposite directions while the jumper enters and exits the spinning ropes. It's often a team ...<|separator|>
[16]
Jump rope an 'effective, low-cost exercise' for improving ... - Healio
Mar 7, 2025 · Rope skipping “requires minimal space and equipment, making it an accessible and inclusive exercise option for individuals across all ...
[17]
Jump Rope - The Strong National Museum of Play
For generations, American girls have spent their childhoods jumping rope. But it really began as a boy's activity in the 17th century among Dutch settlers.
[18]
Jumping Rope [Advice Book] - Children and Youth in History
In the slave South African-American girls transformed jump rope rhymes originally from Germany and England into ones with more transgressive meanings about ...Missing: skipping | Show results with:skipping
[19]
Jump Rope Rhymes as Folk Literature - jstor
This article, 'Jump Rope Rhymes as Folk Literature,' by Lucy Nulton, is a journal article in The Journal of American Folklore.Missing: cultural | Show results with:cultural
[20]
How to Get the Most Out of Jump Roping Exercise - Healthline
Jun 18, 2021 · Jump roping gained popularity this past year as COVID-19 lockdowns kept people away from the gym and some of their normal exercise routines.
[21]
Double Dutch: Jump In! - The Kennedy Center
One of their jump-rope games evolved into “Double Dutch,” and American kids and teens have been turning twin ropes ever since.
[22]
[PDF] Jump Rope History
Dec 6, 2006 · Many people associate jump roping with girls' play, but history indicates that jump roping was originally a man's game. No one knows the ...
[23]
[PDF] Jump Rope Connecting the Past, Present and Future
Jump rope has been used for years as a means for physical activity. Many have chosen to use jump rope as their cardiovascular exercise or as a means of training ...
[24]
The Dubious History of Jump Rope - Kate Dolan
Nov 16, 2015 · Jump rope originated in ancient China where ropemakers played at game called Hundred Rope Jumping as part of their New Year's celebrations.
[25]
[PDF] CHILDREN'S PLAYGROUND GAMES AND SONGS IN THE NEW ...
18th century. Skipping ropes have been manufactured for children since the 18th century, though of course improvisation plays its part in this history ...
[26]
Jumping Rope [Advice Book] - Children and Youth in History
In the slave South African-American girls transformed jump rope rhymes originally from Germany and England into ones with more transgressive meanings about ...Missing: immigration industrialization
[27]
The History of Boxing Training Tools
### Summary of Jump Rope in Boxing Training History
[28]
https://www.titleboxing.com/pages/history-of-boxing-equipment
[29]
[PDF] EVENT BROCHURE - Squarespace
Since 1973 the competitive sport of jump rope / rope skipping has made its indelible mark on the world of sports. Since that time the sport has experienced ...
[30]
Jump Rope History
The modern version of the jump rope is dated back to Egypt around 1600 AD, there are also rumors of its existence in China during that era.
[31]
FISAC-IRSF History
The first organisation to promote rope skipping as a sport was the “International Rope Skipping Organisation” (IRSO) founded by Richard Cendali.
[32]
Board of Directors - IJRU
In 2009 Mr. Hamilton co-founded the World Jump Rope Federation and served as its Chair since 2010.
[33]
Merger of FISAC-IRSF and WJRF - Jump Rope .Media
Feb 25, 2018 · The FISAC-IRSF and the WJRF have decided to merge into a single organizational entity, known as the International Jump Rope Union. Developing ...
[34]
3 Jump Rope Workouts That Will Make You Love At-Home Cardio
Apr 21, 2020 · A jump rope workout is a great cardio option when you have to stay at home. These three workout options will make you break a serious sweat.
[35]
IJRU Official Affiliations
Founded in 2009, AIMS is an umbrella organization fully recognized by the International Olympic ... International Jump Rope Union. “Through this partnership, we ...
[36]
Jump Rope under the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) - IJRU
Jul 8, 2023 · The Asian Jump Rope Union (AJRU) gained provisional membership with the OCA, aiming to make jump rope competitions a reality in the Asian Games.Missing: inclusion | Show results with:inclusion
[37]
Is Jump Rope an Olympic Sport Current Status and Future -
Sep 4, 2025 · Right now, jump rope is not an Olympic sport. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) hasn't added it to the official program, even though it ...
[38]
The 5 Best Jump Ropes of 2025 | Reviews by Wirecutter
Jul 15, 2025 · ... Beaded Speed Jump Rope is the best beaded jump rope we've tested. Beaded ropes have a little extra weight that make them easier to control ...
[39]
How to Choose a Jump Rope
### Summary of Jump Rope Information
[40]
Introduction to Rope — Construction, Materials, Etc. | Art of Manliness
Jan 16, 2020 · As one of the strongest sources for natural rope, this classic material was the most common one to be used before the advent of synthetics.
[41]
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jbDrkb7UBVA
[42]
https://health.yahoo.com/wellness/fitness/equipment/article/best-jump-rope-132902386.html
[43]
7 Best Shoes For Jumping Rope in 2025 - RunRepeat
Sep 12, 2025 · The Reebok Nano X4 had a balanced feel in the midsole, a breathable upper, and a generally supportive structure. Jumping was a lot easier and ...
[44]
https://elitejumps.co/blogs/guides/jump-rope-padding-striking-the-right-balance-for-joints
[45]
Jump Rope Fit for Apple Watch
Jump Rope Fit tracks jump counts, time spent jumping, calories, and heart rate, syncing with Apple Health, and helps create effective workouts.
[46]
https://www.crossrope.com/blogs/blog/best-jump-rope-shoes/
[47]
11 Best Knee Sleeves (2025) - Garage Gym Reviews
Knee sleeves are available in a variety of widths, the most common being 3, 5, and 7 millimeters. Choose wisely: The thicker the sleeve, the more compressive it ...
[48]
The 9 Best Weighted Vests (2025), Tested by Trainers
Looking to add an extra challenge to your workout? Our fitness experts and CPTs take a look at the best weighted vest for runners, CrossFitters, and more.
[49]
How to take care of your Jump Rope to last longer - YouTube
Sep 16, 2020 · How to take care of your jump rope to last longer. Top 3 tips on how ... I'll quickly go over the best surfaces, storage and which kinds of jump ...Missing: bags | Show results with:bags
[50]
Jump rope workout men's health | Buddy Lee Jump Ropes
### Summary of Arm Rotation Speed for Beginners, RPM, and Progression from Sets
[51]
How Many Calories Are Burned Jumping Rope?
### Calories Burned Per Minute for Moderate Jumping Rope
[52]
How to Jump Rope: The Ultimate Beginner's Guide
Keep your thumb positioned vertically towards the top of the handle so you can better control the speed, direction, and power of your rope. Hand symmetry also ...
[53]
https://www.crossrope.com/blogs/blog/how-many-calories-burned-jumping-rope/
[54]
https://www.jumpropedudes.com/blog/the-ultimate-jump-rope-workout-guide/
[55]
History - National Double Dutch League
A history of the game written by David A. Walker, the founder of the sport, traces the probable origins to ancient Phoenician, Egyptian and Chinese ropemakers.
[56]
https://www.crossrope.com/blogs/blog/15-fun-jump-rope-exercises-to-boost-your-workout/
[57]
Japanese teenager sets world record with jump rope ... - NBC Boston
Jul 19, 2023 · It took Hidaka 50 minutes and around 28 attempts to finally land the trick at a gymnasium in front of enthusiastic supporters and Ehime Jump ...
[58]
Jump Rope Training Progression : r/bodyweightfitness - Reddit
Jun 23, 2016 · Practice to master the two basic skills of jumping; master the bounce step first, then move on to the alternate-foot step. · Your goal is to ...Excellent jump rope progression series! : r/bodyweightfitnessJump rope progressions? : r/jumpropeMore results from www.reddit.com
[59]
Comparative Training Responses to Rope Skipping and Jogging
Aug 6, 2025 · In brief: It has been suggested that ten minutes of rope skipping is equal to 30 minutes of jogging for improved cardiovascular efficiency.
[60]
New study confirms rope skipping as an effective cardio workout
Feb 27, 2025 · Researchers find both high-intensity and moderate rope skipping improve VO₂max in young adults.
[61]
Comparative Training Responses to Rope Skipping and Jogging
In brief: It has been suggested that ten minutes of rope skipping is equal to 30 minutes of jogging for improved cardiovascular efficiency. This study ...
[62]
Jump Rope Training Improves Muscular Strength and ...
Sep 5, 2025 · Jump rope is also used in sports training as a practical tool to develop conditioning, balance, and motor abilities [15]. Its simplicity and ...
[63]
Jump Rope Training: Balance and Motor Coordination in ...
Jumping rope is a widely-used and non-specific practical method for the development of athletic conditioning, balance and coordination in several disciplines.
[64]
Calories Burned in a Jump Rope Workout - Lose It!
According to the American Heart Association, a 150-pound person could burn approximately 816 calories jumping rope at a fast pace for an hour, while a 200-pound ...
[65]
Effects of rope skipping exercise on physical, cardiovascular fitness ...
Aug 14, 2023 · The participants in the RS group showed significant decreases in systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure, mean arterial pressure (MAP) ...
[66]
Rope skipping increases bone mineral density at calcanei of ...
To this end, we conducted a quasi-experimental to examine the effects of rope skipping on girls' bone mineral density and cardiovascular fitness. 176 Hong Kong ...
[67]
35+ health benefits of jumping rope - RunRepeat
Jun 28, 2023 · Studies have shown that jumping rope can lower your heart rate, improve heart function, lower cholesterol level, and overall reduced the risk of heart disease.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[68]
The effects of 12 weeks of high-intensity interval rope skipping ... - NIH
Jul 10, 2025 · The results of the study found that both high-intensity interval rope skipping (HIIRS) training and traditional training significantly improved ...
[69]
6 Health Benefits of Boxing
Nov 16, 2023 · Footwork drills, like jumping rope and using an agility ladder; Jump training, like squat jumps, lateral bounds or burpees · Strength exercises, ...Missing: warm- | Show results with:warm-
[70]
Jump Rope vs. Running: How to Choose - Healthline
Apr 9, 2021 · One recent 12-week study observed that a jump rope program reduced body fat and improved risk factors associated with heart disease ( 6Trusted ...Missing: boxing warm-
[71]
Recommendations for Plyometric Training after ACL Reconstruction
Jun 1, 2021 · This paper presents a four-stage plyometric program to be undertaken as part of criterion-based rehabilitation for athletes with anterior cruciate ligament ...
[72]
https://www.healthline.com/health/fitness/jump-rope-vs-running
[73]
5 Powerful Jump Rope Workouts For Your Busy Clients - The PTDC
If your client is just starting out, stick to short jump rope sessions, between 5-10 minutes, for 3-4 times per week to start. This gives their feet and ...<|separator|>
[74]
FIFA 11+: an effective programme to prevent football injuries in ... - NIH
Soligard et al and Steffen et al found a significant reduction (up to 50%) of injuries in female players aged 13–18 in large RCTs, when the warm up exercises ...
[75]
https://www.theptdc.com/articles/5-jumping-rope-routines
[76]
[PDF] Emergency Services Ergonomics and Wellness
Prolonged overuse can lead to a chronic injury. Inflammation or irritation ... susceptible to overuse injuries when they are used in neutral positions ...
[77]
International Jump Rope Union Becomes 10th GAISF Observer
May 5, 2018 · The IJRU was created by a merger of former rivals, the International Rope Skipping Federation (FISAC- IRSF) and World Jump Rope Federation (WJRF) ...Missing: formation | Show results with:formation
[78]
Merger of FISAC-IRSF and WJRF – Formation of International Jump ...
Feb 24, 2018 · February 24, 2018. Merger of FISAC-IRSF and WJRF – Formation of International Jump Rope Union (IJRU). See FISAC-IRSF and WJRF announcement ...
[79]
Anti Doping — IJRU
Providing anti-doping education for athletes, coaches and support personnel. Testing athletes. Training of local sample collection personnel (doping control ...
[80]
Members - IJRU
ASIA · People's Republic of China · Hong Kong, China · India · I.R. Iran · Japan · Kazakhstan · Republic of Korea · Kyrgyzstan.
[81]
Inside Events: USA Jump Rope | Sports Destination Management
Oct 18, 2017 · The United States Amateur Jump Rope Federation (USA Jump Rope or USAJR) was formed in 1995 as a result of the merger of two national jump rope ...
[82]
The British Rope Skipping Association - United in Fitness
The BRSA's mission was simple, yet powerful; to bring fitness awareness to British youth, pushing the limits of conventional rope skipping.Sports Training · Skipping Rope & Olympic Sport · Associations · Championships
[83]
JJRU
JJRUは、なわとび競技の国際連合IJRU（International Jump Rope Union）に加盟する国内唯一のジャンプロープ・スポーツ統括団体として設立されました。国際大会への日本 ...Japan jump rope... · Jump rope festa · 各種イベント・大会 · JJRU会員募集中
[84]
Coaches Certification Committee Information - IJRU
IJRU Coaching Committee aims to serve as a key partner of all jump rope instructors and coaches to help and support them in their pursuit of becoming a better ...Missing: sanctioning | Show results with:sanctioning
[85]
Event Approval Process - IJRU
IJRU's new Event Approval Process (EAP) establishes a standardized system that safeguards against competition manipulation, ensures a comprehensive global ...Missing: sanctioning development
[86]
[PDF] IJRU Strategic Plan 2020-2024
5.1. Coaching and Training Systems. 5.1.1 Support education and training programs that include but not limited to, anti-doping, judging, competiton management, ...Missing: certification | Show results with:certification<|control11|><|separator|>
[87]
List of International Sports Federations and Recognized Sports
International Jump Rope Union (IJRU), World Rope Skipping Confederation (WRSC), International Rope Skipping Federation (IRSF), World Inter-School Rope ...
[88]
Timing Tracks - IJRU
Double DUtch Contest Timing Tracks. JDDA provides thee versions of their speed timing track using different count-in timing. Pick one at random. Download ...
[89]
World Records - IJRU
IJRU Speed and Power World Records. In speed events, judges count each right foot jump that an athlete completes within the time frame of the event.Missing: history | Show results with:history
[90]
The competitions | IJRU Competition Rules
Feb 10, 2025 · Events in the Team All-Around ( TCAA ) · Double Dutch Speed Relay ( DDSR ) · Double Dutch Speed Sprint ( DDSS ) · Double Dutch Single Freestyle ( ...
[91]
2023 World Championships — IJRU
The IJRU World Jump Rope Championships was held July 16-23, 2023, at Ed Robson Arena in Colorado Springs, Colorado, which is known as Olympic City USA.Missing: Union Tournament
[92]
2025 World Championships - IJRU
2025 World Jump Rope Championships July 27 - August 3, 2025 • Kawasaki, Japan · 2025 World Championships Rulebook Addendum.
[93]
2023 IJRU Jump Rope World Championship - Colorado Springs, USA
Don't miss the first-ever Jump Rope tournament in Colorado! More than 1200 athletes from 25 countries will share the joy and physical strength of this ...
[94]
Most double under skips in one minute | Guinness World Records
The most double under skips in one minute is 184 and was achieved by Zhang Zhixuan in Zibo, Shandong, China, on 16 February 2025. At just 15 years old, ...
[95]
Most skips over a rope in 24 hours | Guinness World Records
The most skips over a rope in 24 hours is 168,394, and was achieved by Sella Rosa Rega (USA) in Boiceville, New York, USA, on 30 March 2019.Missing: endurance | Show results with:endurance
[96]
Nov. 30 - Dec. 4 - Welcome to Gym Class!
Nov 30, 2024 · In the early 1940s and 1950s, jump rope became tremendously popular, and many children used jumping rope as a form of play. It only required ...
[97]
https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/most-skips-in-24-hours
[98]
Skipping rope - Wikipedia
A skipping rope (or jump rope) is equipment used in sport and play that involves rhythmically jumping over a rope swung underfoot and overhead.
[99]
Get with the Rhythm as the World Opens up to a New Generation of ...
Jump-rope is a free and easy sport that anyone can enjoy, anytime, any place with just one rope.Virtually nobody can say they have never jumped a rope.
[100]
Jump Rope for Heart - Heart Foundation
everyday superheroes who are leading the way in the fight ...
[101]
Pular Corda: Skipping Rope in Brazil | by Ivan Oung | iTencent
especially among younger generations and not giraffes ...
[102]
Game: Resorte-Chicle - Columbia Rubber Band Rope Jumping
In Colombia, girls play a rope game called “Resorte-Chicle” in which a player starts by jumping with the elastic at ankle height.<|control11|><|separator|>
[103]
Kids Explain Their Rhymes, Games, and Songs | Folklife Today
Jun 5, 2020 · Some of the rhymes were used for clapping games and jump rope, and some are still familiar today. These rhymes were almost entirely girl's ...
[104]
The Creepy Histories Behind Victorian Jump Rope Rhymes
Jun 27, 2019 · Created mostly by young girls in the U.K., U.S., and Ireland, these Victorian era rhymes made their way across the countries, from sidewalk to ...
[105]
“Ice Cream Soda” Jump Rope Game | Dartmouth Folklore Archive
Jun 3, 2019 · For instance, double-dutch (a game involving two ropes turning in opposite directions) is said to have originated in New York City as a form of ...
[106]
Jump in! (TV Movie 2007) - IMDb
Rating 5.4/10 (9,081) A teenager is pressured by his father to become a boxer - but a local girl introduces him to the very different sport of rope-jumping.Full cast & crew · Filming & production · Trivia · Company credits
[107]
Double Dutch's Forgotten Hip-Hop Origins - VICE
Mar 31, 2015 · Like track, they used speed testing: how many times players could jump over the rope in two minutes. Like gymnastics, they included ...