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Cadence

In music, a cadence is a chord progression of at least two chords that concludes a musical phrase or section, creating a sense of resolution, rest, or partial closure through harmonic means.^[1]^[2] The term originates from the Latin cadere, meaning "to fall," which historically alluded to the descending stepwise motion in the melody or bass line at the end of phrases in early polyphonic music.^[3]^[4] Cadences serve as essential structural elements in Western tonal music, functioning analogously to punctuation in language by articulating the boundaries of phrases and larger forms, thereby guiding the listener's perception of musical flow and hierarchy.^[2]^[5] They emerged prominently in the development of harmonic theory during the Renaissance and Baroque periods, evolving from modal practices to support the establishment of tonality in the common practice era.^[6] The four main types—perfect (V–I), plagal (IV–I), half (ending on V), and deceptive (V–vi)—each convey varying degrees of finality or surprise, influencing everything from simple folk tunes to complex symphonic works.^[1]^[7] Beyond classical contexts, cadences appear in diverse genres, including jazz, pop, and even non-Western traditions adapted through global influences, underscoring their versatility in creating rhythmic and emotional punctuation.^[8]

Fundamentals

Definition and Role

In music theory, a cadence is a melodic or harmonic formula that creates a sense of resolution, pause, or conclusion, typically marking the end of a phrase or larger section.^[9] This concept, rooted in Western tonal practices, functions as a point of arrival, fulfilling listener expectations built through preceding musical tension.^[10] The primary roles of cadences include providing closure to musical phrases, sections, or entire pieces, thereby articulating the overall form and allowing the listener to perceive structural boundaries.^[2] They also establish and reinforce tonal centers by directing harmonic motion toward stability, often the tonic, which anchors the key of the composition.^[11] Furthermore, cadences contribute to formal structures, such as binary form—where they delineate the two main parts—or sonata form, where they serve as signposts for thematic divisions and recapitulations.^[12]^[13] Cadences are primarily harmonic, relying on chord progressions to generate and resolve tension, though they may incorporate melodic contours or rhythmic patterns to enhance effects of rest or forward momentum.^[14] In both cases, they signal whether the music should pause for completion or proceed with continuation, shaping the perceptual flow of the piece.^[7] For instance, in simple tonal music, a basic cadence might conclude a phrase by landing on the tonic, offering a momentary stability that invites reflection before the next idea begins.^[2] Common classifications, such as the authentic cadence, exemplify full resolution to the tonic, underscoring these functional principles.^[9]

Nomenclature and Terminology

The term "cadence" derives from the Latin cadentia, meaning "a falling," and evolved from the medieval concept of the clausula vera ("true close"), a dyadic intervallic formula providing closure in polyphonic music of the 12th to 16th centuries.^[15] This clausula vera, typically involving a sixth resolving to an octave between voices, served as the structural basis for later harmonic cadences in tonal music, transitioning from modal to functional harmony during the Renaissance.^[10] By the 17th century, theorists including Johannes Lippius contributed to the development of harmonic theory, including descriptions of cadences as progressions ending phrases and marking a shift from intervallic to chordal resolution.^[6] In English-language music theory, cadences are classified as authentic, plagal, half, and deceptive, with subtypes like perfect authentic cadence (PAC) and imperfect authentic cadence (IAC).^[16] Equivalent terms appear in other European languages: in French, cadence parfaite for perfect cadence and cadence imparfaite for imperfect; in German, authentische Kadenz and perfekte Kadenz; in Italian, cadenza autentica and cadenza perfetta; and in Spanish, cadencia auténtica and cadencia perfecta.^[17] These variations reflect national traditions in pedagogy, with French and German terms emphasizing perfection or authenticity, while Italian retains roots in earlier contrapuntal nomenclature. Common abbreviations in modern music theory include PAC for perfect authentic cadence (V–I with both chords in root position and soprano resolving to tonic), IAC for imperfect authentic cadence (V–I with variations in voicing or inversion), HC for half cadence (ending on V), PC for plagal cadence (IV–I), and DC for deceptive cadence (V–vi).^[2] These symbols facilitate analysis in scores and textbooks, standardizing discussion across English-dominant academic contexts.^[18] Beyond Western traditions, analogous concepts of phrase closure exist in non-Western music, though not always harmonic. In Indian classical music, sam denotes the first beat of a tala (rhythmic cycle), providing rhythmic resolution and marking the return to stability, paralleling the conclusive function of a Western cadence. Similarly, in Arabic music, watad (a metrical "peg" from prosody) structures rhythmic units in iqa'at, contributing to cadential emphasis at phrase ends akin to harmonic punctuation.^[19]

Primary Harmonic Classifications

Authentic Cadence

The authentic cadence, also known as the full cadence, is a harmonic progression from the dominant chord (V) to the tonic chord (I) that provides the strongest sense of resolution and closure in tonal music.^[2] This V–I motion establishes the tonic as the gravitational center, marking the end of a phrase, section, or entire piece with a conclusive effect.^[20] Unlike weaker progressions such as the half cadence, which ends on the dominant for a sense of continuation, the authentic cadence achieves full harmonic stability on the tonic.^[2] Authentic cadences are classified into two main subtypes: the perfect authentic cadence (PAC) and the imperfect authentic cadence (IAC). A perfect authentic cadence requires both the dominant and tonic chords to be in root position, with the bass moving from the dominant's root (scale degree 5) to the tonic's root (scale degree 1), and the melody (typically the soprano voice) concluding on the tonic pitch (scale degree 1) above the tonic chord.^[21] This configuration maximizes the sense of finality through precise alignment of structural elements.^[22] In contrast, an imperfect authentic cadence follows the same V–I progression but relaxes at least one of these criteria: the chords may be inverted, the bass may not end on the tonic root, or the melody may conclude on the third (scale degree 3) or fifth (scale degree 5) of the tonic chord rather than the root.^[21] These variations still convey resolution but with slightly less emphasis than the PAC.^[22] Key harmonic details emphasize root-position triads for both chords to ensure stability and strength, with the dominant often appearing as a V7 chord to heighten tension before release.^[23] Voice leading rules are crucial for smooth resolution: the leading tone (scale degree 7 in the dominant chord) must resolve upward by step to the tonic (scale degree 1), typically in an outer voice for prominence, while the dominant's third (scale degree 7 as the chord seventh in V7) resolves downward by step to the tonic's third.^[24] These resolutions create stepwise motion and avoid parallels, reinforcing the cadence's structural integrity.^[25] A basic example occurs in C major, where the dominant chord is G7 (G–B–D–F), progressing to the tonic C major (C–E–G–C). For a perfect authentic cadence, the bass moves from G to C, the soprano from B (leading tone) to C, the alto from F (seventh) to E, and the tenor from D to G, as shown in simple four-part notation:

  B     C
  F     E
  D     G
  G     C
G7     C
  B     C
  F     E
  D     G
  G     C
G7     C

This progression illustrates the classic resolution, with the leading tone B ascending to C and the seventh F descending to E.^[24] An imperfect variant might place the soprano on E (the third) over the final C chord, reducing the emphatic arrival on the root.^[22]

Plagal Cadence

The plagal cadence consists of a harmonic progression from the subdominant chord (IV in major keys or iv in minor keys) to the tonic chord (I or i), providing a sense of resolution that is gentler than other cadential types due to its stepwise bass motion.^[2] This structure, often notated as IV–I in major or iv–i in minor, features smoother voice leading, with the bass descending a perfect fourth (or ascending a fifth) while upper voices typically move by step or remain stationary, minimizing dissonance and creating a serene closure.^[26] It is frequently employed in hymns and chorales for its calming effect, earning the nickname "Amen cadence" from its common use in setting the word "Amen" at the end of sacred pieces.^[23] Subtypes of the plagal cadence include the standard form in major keys (IV–I), which reinforces tonal stability, and the minor plagal (iv–i), prevalent in minor-key contexts for a subdued resolution, as seen in works like Mendelssohn's Reformation Symphony.^[27] Another variant is the Moravian cadence, a folk-influenced modification associated with Czech composers such as Leoš Janáček and Bohuslav Martinů, where the outer voices of the subdominant chord resolve inward by a whole step to the tonic, incorporating modal inflections for a distinctive ethnic flavor.^[28] In notation, a standard plagal in C major might progress from F major (IV: F–A–C) to C major (I: C–E–G), while in A minor, it could move from D minor (iv: D–F–A) to A minor (i: A–C–E).^[29] Often following an authentic cadence in sequences, the plagal provides additional reinforcement to the tonic arrival, enhancing finality without the sharper tension of dominant preparation.^[30] For instance, the "Amen" progression appears in countless hymnals, such as the concluding IV–I in the doxology, underscoring its role in liturgical music.^[2]

Half Cadence

The half cadence, also known as an imperfect or semicadence, is a harmonic progression that concludes on the dominant chord (V), producing an incomplete resolution and a sense of ongoing tension rather than closure.^[2] This cadence typically involves a movement from any preceding chord to V, most commonly from the tonic (I to V) or supertonic (ii to V), marking the midpoint of a phrase and signaling continuation.^[5] By suspending resolution on the unstable dominant, it heightens anticipation, often propelling the music forward to subsequent phrases.^[31] Several subtypes of the half cadence exist, distinguished by their chordal approaches and modal implications. The standard half cadence relies on diatonic progressions like I–V or ii–V in major keys, emphasizing functional harmony within the prevailing tonality.^[32] In minor keys, the Phrygian half cadence employs a first-inversion subdominant (iv⁶) resolving to V, featuring a characteristic half-step ascent in the bass from the lowered fourth scale degree to the dominant root, which evokes a modal flavor reminiscent of the Phrygian mode.^[23] The Lydian half cadence variant, less common but notable in modal contexts, incorporates a raised fourth scale degree (#iv⁶ to V) in minor, introducing an augmented second interval that lends a brighter, more elevated tension.^[33] Early subtypes include the Burgundian cadence (IV–V), prevalent in 14th- and 15th-century music, where the subdominant directly precedes the dominant without inversion, creating a straightforward yet tense progression in nascent tonal practices.^[34] Additionally, the plagal half cadence (IV–V) derives from subdominant function, offering a milder tension compared to predominant approaches but still avoiding tonic resolution.^[35] Harmonically, all half cadences prioritize the dominant's inherent instability—its tritone between the third and seventh in root position—to sustain harmonic momentum, making them ideal for phrase-internal divisions.^[2] They frequently appear at structural midpoints, such as the end of antecedent phrases in period forms or the first section of binary structures, where an I–V progression in the tonic key establishes temporary repose before modulation or repetition.^[36] For instance, in 18th-century binary forms, a half cadence often closes the initial section on V, fostering continuity into the dominant key.^[31] In minor-key works, the Phrygian half cadence enhances expressive depth, as seen in Baroque chorales where iv⁶–V punctuates emotional transitions.^[23] This cadence type thus serves as a pivotal tool for phrase continuation, often leading into an authentic cadence for eventual resolution.^[37]

Deceptive Cadence

The deceptive cadence, also referred to as the interrupted cadence, arises when a dominant-functioning chord (V or V⁷) resolves not to the tonic (I) but to the submediant (vi in major keys or VI in minor keys), thereby evading the expected harmonic closure and introducing an element of surprise. This progression creates a momentary illusion of resolution due to the shared tones between V and vi/VI, particularly the common tone between the root of V and the fifth of vi/VI, but ultimately prolongs tension by landing on a chord that implies further continuation rather than finality. In voice leading, the bass typically ascends stepwise from the dominant's root (scale degree 5) to the submediant's root (scale degree 6), while the leading tone (scale degree 7) in the dominant often descends to the submediant's third (scale degree 6 of the key, which is the third of vi); for instance, in C major, a V chord (G-B-D) might lead to vi (A-C-E) with the soprano moving from B to C and the alto from D to E.^[2] This cadence's primary effect is emotional surprise, as it subverts the strong pull of the dominant toward the tonic, fostering a sense of evasion that heightens expressiveness and sustains listener interest, often in mid-phrase positions where closure is anticipated. Unlike the authentic cadence's straightforward resolution, the deceptive variant delays fulfillment, allowing composers to extend phrases or build suspense before eventual tonic arrival. Variations of the deceptive cadence extend beyond V-vi/VI to other non-tonic resolutions, such as V to bVI (the lowered submediant), which incorporates modal mixture for added color and is particularly effective in minor keys or transitional passages. These are commonly found in the development sections of classical sonata forms, where they contribute to thematic instability and dramatic prolongation. A representative example occurs in Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 8 in C minor, Op. 13 ("Pathétique"), where V-vi progressions in the development section underscore motifs of unrest, with voice leading emphasizing the bass ascent and leading-tone descent to amplify the deceptive twist.^[38]

Specialized and Variant Cadences

Phrygian and Lydian Variants

The Phrygian half cadence represents a modal-inflected variant of the half cadence, occurring exclusively in minor keys through the progression iv⁶ to V. This structure features a minor iv chord in first inversion resolving to the root-position dominant V, with the bass line descending by half step from the sixth scale degree (♭⁶) to the fifth (⁵), mirroring the characteristic half-step approach between the second and first degrees of the Phrygian mode.^[23]^[39] This provides a sense of unresolved expectancy infused with modal color. Derived from Renaissance modal theory, the Phrygian half cadence employs borrowing from the parallel Phrygian mode to evoke an exotic, introspective quality, often appearing in polyphonic works and later adaptations. For instance, in A minor, the progression might involve F-A-D (iv⁶) to E-G♯-B (V). The Lydian variant introduces a brighter tension to the half cadence by raising the fourth scale degree in the pre-dominant chord, typically forming #iv⁶ to V in minor keys. This alteration raises the iv chord by a half step, creating an augmented second interval in the bass or voice leading that borrows from Lydian modal characteristics for heightened color and instability before resolving to V.^[40] Unlike the descending half step of the Phrygian type, the Lydian approach often involves a whole-step bass motion approached from below, lending a more expansive, luminous quality to the progression. For example, in A minor, this might involve F♯-A♯-D♯ (raised iv⁶, bass A♯) to E-G♯-B (V). The Lydian cadence appears in modern folk contexts, enhancing modal ambiguity, such as in Celtic or Eastern European traditions adapting major-key inflections to minor frameworks for brighter harmonic shifts.^[33]

Inverted and Upper Leading-Tone Cadences

Inverted cadences involve the use of inverted chords, particularly the dominant chord in first inversion (V⁶/₅), leading to the tonic (I), which results in a weaker sense of resolution compared to root-position cadences due to the less stable bass note.^[41] This inversion places the third of the dominant chord in the bass, altering the typical strong pull of the root-position dominant by reducing the intervallic tension in the bass line.^[42] Voice leading in these cadences requires careful adjustment to maintain smooth connections, often resolving the leading tone upward to the tonic while the bass third of V moves to the root of I, creating a stepwise motion that prioritizes melodic flow over harmonic force.^[41] Such inverted dominant cadences are employed to facilitate smoother bass lines, particularly in Baroque continuo practice, where the figured bass notation allows for inversions to avoid large leaps and support continuous melodic progression in accompanying parts. For instance, in J.S. Bach's chorales and suites, inverted V⁶/₅ to I appears in phrase endings to connect sections fluidly without abrupt bass shifts.^[41] The upper leading-tone cadence, prevalent in minor keys, incorporates the raised sixth scale degree (from the melodic minor) within the dominant chord or preceding harmonies to heighten tension and enhance resolution.^[43] This raised sixth functions as an upper leading tone, resolving downward by step to the fifth of the tonic, while avoiding the augmented second interval that arises between the natural sixth and raised seventh in harmonic minor. In voice leading, it allows for parallel sixths or contrary motion between inner voices, adding chromatic color and intensifying the approach to the tonic without disrupting the overall cadence structure.^[43] In Romantic miniatures, such as those by Chopin, the upper leading-tone variant appears in subtle cadential figures to evoke emotional depth, often in the inner voices of a V-I progression in minor, where the raised sixth introduces a momentary major inflection for expressive tension.^[44] This technique builds on authentic cadence frameworks but modifies the dominant's upper structure for nuanced harmonic shading.^[43]

Picardy Third

The Picardy third, also known as the tierce de Picardie, is a harmonic resolution in which a composition or movement in a minor key ends with a major tonic chord, substituting a major third for the expected minor third above the root to produce an unanticipated sense of brightness and closure.^[45] This device, borrowed from the parallel major mode, imparts an uplifting or hopeful effect to otherwise melancholic minor-key music, often evoking emotional contrast at the conclusion.^[45] The term originates from the Picardy region in northern France, where the technique was especially prevalent in Renaissance-era church music, though the precise etymology remains uncertain.^[46] Historically, the Picardy third emerged around 1500 as composers began incorporating thirds into final sonorities, gaining widespread adoption in the second half of the 16th century during the Renaissance.^[47] By the late Renaissance, in the masses of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, major triads accounted for approximately 85% of final chords, reflecting its normative status in sacred polyphony.^[47] The practice persisted prominently into the Baroque period, where it appeared frequently in chorales, suites, and fugues, before declining in later eras though still occasionally employed.^[45] In terms of harmonic structure, the Picardy third typically manifests as a resolution to a major i chord (e.g., from v-i or V-i in a minor context), or in a plagal form as IV-i with the final i major, most commonly at the end of entire pieces or individual movements to maximize its surprising affective impact.^[45] It functions as a modal mixture, drawing the major third from the parallel major key while retaining the minor-key framework elsewhere.^[46] Representative examples include J.S. Bach's French Suite No. 1 in D minor, BWV 812, where the Sarabande concludes on a major tonic chord after establishing the minor mode.^[45] Similarly, Bach's Fugue No. 2 in C minor from The Well-Tempered Clavier, BWV 847, employs a Picardy third in its final measures to provide a brighter resolution.^[48] In Renaissance repertoire, Palestrina's motets and masses routinely feature this ending, as seen in his Missa Papae Marcelli, underscoring its role in creating a sense of divine affirmation.^[47]

Rhythmic Aspects

Rhythmic Cadence

A rhythmic cadence is a melodic or instrumental gesture characterized by specific temporal patterns that signal the conclusion of a musical phrase, operating independently of harmonic structure to provide a sense of closure through rhythm alone.^[49] These patterns typically involve a deviation from the established pulse, followed by a resolution that emphasizes stability, such as a return to the metric framework or a momentary suspension of motion. In essence, it functions as the rhythmic equivalent of punctuation in language, marking pauses or arrivals without reliance on pitch relationships. Key structures of rhythmic cadences include fermatas, which extend a note beyond its notated duration to create an expressive hold; rests that introduce silence for dramatic effect; and accent patterns that shift emphasis to off-beats before aligning with the downbeat, fostering tension and release.^[50] For instance, a fermata over the final note of a melodic line allows the performer to linger, heightening the perception of finality, while a rest following a series of active rhythms provides a clear temporal break. Accent-based patterns often feature agogic stresses on weaker beats resolving to stronger ones, as seen in repeated short-long rhythmic motifs that culminate in a sustained beat.^[49] Examples of rhythmic cadences appear across musical domains, such as in percussion ensembles where drum patterns build syncopated complexity before resolving into a unified pulse on the downbeat, signaling phrase ends in marching or ritual music. In melodic lines, a common instance is the elongation of the final syllable in vocal phrases, mirroring natural speech inflections for closure. The concept traces parallels to ancient Greek music theory, where rhythmic feet derived from poetic meters—such as dactylic or iambic patterns—structured song phrases with temporal resolutions akin to modern cadences, emphasizing long-short durations for emphatic endings.^[51] In contemporary popular music, these manifest in pop hooks, like the rhythmic tag in a chorus that repeats a syncopated figure before a held note or rest, enhancing memorability through pure temporal design.^[7] Unlike harmonic cadences, which resolve through chordal tension, rhythmic cadences achieve their effect primarily via timing, though they may complement harmonic arrivals in fuller textures.

Rhythmic Classifications in Harmony

In harmonic cadences, rhythmic position plays a crucial role in determining the sense of resolution, with classifications distinguishing between masculine and feminine endings based on metric strength. A masculine cadence resolves on a strong beat, typically the downbeat, providing a direct and emphatic closure to the phrase.^[17] In contrast, a feminine cadence resolves on a weak beat, often following an anticipation of the final chord on the strong beat, which creates a more extended and less abrupt sense of arrival.^[52] These rhythmic distinctions apply to various harmonic progressions, such as the authentic V-I, enhancing the cadence's expressive impact without altering the underlying chordal structure.^[14] Rhythmic variations further modify harmonic cadences through techniques like suspension and elision, which delay or overlap resolutions to heighten tension. A suspended cadence incorporates a suspension—typically a dissonant non-chord tone held over from the previous harmony—delaying the resolution of the dominant to tonic, as seen in compound cadences where a 4-3 suspension (do to ti) occurs over the dominant's bass.^[14] This creates a poignant delay in the expected V-I progression, emphasizing the dissonance before stepwise resolution downward. Elided cadences, meanwhile, achieve overlap by starting the next phrase simultaneously with the final chord of the current one, effectively shortening the phrase while maintaining forward momentum and avoiding a full pause.^[53] Hemiola introduces rhythmic complexity to cadential approaches, superimposing a 3:2 ratio that temporarily shifts the perceived meter, often aligning with the dominant harmony to propel toward resolution. In cadential contexts, this rhythmic device groups three pulses in the time of two, creating a sense of acceleration or cross-accentuation that integrates with the V-I progression, as exemplified in Handel's works where the second hemiola supports the bass's cadential motion.^[54] Such integration can involve syncopated entrances of chord tones, where off-beat arrivals of the dominant or tonic heighten the rhythmic drive without disrupting the harmonic framework. Illustrative examples abound in Baroque and Classical repertoire. In Arcangelo Corelli's trio sonatas, suspensions frequently embellish cadences, such as 7-6 or 4-3 figures over the dominant, adding expressive delay to the resolution in works like Op. 3 No. 11.^[55] Classical composers employed rhythmic evasion—subtly altering the expected metric placement of the final chord—to evade full closure, as in evaded authentic cadences where the resolution shifts to a weak beat or overlaps with new material, contributing to phrase extension in sonata forms.^[56]

Historical Contexts

Medieval and Renaissance Polyphony

In medieval and Renaissance polyphony, cadences served as essential points of resolution within contrapuntal textures, emphasizing modal frameworks and imperfect consonances rather than the major-minor tonality of later periods. The clausula vera, or true cadence, emerged as the foundational type, characterized by contrary stepwise motion between two voices resolving to a unison or octave on the mode's final. This progression provided structural closure at phrase ends and was ubiquitous in polyphonic compositions, evolving from the simpler parallel organum of earlier centuries where voices moved in parallel intervals to more directed contrary motion for stability.^[15]^[57]^[58] Specific cadence variants adapted to modal polyphony included the plagal form, which resolved from the mode's subfinal or dominant to the final, often reinforcing the plagal modes (hypomodes) through bass motion by fourth or fifth. The rest or caesura cadence introduced a brief silence or pause after an imperfect interval, marking a rhetorical break without full resolution, while the evaded cadence avoided direct resolution by having one voice leap away from the expected consonance, typically to evade parallel motion or imperfect intervals like the third or sixth.^[59]^[26]^[59] The Landini cadence, named after the Italian composer Francesco Landini, featured an unstable major sixth in the cantus firmus expanding outward to an octave, often with an escape tone in the upper voice narrowing briefly to a fifth before resolving, adding melodic fluency to Ars Nova ballate.^[60] Similarly, the English cadence, prominent in High Renaissance works by composers like William Byrd, involved a contrapuntal pattern featuring a false relation between the flattened and natural leading tones in an inner voice, creating dissonance and highlighting modal ambiguities.^[61]^[62] Harmonically, these cadences prioritized modal resolutions, such as leading tones resolving to finals in authentic modes or imperfect intervals like the major third persisting before perfect consonances, fostering a sense of directed flow without strong dominant-tonic polarity. In Guillaume de Machaut's Messe de Nostre Dame (c. 1364), double leading-tone approaches to the clausula vera appear in the Gloria and Sanctus, illustrating late medieval integration of isorhythm with cadential punctuation.^[59]^[63] Guillaume Dufay's masses, such as Missa Se la face ay pale (c. 1450), employed evaded cadences in the Gloria to articulate sections, blending French and English influences while evolving toward fuller polyphonic closure. These practices laid contrapuntal groundwork that prefigured the tonal authentic cadence of the common practice era.^[26]

Common Practice Period

During the Common Practice Period (c. 1600–1900), encompassing the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic eras, cadences became standardized as fundamental harmonic progressions that articulated phrase structure, sectional divisions, and overall tonal coherence in Western art music.^[27] Authentic cadences (V–I) and half cadences (ending on V) functioned as primary structural pillars, providing resolution and tension, respectively, in forms such as sonata form and fugues. These build on the core classifications of cadential types while adapting to the era's evolving stylistic demands.^[2] In sonata form, prevalent in the Classical and Romantic periods, half cadences typically marked the conclusion of the transition section in the exposition, creating instability before the secondary theme, as seen in Joseph Haydn's String Quartet in D minor, Op. 9 No. 4, where a half cadence in the dominant key heightens anticipation.^[64] Authentic cadences, conversely, resolved major sections like the recapitulation, ensuring tonal return; Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Piano Sonata in C major, K. 545, exemplifies this with a perfect authentic cadence (soprano resolving to tonic over I) at the movement's close.^[21] In Baroque fugues, such as those by Johann Sebastian Bach, authentic cadences delineated episodes and reinforced the tonic, while half cadences facilitated modulatory episodes, structuring the contrapuntal unfolding. Plagal cadences (IV–I), often termed the "Amen" cadence, appeared frequently in chorales and arias for a sense of gentle closure, notably in Bach's harmonizations where they concluded hymn verses, evoking liturgical finality without the intensity of V–I.^[27] Deceptive cadences (V–vi) served to evade resolution for dramatic surprise or to pivot toward new keys during modulations, as in Mozart's aria "Voi che sapete" from The Marriage of Figaro, where a deceptive resolution heightens emotional tension before reaffirming the tonic.^[2] Period-specific emphases further distinguished cadential practices: Baroque composers like Bach prioritized the perfect authentic cadence for emphatic closure, reflecting the era's drive toward tonal polarity.^[21] The Classical period, exemplified by Haydn and Mozart, achieved balance through varied cadential phrasing—half cadences for open-ended phrases and authentic for conclusive ones—in developments that explored tonal contrast without excess.^[64] In the Romantic era, cadences underwent extensions via prolonged dominants, chromatic insertions, and appoggiaturas, amplifying expressivity; for instance, the "dream cadence" (a dominant ninth resolving unconventionally) in works by composers like Franz Liszt delayed resolution for heightened pathos.^[65]

Baroque-Specific Variants

In the Baroque era, composers developed nuanced cadence variants that leveraged suspensions and dissonances to heighten emotional tension and resolution within the emerging tonal framework. One such variant is the Corelli cadence, named for Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713), which features the resolution of a dominant seventh chord (V7) to the tonic (I), where the seventh of the V7 is suspended over the bass and resolves downward to form the major or minor third of the tonic chord. This creates a poignant clash, often involving a 4–3 suspension in an upper voice against the leading tone, emphasizing the dissonance before its release. Corelli employed this cadence extensively in his concerti grossi, Op. 6 (published 1714), particularly in slow movements like the Adagio of No. 2 in F major, where it underscores the contrast between concertino and ripieno groups for a refined, expressive close.^[66]^[55] The English cadence, a hallmark of English Baroque polyphony, involves a 4–3 suspension in an inner voice—typically the tenor or alto—creating a cross-relation between the flattened (^b7) and natural (^#7) scale degrees during the approach to the authentic cadence (V–I). This suspension, resolved stepwise, imparts a distinctive modal flavor and textural richness, especially in viol consort music where inner parts weave intricate counterpoint. Henry Purcell (1659–1695) masterfully integrated this variant in his sacred anthems, such as "Rejoice in the Lord alway" (Z. 49, ca. 1687), where the suspended dissonance in the viol accompaniment enhances the jubilant verse section, and "My heart is inditing" (Z. 190, 1697), adding poignant dissonance to the choral resolutions. The technique, rooted in earlier English polyphonic traditions, persisted in viol consorts due to the ensemble's emphasis on balanced, imitative textures.^[61]^[67] Beyond these, inverted cadences played a key role in Baroque continuo practice, where first-inversion forms of the dominant (V6) or tonic (I6) smoothed bass lines and prevented parallel intervals during realization. This approach allowed for fluid phrase endings in accompanied works, as the inverted V6–I progression maintained continuity without abrupt root-position leaps, common in trio sonatas and keyboard realizations. In ground bass compositions, plagal cadences (IV–I) offered a subdued alternative to authentic closures, varying the harmonic rhythm over the ostinato. Purcell frequently used such progressions in his ground bass anthems, like the verse sections of "Rejoice in the Lord alway," where the IV–I links iterations of the bass pattern, fostering a sense of serene progression amid the repetition.^[41]^[68]

Genre-Specific Applications

In Jazz

In jazz, the ii-V-I progression serves as a foundational cadence, functioning as an extended form of the authentic cadence through the resolution of a dominant seventh chord to the tonic. This sequence typically involves a minor ii chord (often a seventh), followed by a V7 chord, resolving to the I major chord, creating tension and release via the dominant's tritone interval. The progression's ubiquity stems from its role in delineating harmonic phrases in standards, allowing improvisers to navigate changes with melodic lines that emphasize guide tones like the third and seventh of each chord.^[69] Variants of the ii-V-I expand its expressive potential, including the tritone substitution, where the V7 chord is replaced by another dominant seventh a tritone away, preserving the essential tritone while altering the root for smoother voice leading or chromatic color. For instance, in C major, G7 might be substituted with Db7, both sharing the same third and seventh (B and F), which facilitates bop-style lines over rapid changes. Another common variant is the backdoor cadence, structured as bVII7 to I (often approached via iv-bVII7), borrowed from the parallel minor key to provide a plagal-like resolution with a mixolydian flavor, evoking surprise and bluesy tension. These derive briefly from traditional authentic and plagal cadences but are adapted for jazz's harmonic fluidity.^[70]^[71] Rhythmic flexibility distinguishes jazz cadences from stricter classical forms, with swung rhythms—where eighth notes are performed in a long-short pattern—infusing resolutions with propulsive groove and allowing phrases to breathe or overlap. Elisions, where the end of one phrase coincides with the start of the next, further enhance this, compressing harmonic motion in standards to maintain momentum during solos or heads. In bebop, such as Jerome Kern's "All the Things You Are," the tune's chain of ii-V-I progressions (e.g., moving through keys like Ab major to E major) exemplifies this, with improvisers like Charlie Parker employing swung phrasing and elided turns to heighten intensity.^[72]^[69] In modal jazz, exemplified by Miles Davis's "So What" from Kind of Blue (1959), cadences shift toward static modal vamps rather than functional progressions, using dorian and mixolydian scales over pedal points for subtle substitutions that imply resolution without traditional dominants, prioritizing atmospheric tension over chordal drive. This approach influenced later improvisers, blending ii-V-I elements with modal ambiguity for expanded harmonic palettes.^[73]^[74]

In Popular and Contemporary Music

In popular music, the I–V–vi–IV chord progression serves as a ubiquitous loop that functions as a pseudo-cadence, creating a sense of perpetual motion rather than definitive resolution, often cycling through verses and choruses without strong phrase endings.^[75] This schema incorporates a deceptive motion from V to vi, which delays tonic arrival and contributes to the hypnotic, repetitive quality prevalent in genres like rock and pop since the mid-20th century.^[76] Half cadences, typically ending on V, appear frequently at the close of verses to build tension toward choruses, emphasizing forward drive over closure.^[77] The Beatles exemplified these techniques in their hooks, such as the plagal I–IV–I cadence in "Let It Be," which reinforces sectional boundaries while maintaining accessibility for broad audiences.^[78] In contemporary electronic dance music (EDM), builds often employ deceptive cadences leading to drops, where rising tension via suspended dominants resolves abruptly into the main groove, heightening emotional impact without traditional harmonic punctuation.^[79] Hip-hop production frequently integrates sampled harmonic elements into loops, repurposing fragments from soul or funk sources to create layered, non-linear phrase structures that prioritize rhythmic flow over resolution.^[80] Adaptations in modern genres include modal mixtures, borrowing chords like the flat-VI or flat-VII from parallel modes to infuse pop progressions with color and ambiguity, as seen in tracks blending major and minor elements for emotional depth.^[81] Ambient music diverges further by eschewing traditional resolutions altogether, favoring sustained drones and harmonic stasis that evoke immersion without cadential goal-orientation.^[82] Post-2000 trends emphasize loop-based forms, with single-chord repetitions and post-choruses replacing varied cadences to sustain listener engagement in streaming-era pop.^[83]

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