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Soldo

Soldo is a British fintech company specializing in spend management solutions for businesses, offering a platform that integrates prepaid Mastercard cards, expense automation, and budgeting tools to streamline employee spending and financial controls.^[1] Founded in London in 2015 by Carlo Gualandri, Alpesh Patel, and Andrea Gaudenzi, the company emerged from the need to modernize corporate expense management amid growing demands for agile financial operations.^[2]^[1] Soldo's core product is a full-stack software-as-a-service (SaaS) platform that enables businesses to issue customizable virtual and physical prepaid cards, set real-time spending limits, and automate expense reporting with seamless integrations to accounting systems like Xero, QuickBooks, and Sage.^[1] This approach replaces traditional reimbursement processes with proactive controls, reducing administrative burdens and enhancing visibility into decentralized spending.^[3] By 2025, Soldo serves over 25,000 organizations across 31 European countries, including sectors like manufacturing, professional services, and nonprofits, with a focus on mid-market and enterprise clients.^[1] The platform emphasizes security, holding certifications such as PCI DSS Level 1 and ISO 27001, while supporting features like multi-currency transactions and AI-driven analytics for fraud detection and budget forecasting.^[4] In terms of growth, Soldo achieved its first customer milestone in 2017 and rapidly expanded through strategic funding rounds, culminating in a $180 million Series C investment led by Temasek in 2021, which valued the company at over $1 billion and supported its pan-European rollout.^[1] Headquartered in London with approximately 350 employees, the company is backed by prominent investors including Accel and Citi Ventures, and it maintains a commitment to sustainability, targeting net-zero emissions by 2050.^[1] Soldo's leadership team, led by CEO Carlo Gualandri—a veteran in payments technology—has positioned it as a leader in the corporate card and expense management space, earning high ratings on platforms like G2 and Trustpilot for ease of use and customer support.^[1]

Etymology and Origins

Linguistic Roots

The term "soldo" derives from the Late Latin soldus, a contraction of solidus, denoting a gold coin introduced by Roman Emperor Constantine the Great around 312 AD to standardize late Roman currency at 72 coins per Roman pound of gold (approximately 4.5 grams each). This solidus provided a stable monetary benchmark that persisted through the Byzantine Empire and profoundly influenced medieval European coinage systems, where it often retained its name in local adaptations.^[5]^[6] In the Italian context, the name transitioned to designate a silver coin by the late 12th century, reflecting the broader shift from gold-based Roman standards to silver-dominated medieval economies in city-states like Milan. The earliest records of the "soldo" as a silver denomination appear in northern Italian mint documents from this period, marking its evolution from a high-value gold unit to a more accessible everyday currency.^[5]^[7] Over time, "soldo" underwent a semantic shift in Italian and related Germanic languages, coming to signify a soldier's pay or wages, as the coin represented modest remuneration in military service. This usage emerged prominently in 14th-century military contexts, linking the term to concepts of compensation; in German, it evolved into Sold (salary or pay), particularly for hired soldiers, underscoring the coin's association with contractual labor in feudal armies.^[8]^[9] One of the earliest documented references to the "soldo" occurs in Milanese mint records from 1194, during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, who oversaw the issuance of silver coins in Lombard territories to consolidate imperial control and facilitate trade. These records highlight the term's initial application in official monetary administration, bridging Roman legacy with emerging Italian urban economies.^[5]

Initial Minting and Introduction

The soldo was first issued as a silver coin in the late 12th century, around 1194, under the authority of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI at the Milan mint. This introduction marked a pivotal moment in the Holy Roman Empire's monetary policy in northern Italy, where Henry VI sought to assert imperial control over fragmented Lombard territories by standardizing coinage production. As part of his broader campaign to consolidate power following his coronation as King of Sicily in 1194, Henry VI granted minting privileges to Milan, enabling the city to produce the soldo as a reliable medium of exchange amid ongoing feudal rivalries and economic decentralization.^[10] The coin's creation addressed the limitations of earlier denominations, particularly the debased denari that had dominated local transactions since Carolingian times. Valued typically at 12 denari, the soldo served as a higher-value silver unit designed to streamline trade and taxation across the Lombard regions, where urban growth and Mediterranean commerce were accelerating during the Commercial Revolution. By supplementing or partially replacing the smaller denari, it facilitated more efficient fiscal administration for imperial levies and supported burgeoning market exchanges in cities like Milan, which were emerging as key economic hubs. Henry VI's direct involvement, including oversight of mint operations, underscored the coin's role in reinforcing imperial legitimacy and economic cohesion in a region prone to local autonomy.^[10] In its early years, the soldo contributed to stabilizing local commerce by providing a more durable and trustworthy silver standard, reducing reliance on irregular bartering or foreign currencies amid the feudal fragmentation of northern Italy. This initial issuance helped integrate disparate Lombard economies, boosting confidence in monetary systems and aiding tax collection for imperial endeavors, such as military campaigns. While exact production figures from the Milan mint remain elusive, the coin's rapid adoption reflected its practical utility in everyday transactions and administrative functions, laying the groundwork for its widespread use in Italian city-states. Its name, derived from the late Roman solidus, evoked continuity with ancient traditions while adapting to medieval needs.^[10]

Physical Description

Composition and Dimensions

The soldo was initially composed of silver with a fineness typically ranging from 0.800 to 0.900, reflecting the high-purity standards of early medieval Italian coinage. Early examples from the late 12th and 13th centuries generally weighed 1.5 to 2.5 grams and measured 15 to 20 mm in diameter, struck using hammered techniques on prepared flans to achieve consistent but hand-varied forms, with weight tolerances around ±0.1 gram. For instance, a Milanese soldo issued under Henry VII (1310–1313) weighed approximately 1.82 grams and had a diameter of 21 mm, showcasing the robust silver construction of the period.^[11] In the 14th century, economic pressures including silver shortages led to the soldo's evolution into billon, a debased silver-copper alloy with reduced silver content of 0.200 to 0.500. This shift maintained similar dimensions but lowered intrinsic value, while retaining hammered minting methods and comparable weight tolerances. Representative billon soldi from this era, such as those from northern Italian states, balanced durability and cost.^[12] By the 18th century, the soldo increasingly transitioned to pure copper compositions amid further debasement, weighing 2 to 3 grams and featuring diameters up to 22 mm. Copper examples, still produced via hammered or early milled strikes with tight tolerances, exemplified the coin's adaptation to everyday circulation. A Gorizian soldo from circa 1797, for example, weighed 2.91 grams and measured 20.5 mm in diameter, highlighting the standardized physical profile of late-period issues.^[13]^[14]

Designs and Inscriptions

The designs and inscriptions on soldo coins typically featured symbolic elements representing imperial authority, local patronage, and monetary value, evolving from simple medieval motifs to more intricate representations over centuries. Common obverse designs included a cross pattée or imperial eagle, though early Milanese issues under Emperor Henry VI (late 12th century) displayed a cross pattée within a circle, accompanied by the Latin inscription "MEDIOLANVM" denoting the mint city. Later examples, such as 15th-century soldini under Galeazzo Maria Sforza, showcased quartered Sforza coat of arms within a reeded circle, topped by a small facing bust of Saint Ambrose, Milan's patron saint. Reverse motifs often depicted patron saints, city symbols, or value indicators, with Milanese soldi frequently honoring Saint Ambrose in enthroned or bust form; for instance, the AR Soldo–Ambrosino Piccolo (c. 1250–1310) from the Milanese Republic portrayed Saint Ambrose facing, mitred and holding a crozier, paired with the inscription "+ S AMBROSIVS MEDIOLANI."^[15] Under joint rule of Bianca Maria Visconti and Galeazzo Maria Sforza (1466–1468), a facing bust of Saint Ambrose appeared with the legend "S AMBROSIVS MEDIOLANI," emphasizing ecclesiastical ties.^[16] For Henry VI-era issues (c. 1200–1230), reverses often featured imperial inscriptions in three lines. Inscriptions were invariably in Latin, using uncial or Gothic script in early issues and transitioning to more refined Carolingian minuscules by the Renaissance. Typical legends included rulers' titles like "HENRICVS IMP" for Henry VI or "M·THERESIA·D·G·R·I·H·B·R·A·A·D·MED·" for Maria Theresa (1777–1779), alongside city abbreviations such as "MEDIOLAN" and value markers like "SOLDVS" or "UN SOLDO" within a wreath. Artistic styles shifted from the austere Gothic linearity of 13th-century pieces—evident in the geometric cross and sparse lettering of the Ambrosino Piccolo—to the detailed, naturalistic portraits and ornate frames of 15th–18th-century examples under Sforza and Habsburg rule, reflecting broader artistic transitions while maintaining core symbolic consistency through the 19th century.^[17]

Historical Usage

Spread Across Italian City-States

The soldo, originating as a silver coin and unit of account in late 12th-century Milan, rapidly disseminated across northern and central Italian city-states during the 13th and 14th centuries, serving as a foundational element in the emerging commercial economies of these republics and duchies. In Genoa, adoption occurred in the early 13th century, where it functioned primarily as a unit within the lira-soldo-denaro system to support the republic's dominant maritime trade networks across the Mediterranean. Genoese merchants utilized the soldo for accounting in transactions involving spices, silks, and slaves, with minting of physical silver grossi (valued at 4 denari) beginning around 1172 to facilitate exchanges at ports like Constantinople and Alexandria. By the late 13th century, the soldo, as an accounting unit, was supported by the silver content of grossi and denari, enhancing Genoa's role in international finance and contributing to the stability of Levantine commerce.^[18] In Bologna, the soldo integrated into the local monetary framework by the mid-13th century, aligning with the city's status as a premier university hub that attracted scholars, lawyers, and traders from across Europe. The bolognino, a silver coin equivalent to one soldo introduced in 1191 under imperial grant, became the standard for payments in academic stipends, legal fees, and market exchanges, reflecting Bologna's communal governance under podestà who oversaw minting rights. This adoption supported the influx of intellectual capital, as the soldo's consistent valuation in the lira system (20 soldi per lira) enabled precise accounting for university-related debts and rentals, fostering economic vitality amid the city's role as a crossroads for overland trade routes. Minting privileges, often delegated by elected podestà to communal zecche (mints), ensured local control, with annual outputs estimated in the thousands based on surviving archival records of silver inflows.^[19] Florence embraced the soldo in the 14th century, intertwining it with the rise of influential banking families such as the Bardi and Peruzzi, precursors to the Medici, who leveraged it for international bills of exchange and wool trade financing. Tied to the gold florin introduced in 1252, the soldo (valued at 1/20 lira or 12 denari) facilitated the republic's proto-capitalist economy, with podestà-granted minting rights allowing production of billon soldi to meet everyday demands. The 1340s saw economic disruptions from bank bankruptcies and the Black Death, leading to monetary adjustments in Florence, including debasements that affected silver coinage like the soldo. These measures, enacted by the Signoria, integrated the soldo more firmly into banking ledgers, enabling families like the Medici to expand operations from the 1390s onward.^[5] The soldo's role extended to Venice, where its integration into the ducal monetary system by 1328 under Doge Francesco Dandolo marked a pivotal event, with the minting of the soldino—a lightweight silver coin nominally equaling one soldo—as the first dedicated issue under his reign. Granted by the doge and the Great Council, these minting rights emphasized Venice's maritime orientation, using the soldo to standardize payments for galley crews and spice imports from the East. In peak periods of the 14th century, Venetian zecche produced thousands of soldini annually, as evidenced by hoard analyses from Adriatic sites revealing circulation volumes exceeding 10,000 pieces per decade in trade hubs. This dissemination along Alpine and Po Valley routes, coupled with local adaptations, underscored the soldo's versatility in bridging urban commerce and interstate exchanges across the fragmented Italian landscape.^[5]

Adoption in the Holy Roman Empire

The soldo, a silver coin initially minted in Milan, extended into broader Holy Roman Empire territories during the 13th century under Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, particularly in Lombardy and adjacent regions encompassing parts of modern Austria and Switzerland, as imperial control over northern Italy facilitated its circulation beyond local city-states.^[20] This adoption aligned with Frederick II's efforts to standardize coinage in his domains, particularly in Lombardy, where the soldo circulated as part of local systems valued at 12 denari, supporting administrative and economic integration across imperial lands.^[21] Within the Empire, the soldo played a key role in imperial taxation and military payments, reflecting its practical utility in funding campaigns and levies; such applications underscored the soldo's integration into the Empire's decentralized monetary framework, where it complemented larger denominations like the grosso while serving everyday imperial transactions in Italianate provinces. Minting of the soldo occurred in secondary imperial centers, notably the Patriarchate of Aquileia, an ecclesiastical principality within the Holy Roman Empire; from 1412 to 1420, under Patriarch Louis of Teck, silver soldi were produced, featuring the patriarchal coat of arms on the obverse and inscriptions affirming authority, as part of a system aligned with the Venetian lira (20 soldi per lira).^[22] These issues, weighing approximately 0.5 grams, supported local economy and ecclesiastical governance until the Patriarchate's acquisition by Venice in 1420. The soldo's prominence waned in the 16th century with the introduction of the thaler (or taler), a large silver coin first minted in 1518 at Joachimsthal and standardized across the Empire by the 1566 Leipzig Convention as the reichsthaler (29.23 grams of 88.9% fine silver), which displaced smaller regional denominations like the soldo in favor of a more unified imperial standard.^[23] Nonetheless, the soldo persisted in border regions, such as Habsburg-controlled Gorizia (modern Gorizia), where copper examples were minted as late as 1768 under Empress Maria Theresa, maintaining its role in peripheral trade and payments until the Empire's dissolution in 1806.^[24]

Regional Variations

Venetian Soldo

The Venetian soldo, often referred to as the soldino in its smaller silver form, was first minted during the reign of Doge Francesco Dandolo (1329–1339) as a subsidiary denomination to the gold ducat, serving as a practical medium for everyday transactions in the Republic's burgeoning economy.^[25] This silver coin, valued at 1/20 of a lira, became a staple of Venetian currency production, continuing through the Republic until around 1530.^[26] The soldo as a monetary unit persisted after the Republic's fall in 1797, with copper soldo coins minted under Austrian administration in the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia as late as 1862.^[27] Its longevity reflected Venice's stable monetary policies, which prioritized reliability to support maritime commerce, even as political control shifted. Distinctive designs characterized the Venetian soldo, emphasizing the Republic's symbolic iconography. The obverse typically featured the kneeling figure of the Doge receiving a banner from Saint Mark, inscribed with "DVX S M V" (Dux Sancti Marci Venetiae), while the reverse bore the winged, nimbate Lion of St. Mark holding the Gospel, accompanied by the legend "S MARCVS VENETI."^[26] These motifs, introduced early in the 14th century and refined over time, underscored Venice's patron saint and ducal authority without individualizing the ruler, promoting the state's enduring sovereignty. Variations occasionally included the Doge's portrait in later periods, but the lion and "VENETI" inscription remained consistent hallmarks.^[28] In the context of Venice's expansive trade empire, the soldo played a pivotal economic role, circulating widely beyond the lagoon to facilitate exchanges in spices, textiles, and grain across the Mediterranean. Its stable silver content and compact size made it ideal for merchants, earning it favor in distant markets and even leading to its adoption in regions like England during coin shortages in the 15th century.^[29] Within Venetian colonies, such as Crete (held from 1204 to 1669) and Cyprus (acquired in 1489 and lost in 1571), the soldo integrated into local monetary systems, supporting administrative payments, taxation, and trade in commodities like wine and cotton; in Crete, it exchanged at fixed rates with the perpero and tornese, coexisting with foreign imports like the Spanish real to handle public and private dealings.^[30] This colonial utility reinforced Venice's commercial dominance, as the coin's reliability minimized exchange risks in outposts vital to the Republic's supply chains. Monetary reforms, particularly debasements, marked the soldo's evolution amid 15th-century conflicts, including wars against Milan and the Ottomans that strained Venetian finances. Responding to silver shortages and fiscal pressures during the Black Death's aftermath and ongoing hostilities, authorities reduced the coin's weight and fineness; by around 1500, following iterative adjustments in the 14th and 15th centuries, the soldino typically weighed approximately 0.3 grams, down from earlier issues near 0.95 grams under Dandolo, to stretch limited metal reserves without fully disrupting trade.^[31]^[25] These measures, debated in the Senate, balanced economic imperatives with the need to maintain the soldo's credibility as a cornerstone of Venice's global mercantile network.^[32]

Tuscan and Florentine Soldo

In the 14th century, the soldo became a standard silver denomination in Florence, valued at 1/20 of a lira or equivalently 12 denari, forming a key component of the city's accounting and coinage system based on the lira-soldo-denaro structure.^[5] This valuation reflected Florence's economic prominence as a banking and trade center, where the soldo facilitated local transactions alongside the renowned gold florin.^[5] Florentine soldo coins typically featured symbolic designs tied to the city's identity, including the Florentine lily (giglio) on the obverse and an image of the patron saint, St. John the Baptist, on the reverse, accompanied by inscriptions such as "+ FLORENTIA" to denote the minting authority.^[22] These motifs, inherited from earlier silver fiorini that served as soldi equivalents, emphasized civic pride and religious patronage, with the lily representing purity and Florence's heraldic emblem.^[22] The soldo saw continued use in Tuscany under Grand Duke Leopoldo II (r. 1824–1859), where it maintained its traditional subdivision into 3 quattrini or 12 denari, supporting everyday commerce in copper-alloy issues weighing around 2 grams and measuring 18–22 mm in diameter.^[33] These coins, struck in Florence and other Tuscan mints, circulated widely for small purchases like food and labor wages, underscoring the soldo's role in the region's stable but inflation-prone economy during the early 19th century.^[33] During the Napoleonic era, the soldo underwent revaluation in the territories encompassing Tuscany, aligning with French decimal reforms; in the Kingdom of Italy (1807–1814), it equated to 5 centesimi, with 20 soldi comprising 1 lira to integrate local currencies into the broader imperial system.^[34] This adjustment, implemented amid administrative centralization, briefly modernized Tuscan coinage before the restoration of Habsburg rule, though it disrupted traditional valuations and sparked debates on monetary uniformity.^[34]

Denominations and Valuation

Relation to Lira and Other Units

The soldo served as an intermediate unit of account in the hierarchical monetary systems of medieval and early modern Italy, where it was consistently valued at one-twentieth of the lira across most Italian states beginning in the 14th century. This relation of 20 soldi equaling 1 lira formed the backbone of the standard money-of-account system, derived from earlier Carolingian divisions and widely adopted in regions like Lombardy, Tuscany, and the Papal States to facilitate trade and bookkeeping.^[35]^[36] The lira itself represented a theoretical unit often not minted as a coin but used for larger transactions, while the soldo bridged silver-based payments and smaller denominations. Subdividing the soldo further integrated it with everyday copper or billon coins; specifically, 1 soldo equaled 12 denari, the smallest silver or billon unit, and in many systems, 1 soldo also corresponded to 3 quattrini, low-value copper pieces that enabled fractional payments in markets and wages.^[37] This structure—1 lira = 20 soldi = 240 denari—ensured compatibility across city-states, though actual coinage often deviated due to local minting practices.^[38] In regional contexts, the soldo's value aligned with prominent silver coins for equivalence in exchange. For instance, in Venice, where dual accounting systems coexisted (one in denari and another in grossi), 1 soldo di grossi equaled 12 grossi, positioning the soldo as approximately one-twelfth the value of a single grosso in the silver grosso-based account.^[39] Similarly, in the Papal States, the soldo related to the paolo (a silver coin equivalent to the giulio) at a rate of 1 soldo to 1/10 paolo, reflecting the scudo's subdivision where 1 paolo formed a key intermediate tier above the soldo.)^[40] These relations were not static amid economic pressures; during the 16th-century price revolution in Florence, driven by the influx of New World silver, the soldo's purchasing power declined significantly against gold due to monetary expansion and debasement.^[41] Such fluctuations underscored the soldo's vulnerability as a silver-linked unit in inflationary periods, prompting periodic recalibrations in Florentine mint ratios to stabilize trade.^[5]

Material Changes Over Time

The soldo, first issued as a coin in the late 12th century under Emperor Henry VI in Milan, was initially composed of nearly pure silver. This composition reflected the monetary standards of the period, where the soldo served as a medium-value denomination in Italian city-states, often equivalent to 12 denari.^[42]^[43] By the 14th century, economic pressures including ongoing wars, expanding trade demands, and the devastating Black Death of 1348 prompted significant debasements, leading to the adoption of billon—a low-grade silver-copper alloy—for soldo coinage in regions like Venice. These changes reduced the silver content over the course of the century, as seen in Venetian soldini weighing around 0.5 grams but with fineness around 50% silver in some issues. The Black Death exacerbated labor shortages and fiscal crises, with mint revenues dropping sharply; in Venice, the 1353 reform by the Council of Forty introduced a new soldino that debased the lira di piccoli by about 1.2% to attract silver inflows and cover rising minting costs. Further debasements occurred through Venetian senate decrees in the 1370s, aimed at stabilizing local coinage amid broader European monetary instability.^[32]^[44] In the 18th and 19th centuries, the soldo in various Italian states transitioned to full copper composition, particularly in response to chronic silver shortages and the need for low-denomination circulation coins valued at face rather than intrinsic worth. For instance, the Papal States issued copper soldi in 1867 under Pope Pius IX, weighing 5 grams and equivalent to 5 centesimi in the papal lira system. Similar copper issues appeared in regions like Gorizia and the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy around 1800–1813, reflecting broader shifts toward fiat-based valuation amid industrialization and unification efforts in Italy.^[45]^[46]^[47]

Legacy

Influence on Modern Currencies

The soldo persisted as a key subunit of the lira in various pre-unification Italian states, such as the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Duchy of Tuscany, where it typically equaled 1/20 of a lira until the establishment of the unified Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Following unification, the Italian lira adopted a fully decimal system with 100 centesimi per lira, leading to the gradual phase-out of the soldo in official circulation as the centesimo became the standard subunit. This transition standardized monetary units across the peninsula, eliminating regional variations in subdivisions like the soldo to facilitate economic integration. A significant Napoleonic legacy shaped the soldo's role in early 19th-century Italy, where the Kingdom of Italy (1805–1814) defined the soldo as 1/20 of the lira, directly equivalent to 1/20 of the French franc under Napoleon's monetary reforms. This pegged the soldo at 5 centesimi within the lira's decimal framework, promoting uniformity in occupied territories and influencing the post-Napoleonic adoption of decimalization in subsequent Italian states. The reform's emphasis on decimal subunits laid foundational principles for the 1861 Italian lira, bridging traditional soldi-based systems with modern metric currencies. The soldo's influence extended indirectly to the euro through its embedded role in the lira's historical structure, as the lira remained Italy's primary currency from 1861 until 2002, when it was supplanted by the euro at a fixed rate of 1 euro = 1,936.27 lire. Archival evidence from the Papal States, which retained autonomy until 1870, documents the soldo's use in 1867 coinage as a transitional denomination equivalent to 5 centesimi, appearing in state budgets and issuances to ease the shift to the decimal lira amid unification pressures. This late issuance underscores the soldo's enduring administrative utility in 19th-century fiscal planning before its complete obsolescence.^[48] The soldo also formed part of the Carolingian monetary system, where it corresponded to the "soldo" or "sou" as 1/20 of the lira (pound), paralleling the shilling in the English system, and influenced subdivisions in medieval European currencies.

Numismatic Significance

The soldo holds considerable numismatic value due to the rarity of its early issues, particularly those minted under Emperor Henry VI in Milan during the late 12th century, which represent the denomination's inaugural appearance in Italian coinage. These specimens are infrequently encountered in commerce, reflecting their appeal to collectors of medieval Italian monetary history. Exemplary soldo coins are preserved in major institutional collections, enhancing their scholarly and collectible prestige. The British Museum houses several examples, including a 2 soldo alloy coin from Lucca under Carlo Ludovico dated 1835 (museum number 1847,1108.506) and a 1/2 soldo from Etruria under Charles Louis I and Maria Louisa de Bourbon dated 1803 (museum number 1847,1108.677). Similarly, the Vatican numismatic cabinets maintain holdings of Papal States soldi, such as those issued under Pius IX in the 1860s, underscoring the coin's role in ecclesiastical monetary traditions. These pieces are cataloged in authoritative references like the Corpus Nummorum Italicorum (CNI), a comprehensive multi-volume work that documents Italian medieval and modern coinage, providing standardized classifications such as CNI Vol. V for Lombard and early Milanese issues.^[49]^[50]^[48] In academic research, the soldo serves as a key artifact for studying economic history, particularly through analyses of debasement practices in medieval Europe. Numismatic studies highlight the soldo's involvement in debasement schemes, where rulers profited from issuing reduced-silver content coins at full face value, illustrating how such manipulations influenced trade and fiscal policy across city-states and positioning the soldo as a vital case study in monetary instability. Modern reproductions and forgeries of soldo coins pose challenges to collectors, often produced as cast copies or electrotypes to mimic rare early variants. Identification typically involves scrutinizing edge marks for casting seams, which appear as faint horizontal lines from the molding process, and conducting alloy tests to verify silver content against historical standards (e.g., early soldi at around 0.835 fineness). Advanced authentication may employ X-ray fluorescence for composition analysis or weight comparisons, as genuine specimens exhibit consistent mass (e.g., 1.5–2.0 grams for Milanese types) without modern patination irregularities.^[51]

References

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About Us: Our Mission, Team, And Roles - Soldo
Businesses use Soldo to manage travel and expenses, set team budgets, and handle unpredictable spending.
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Soldo - 2025 Company Profile, Team, Funding, Competitors ... - Tracxn
Sep 6, 2025 · Soldo is a series C company based in London (United Kingdom), founded in 2014 by Carlo Corrado Gualandri, Alpesh Patel and Andrea Gaudenzi.
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Soldo Financial Services Ltd - Open Banking
Soldo is both a financial services and software company. Its spend management platform automates employee and business spending.
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Simplify Spend Management with Soldo | Liberate Finance ...
Unlock the full potential of your financial operations with Soldo's spend management solutions. Liberate finance with the tools to focus on more strategic ...About UsProduct overview
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Money and Coinage in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe
(The term solidus, in medieval Italian soldo, came from the late Roman gold coin, the solidus aureus, first struck by Emperor Constantine about 312 A.D. at 72 ...
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Solidus - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Solid, from Late Latin solidus meaning "solid coin," originated as a Roman gold coin by Constantine the Great; it also refers to the English shilling.
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soldo - Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Etymology 1 ; soldo, from Late Latin ; soldus, from contraction of Latin ; solidus (“gold coin”). Doublet of ; sólido.
[8]
Soldier - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating c.1300 from Old French and Medieval Latin soldarius, "soldier" means one who serves in the army for pay; also a verb meaning to serve or persistMissing: soldo German
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An Etymological Dictionary of the German Language/Annotated/Sold
Sep 13, 2023 · Sold, masculine, 'pay, salary,' from Middle High German solt (d), masculine, 'reward for service done,' also 'that which is to be performed, ...Missing: meaning | Show results with:meaning
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[PDF] Money and Coinage in the Middle Ages - OAPEN Library
soldi,77 and were thus the first pounds to be coined anywhere in Europe.78 The other Italian gold coin that would find international fame, the ducat, would.
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https://en.numista.com/485966
[12]
Serenissima: Medieval Coinage of Venice - CoinWeek
Dec 4, 2015 · Venice minted coins in the names of Louis the Pious (814-840) and Lothair (840-855). In subsequent decades, the coinage gradually became cup-shaped.
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Items from Italian States - Numista
... Corpus Nummorum Italicorum (CNI), a 20 volume masterpiece dating back to the turn of the 20th century, nor the Monete Italiane Regionali (MIR) ...
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1 Soldo - Francis II - County of Gorizia - Numista
1 Soldo (1⁄20). Currency, Soldo (1733-1802). Composition, Copper. Weight, 2.91 g. Diameter, 20.5 mm. Thickness, 1 mm. Shape, Round. Orientation, Coin alignment ...
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1 soldo 1800 Italy-States - Historic Value - Foronum
1 soldo 1800 ; Composition, Copper ; Weight (g), 2,91 g ; Diameter (mm), 20,50 mm ; Edge, Smooth ; Reverse: 1 SOLDO 1795 F.
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eAuction 138. ITALY, Milan. First Republic. 1250-1310 ... - CNG Coins
14-day returnsAR Soldo–Ambrosino Piccolo (20mm, 2.10 g, 9h). Cross with trefoils in angles / St. Ambrose enthroned facing, wearing mitre and holding crozier.Missing: design | Show results with:design
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ITALY.MILAN.Bianca Maria Visconte and Galeazzo Maria Sforza AD ...
Free delivery 14-day returnsBianca Maria Visconte and Galeazzo Maria Sforza AD 1466-1468.AR.Soldo.N.D.. ( 1.51g, 19.2mm, 6h ). S AMBROSIVS MEDIOLANI, facing bust of Saint Ambrose.Missing: design | Show results with:design
[18]
Italian States MILAN Soldo KM 186 Prices & Values - NGC
Specifications. Composition: Copper. Diameter: 23-24mm. Design. Obverse: Veiled bust to right, mintmark below (where present). Obverse Legend: M. THERESIA.Missing: Henry VI late 12th century
[19]
[PDF] Trade and Religious Boundaries in the Medieval Maghrib: Genoese ...
The lira and soldo were, until the late thirteenth century, units of account only: from 1138, the Genoese mint mainly produced denari and grossi (4 denari coins) ...
[20]
[PDF] Redalyc.Income and working time of a Fencing Master in Bologna in ...
... soldo bolognese, was the coin forged and commonly used in Bologna. Starting from 1236, two variations of the bolognino began to circulate in the city: the ...
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Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor - Numista
King of Sicily, Holy Roman Emperor (1194–1250, 1220–1250). Also known as Frederick I, Friedrich I, Friedrich II von Hohenstaufen, Federico II di Svevia.Missing: adoption Lombardy
[22]
None
Below is a merged response that consolidates all the information from the provided summaries into a single, comprehensive overview of the "Soldo" coin and its context within the Holy Roman Empire. To maximize detail and clarity, I’ve organized the information into sections and used a table in CSV format where appropriate to present dense, structured data. The response retains all mentioned details while ensuring readability and coherence.
[23]
An Etymological Dictionary of the German Language | Annotated
Sep 13, 2023 · ... soldier's pay,' which is properly the coin, Latin solidus, Italian soldo (Modern French sou); yet the double sense in Middle High German can ...
[24]
Significant historical denominations of Italy | Baldwin's
Apr 9, 2020 · The denomination of silver Testone was first introduced in Italy after 1470. The first Testone was commissioned in Milan by the Duke Galeazzo ...Missing: 12th records
[25]
Thaler | coin - Britannica
Oct 2, 2025 · The thaler, or Joachimsthaler, is a coin first minted in Jáchymov in 1517, and was a large silver coin used in Germany and central Europe.Missing: Holy soldo
[26]
[PDF] A significant part of the modern collection consists of Venetian coins ...
15 kreuzera, 1663. silver, weight = 6.8 gm, diameter = 30 mm, inv. no. NZ-95. HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE OF THE GERMAN NATION ... 1 soldo, Gorica mint, 1768 copper ...
[27]
1 Soldino - Francesco Dandolo - Venice - Numista
Detailed information about the coin 1 Soldino, Francesco Dandolo, Venice, with pictures and collection and swap management: mintage, descriptions, metal, weightMissing: soldo integration
[28]
Italian States LOMBARDY-VENETIA Coin Price Guide - NGC
Specifications. Composition: Copper. Weight: 1.6600g. Design. Obverse: Shield within crowned double-headed eagle. Reverse: Value above date.
[29]
Details for denomination: Soldino
The coin they used was the Venetian soldino. The Venetians were notorious ... Francesco Dandolo - view all of this denomination issued by Francesco Dandolo ...
[30]
Venetian Soldino hammered silver coins
The coin they used was the Venetian soldino. The Venetians were notorious traders in the late medieval period with trade networks covering the Mediterranean and ...
[31]
Coin - Soldino of Michele Steno - Siston Dig
Jul 20, 2025 · Its compact size and stable silver content made it especially useful in commercial dealings and helped reinforce Venetian economic dominance.
[32]
Money and coinage in Venetian Crete, c. 1400-1669: an introduction
This introduction discusses the context of Venetian rule over Crete from 1211 to 1669, emphasizing the economic aspects of money and coinage during this period.<|separator|>
[33]
(PDF) "Coins for Trade and for Wages; The Development of Coinage ...
FAQs. sparkles. AI. What explains the debasement trends of Venetian coins from 1200 to 1500? ... soldino was debased in the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth ...
[34]
The Venetian Mint in the Age of the Black Death - Academia.edu
... debased the lira dipiccoli with a new soldino issue. From an examination of their deliberations, we can see that they chose a milder debasement, which ...
[35]
Items from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany - Numista
All coins from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, presented with pictures, descriptions and more useful information: metal, size, weight, date, mintage.
[36]
[PDF] THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE
A soldo = 1 sou = 5 centimes = an English halfpenny or American cent. A carlin = 4 soldi. A ducat = 4.44 lire or francs. An once = 2^ ducats. A scudo (Papal) ...
[37]
[PDF] Origin and evolution of double entry bookkeeping, a study ... - eGrove
The art of bookkeeping was confined to Italy until the sixteenth century, and then, following in the wake of trade, it spread throughout Europe. The parts of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[38]
[PDF] Fibonacci and the Financial Revolution - to find
Oct 23, 2003 · For example, monetary units based upon the Roman system used denari, soldi, and lira, with 12 denari to the soldo and 20 soldi to the lira.
[39]
Foreign Coins - Europe - Italy - Munthandel G. Henzen
ITALY - ANCONA - Bologino n.d. (13th century) ... Its original value was 7 lire (from Roman Libra) and 12 soldi (plural of soldo, and derived from the Roman ...
[40]
[PDF] The Political, Economic, and Military Decline of Venice Leading Up ...
There were 12 bagattini to one soldo and 20 soldi to one lira. This means the rate of interest was %5 a year, according to Champers and Pullan. 101 Pullan ...
[41]
Measures | Renaissance Venice
1 soldo di grossi = 12 grossi. Image. Front and back of Venetian coin. Caption. Venice - Currency - Grosso or Groat (ca. 1382-1400). Grosso or Groat. ca. 1382 ...
[42]
Does the inflow of precious metals from the New World really ...
Nov 10, 2019 · The inflow of precious metals from the Americas into Europe grew large in the late 1540s and the 1550s, but European inflation began 15 or 20 ...<|separator|>
[43]
List of Medieval Coins (150+ Terms with Photos!)
Oct 6, 2023 · Soldo – A medieval Italian silver coin issued in the 12th century. Plural of soldo is soldi. Soldi were the measurements of value that non- ...
[44]
Money and Measurements - La Bella Donna - WordPress.com
Soldo was the intermediate coin, 1 soldo = 12 denari. Soldi were introduced from mints towards the end of the 12th century. Denari was the coin of least value ...
[45]
Authentic Medieval Coinage of the Venetian Empire
Billon soldino. Doge kneeling left, holding tall cross/staff, facing nimbate winged lion holding Gospels open with paw. "12" below. S.M.V.ALOYS.CON around ...
[46]
1 Soldo / 5 Centesimi - Pius IX - Papal States - Numista
Detailed information about the coin 1 Soldo / 5 Centesimi, Pius IX, Papal States, with pictures and collection and swap management: mintage, descriptions, ...Missing: paolo | Show results with:paolo<|separator|>
[47]
Italian States PAPAL STATES Soldo KM 1372.2 Prices & Values | NGC
Visit the World Coin Price Guide on NGCcoin.com to see prices for Italian States PAPAL STATES Soldo coins, as well as images, mintage info, composition details ...Missing: late 12th century records<|control11|><|separator|>
[48]
https://en.numista.com/catalogue/papal_states-2.html
[49]
https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/C_1847-1108-506
[50]
https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/C_1847-1108-677
[51]
coin | British Museum
Denomination: soldo, 1/2 ; Description: Alloy coin. ; Authority: Ruler: Charles Louis I, King of Etruria: Ruler: Maria Louisa de Bourbon ; Production date: 1803- ...
[52]
Corpus Nummorum Italicorum / Volume 6. Veneto (zecche minori ...
Author, Victor Emmanuel of Savoy (Vittorio Emanuele di Savoia) ; Part of, Corpus Nummorum Italicorum ; Volume, Volume 6. Veneto (zecche minori), Dalmazia, Albania.
[53]
Mint Output in the Tenth Century - jstor
by tale of the debased silver coins which they paid out to the merchants. This would allow them a gross profit of 2d. in every soldo they coined. In order ...
[54]
https://www.forumancientcoins.com/numiswiki/view.asp?key=ancient%20coins%20and%20modern%20fakes