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Unit of account

A unit of account is a standard monetary unit that serves as a common measure for expressing the prices of goods, services, assets, and liabilities, enabling the comparison and accounting of economic values.^[1] This function allows diverse items to be valued relative to one another, simplifying transactions and record-keeping by providing a consistent scale for economic measurement.^[2] As one of the three primary functions of money—alongside acting as a medium of exchange and a store of value—the unit of account is essential for pricing mechanisms in modern economies.^[1] It facilitates the denomination of contracts, debts, and wages, reducing the complexity of barter systems where direct valuation between unrelated goods would be inefficient.^[3] For instance, in most countries, the national currency (such as the U.S. dollar or euro) fulfills this role, allowing prices to be quoted uniformly and enabling accurate financial reporting.^[4] Without a stable unit of account, economic planning and resource allocation become challenging, as volatility in the unit's value can distort price signals and complicate intertemporal comparisons.^[5] Historically, units of account have evolved from commodity-based measures, like silver or gold weights in ancient economies, to abstract fiat currencies backed by governments.^[3] In contemporary contexts, including international trade and digital finance, multiple units may coexist, such as when the U.S. dollar serves as a global unit of account for commodities like oil.^[6] Challenges arise when inflation erodes the unit's stability, prompting innovations like indexed units of account to maintain reliability in long-term contracts.^[7] Overall, the unit of account underpins the informational efficiency of markets by creating commensurability among disparate economic activities.^[8]

Core Concepts

Definition and Characteristics

A unit of account is a standard numerical monetary unit that serves as a common measure for expressing the value of goods, services, debts, and other economic items, facilitating price comparisons and enabling consistent economic calculations.^[9] This function of money provides a benchmark for pricing, allowing individuals and businesses to assess relative values without the need for direct barter exchanges. Key characteristics of an effective unit of account include stability, which ensures low rates of inflation or deflation to maintain reliable value measurement over time.^[9] Divisibility allows the unit to be broken into smaller denominations, supporting precise pricing for transactions of varying scales.^[9] Uniformity requires consistent application across an economy, treating each unit as equivalent regardless of form or location. Scalability enables the unit to represent both minor and substantial values through multiples and fractions, accommodating diverse economic activities.^[3] Fiat currencies such as the US dollar and the euro exemplify modern units of account, where government backing ensures widespread acceptance for valuation purposes.^[9] In contrast, historical barter systems lacked a unit of account, leading to challenges like the double coincidence of wants and difficulties in valuing heterogeneous goods.^[10] As a conceptual framework, the unit of account supports economic aggregation by providing a consistent metric for summing values, such as in the calculation of gross domestic product (GDP) or total societal wealth.^[11] This function complements money's roles as a medium of exchange and store of value, though it operates primarily through measurement rather than transaction or preservation.^[12]

Relation to Other Money Functions

Money serves three primary functions in an economy: as a medium of exchange, a store of value, and a unit of account.^[9] The medium of exchange function enables the facilitation of transactions by eliminating the inefficiencies of barter, allowing goods and services to be bought and sold using a widely accepted asset.^[1] The store of value function permits money to retain purchasing power over time, making it a reliable means for saving and deferring consumption without significant loss due to depreciation.^[9] In contrast, the unit of account function provides a standardized measure for expressing the relative values of goods, services, debts, and assets, enabling consistent pricing and economic comparisons.^[3] The unit of account differs fundamentally from the other functions by emphasizing measurement and standardization rather than transactional utility or durability. Unlike a medium of exchange, which is directly involved in trades, a unit of account allows prices to be quoted and values assessed in a common denominator without requiring immediate exchange—for instance, listing the price of a commodity in dollars facilitates comparison across markets but does not imply a sale.^[3] Similarly, it is distinct from a store of value, as it does not concern itself with interest accrual, physical preservation, or protection against inflation; instead, it focuses on providing a stable numerical framework for valuation, even if the underlying money's purchasing power fluctuates.^[1] This role is essential for accounting, contracting, and economic planning, where precision in relative pricing underpins rational decision-making.^[9] These functions are interdependent, such that instability in one can impair the others, though failures in the unit of account specifically disrupt value measurement across the economy. Hyperinflation, for example, erodes a currency's reliability as a unit of account by causing rapid price changes that make relative valuations meaningless, which in turn discourages its use as a medium of exchange and store of value.^[9] In Zimbabwe in 2008, hyperinflation peaked at an annual rate of 89.7 sextillion percent in November, rendering the Zimbabwean dollar ineffective for pricing goods; businesses and individuals shifted to foreign currencies like the U.S. dollar for quoting prices, transactions, and savings to restore functional stability.^[13] This example illustrates how a compromised unit of account forces broader adaptations in monetary practices, amplifying economic distortions.^[14] Contemporary examples from cryptocurrencies further highlight these distinctions and interdependencies. Bitcoin, despite serving as a medium of exchange in some transactions, struggles as a unit of account due to its extreme price volatility—often 10 times higher than major fiat exchange rates—which complicates stable pricing and value comparisons. In response, stablecoins such as Tether (USDT) or USD Coin (USDC) are engineered to maintain a peg to fiat currencies like the U.S. dollar, enhancing their suitability as units of account by minimizing volatility and supporting consistent valuation in digital ecosystems.^[15] However, even stablecoins' effectiveness depends on the underlying fiat's stability, underscoring the interconnected nature of money's functions.^[16]

Economic Theory

Role in Pricing and Measurement

The unit of account serves as a fundamental theoretical tool in economics by enabling relative pricing, which allows individuals and firms to compare the values of different goods and services in a common metric, thereby facilitating the calculation of opportunity costs. For instance, by expressing the price of one good in terms of another, it reveals the trade-offs inherent in resource allocation decisions, such as forgoing the consumption of good A to acquire good B.^[17] This relative pricing mechanism underpins absolute valuation in markets, where a stable unit permits the assignment of monetary values to transactions, essential for coordinating economic activity.^[18] Ultimately, these pricing functions form the basis for supply and demand equilibrium, as prices in a common unit signal scarcity and guide producers and consumers toward efficient outcomes where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded.^[19] In measurement applications, the unit of account enables the computation of key economic aggregates, such as the Consumer Price Index (CPI), which tracks changes in the cost of a fixed basket of goods and services over time. Stability in the unit ensures that variations in the CPI accurately reflect inflation rather than distortions from the measuring standard itself, allowing policymakers to monitor and respond to price level changes. The price level P is formally defined as P = \frac{\text{nominal value}}{\text{real quantity}}, providing a ratio that distinguishes monetary from physical dimensions in economic data.^[20] The unit of account integrates seamlessly into major economic models, enhancing their analytical power. In neoclassical economics, it supports utility maximization by pricing goods in a consistent unit, enabling consumers to optimize satisfaction subject to budget constraints expressed in monetary terms.^[21] Similarly, in Keynesian frameworks, the unit's nominal nature contributes to sticky prices through menu costs—the expenses firms incur when adjusting prices—leading to short-run rigidities that amplify the effects of monetary policy on output.^[22] One key benefit of the unit of account is its role in reducing transaction costs by standardizing value comparisons, which promotes market efficiency.^[23] This standardization minimizes the informational and computational burdens in exchanges, fostering smoother resource allocation across the economy.^[18]

Challenges and Limitations

One of the primary challenges to an effective unit of account is economic instability caused by inflation and deflation, which erode its stability as a measure of value. High inflation rates diminish money's usefulness as a unit of account by making prices unreliable for comparing goods over time, leading to distorted relative values.^[24] Similarly, deflation increases the currency's value but can discourage spending and investment, complicating pricing decisions as the real value of debts rises.^[25] A stark historical example is the Weimar Republic's hyperinflation in 1923, where the German mark's value plummeted so rapidly—reaching an exchange rate of 2.5 trillion marks to one U.S. dollar by November—that it became unreliable for everyday pricing, with prices doubling every few days and forcing transactions in foreign currencies or barter.^[26] In diverse economies, maintaining a single unit of account faces limitations due to heterogeneity, such as regional price disparities that create uneven cost-of-living measures across subnational areas.^[27] In international trade, exchange rate fluctuations exacerbate these issues by requiring conversions between units, which introduce volatility and distort the comparability of values across borders.^[28] Measurement problems further undermine the unit of account's precision, particularly in constructing price indices like the Consumer Price Index (CPI). The index number problem arises because common formulas, such as the Laspeyres index (using base-period quantities) and the Paasche index (using current-period quantities), often yield different inflation estimates due to their fixed weighting assumptions, leading to inconsistencies in tracking price changes.^[29] Additionally, these indices struggle to capture quality improvements in goods or the value of non-market activities, such as household labor or environmental services, resulting in incomplete representations of economic value.^[30]^[31] In the modern digital economy, traditional units of account fall short in pricing intangible assets like data and intellectual property, where valuation is complicated by their non-rivalrous nature and lack of standardized markets, often requiring subjective adjustments that reduce comparability.^[32]

Historical Development

Ancient and Pre-Modern Units

The earliest known units of account emerged in ancient Mesopotamia around 3000 BCE, where the shekel served as a standardized weight-based measure primarily for silver, equivalent to approximately 8.3 grams, used to value barley and other commodities in temple and palace accounting records.^[33] This system facilitated economic transactions by establishing a fixed ratio, such as one shekel of silver equating to 300 sila (liters) of barley, allowing for consistent pricing and debt notation without relying on physical exchange of goods.^[34] In parallel, ancient Egypt developed the deben as a unit of account by the Old Kingdom period (c. 2686–2181 BCE), defined as a weight of about 91 grams, initially for copper but adaptable to grain, metals, and labor valuations in administrative papyri and tomb inscriptions.^[35] The deben's abstract nature, untethered to a single commodity, enabled its use in redistributive economies for assessing taxes and rations, marking an early abstraction from direct barter. In classical antiquity, the Greek drachma evolved from a pre-coinage weight standard around the 6th century BCE into a silver coin of roughly 4.3 grams, functioning dually as a medium of exchange and unit of account in civic, temple, and mercantile ledgers across city-states like Athens.^[36] This standardization supported complex pricing for goods, wages (one drachma approximating a day's labor), and state finances, as evidenced in Delian League treasury accounts.^[37] Similarly, the Roman aureus, introduced under Augustus in 27 BCE as a gold coin weighing about 8 grams (struck at 40–45 to the Roman pound), became a benchmark unit of account for imperial budgets, military payments, and elite transactions, recorded in detailed fiscal tablets and inscriptions.^[38] Its stability reinforced Rome's economic integration, with values expressed in sesterces or denarii derived from the aureus standard in public and temple records.^[39] During the medieval period, the Byzantine solidus, first minted by Emperor Constantine I in 312 CE and maintained at 4.55 grams of gold until the 11th century, provided a stable unit of account across the empire and beyond, influencing trade ledgers from Constantinople to Italy.^[40] Known as the bezant in the West, it anchored pricing for spices, silks, and services in Byzantine administrative documents, ensuring reliability amid regional instabilities.^[41] In the Islamic world, the dinar, introduced by the Umayyad Caliphate in 696 CE as a gold coin of 4.25 grams modeled on the solidus, served as a consistent unit of account for commerce and taxation, detailed in Abbasid-era contracts and market regulations.^[42] This unit facilitated vast exchanges in dirhams (silver counterparts) across the caliphates, promoting economic uniformity from Spain to Persia. In Western Europe, tally sticks— notched wooden records of debts denominated in pounds (libra, originally a pound of silver weighing 360 grams)—emerged by the 12th century for Crown and mercantile accounting, splitting into creditor and debtor halves to verify obligations without coin circulation.^[43] The pound, shilling, and pence system derived from these weight units enabled abstract debt tracking in feudal ledgers, bridging oral traditions and written finance.^[44] The transition from commodity-based units, such as livestock valuations in Homeric Greece or early Mesopotamian herds, to abstract metallic standards was propelled by expanding trade networks along the Silk Road from the 2nd century BCE onward, necessitating portable and divisible measures for long-distance exchanges of silk, spices, and metals across diverse economies.^[45] This evolution, evident in Han Chinese silk-for-Roman glass deals recorded in abstract weights, reduced barter inefficiencies and fostered proto-monetary abstraction by the medieval era.^[46]

Modern Standardization

The adoption of the gold standard in the 19th century marked a pivotal shift toward standardized units of account, with Britain formally implementing it in 1821 after legislative approval in 1819, pegging the British pound to a fixed amount of gold at £3 17s. 10½d per ounce.^[47] This system provided a stable, measurable basis for valuing goods and services, facilitating international trade by minimizing exchange rate volatility and enabling consistent pricing across borders. By the late 19th century, major economies like the United States (1879) and Germany (1871) followed suit, creating a global network where currencies were interchangeable at predictable rates based on gold content, which supported expanded commerce during the industrial era.^[47] In the 20th century, the Bretton Woods system, established in 1944, further advanced standardization by anchoring international currencies to the U.S. dollar, which itself was convertible to gold at $35 per ounce, positioning the USD as the primary global unit of account for postwar reconstruction and trade.^[48] This framework promoted economic stability through fixed exchange rates managed by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), allowing countries to measure and settle balances in dollars with reduced uncertainty.^[49] However, mounting pressures from U.S. balance-of-payments deficits led to the Nixon Shock in 1971, when President Richard Nixon suspended the dollar's convertibility to gold, effectively dismantling Bretton Woods and ushering in an era of floating exchange rates backed by fiat currencies not tied to commodities.^[50] This transition emphasized government-issued money as the unit of account, reliant on trust in monetary policy rather than physical assets, though it introduced challenges like inflation variability.^[51] Contemporary developments have seen the emergence of supranational units to address limitations in national currencies. The euro was introduced on January 1, 1999, as the common currency for 11 European Union member states, serving as a unified unit of account for pricing, contracts, and trade within the bloc and beyond.^[52] Complementing this, the IMF created Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) in 1969 as an international reserve asset, valued as a basket of major currencies (including the USD, euro, yen, pound, and renminbi since 2016), to supplement official reserves and provide a stable supplementary unit for global liquidity without relying on any single national currency.^[53] By 2025, SDRs have been allocated in multiple rounds, totaling over SDR 660 billion, aiding balance-of-payments support during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.^[54] Recent trends up to 2025 reflect efforts to modernize units of account through digital innovation for greater efficiency and stability. Central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) have gained traction, with China's digital yuan (e-CNY) launching large-scale pilots in April 2020 across cities like Shenzhen and Suzhou, aiming to enhance monetary stability, reduce transaction costs, and improve cross-border payments while maintaining the renminbi's role as a unit of account.^[55] By mid-2024, e-CNY transactions exceeded 7 trillion yuan, demonstrating its viability as a digital fiat equivalent pegged 1:1 to the physical currency.^[56] Parallelly, private sector cryptocurrency experiments include stablecoins like USD Coin (USDC), launched in 2018 and pegged to the U.S. dollar with full reserves in cash and equivalents, functioning as a digital unit of account in decentralized finance for stable value measurement amid volatile crypto markets.^[57] As of November 2025, USDC's circulation exceeds $74 billion, underscoring its adoption for everyday transactions and as a bridge between traditional and blockchain-based economies, though regulatory scrutiny continues to shape its standardization.^[58]

Applications in Finance

Valuation of Assets and Liabilities

In finance, the unit of account serves as the standard monetary measure for valuing assets, enabling consistent assessment of their current market worth. For liquid assets such as stocks, marking to market involves adjusting their recorded value to the prevailing market price in the designated unit, typically a national currency like the US dollar (USD), to reflect real-time economic conditions and facilitate accurate portfolio reporting.^[59] This practice ensures that asset valuations align with observable market transactions, providing investors with a reliable basis for decision-making.^[60] Fair value accounting further refines asset valuation by defining it as the exit price—the amount received to sell an asset in an orderly transaction between market participants—expressed in the applicable unit of account. Under IFRS 13, the unit of account is specified by the relevant standard requiring the measurement, ensuring that valuations capture the asset's highest and best use without incorporating premiums or discounts inconsistent with that unit.^[61] For instance, investment properties are valued individually as a single unit (land and building) in the principal market's currency, promoting transparency in financial statements.^[62] Liabilities are similarly measured using the unit of account to quantify obligations reliably, with debt often denominated in stable currencies to mitigate exchange rate volatility. Bonds issued in euros, for example, allow issuers to match liabilities with revenue streams in that unit, reducing currency risk exposure. Present value calculations for liabilities, such as discounted future payments, are performed in the reporting entity's unit of account, incorporating market interest rates to estimate the settlement amount accurately.^[63] In portfolio management, the choice of unit of account influences overall net worth, particularly for multinational firms that adopt a functional currency under IAS 21 to reflect the primary economic environment of operations.^[64] Currency hedging strategies, such as forward contracts, are employed to maintain the integrity of the unit by offsetting exchange rate fluctuations, ensuring that asset and liability values remain comparable within the portfolio.^[65] Representative examples illustrate these applications: real estate assets are appraised in the local unit of account, such as USD for properties in the United States, based on comparable sales and income approaches to determine market value. For derivatives, the Black-Scholes model adapts option pricing to the base currency unit, calculating premiums for contracts like currency options where the payoff is denominated in that unit, thus aligning with the underlying asset's valuation framework.^[66]

Use in Financial Markets

In financial markets, units of account provide the standardized framework for quoting prices, enabling efficient bidding and asking in trades. In foreign exchange (forex) markets, currency pairs such as EUR/USD express relative values, where the base currency (EUR) is quoted against the quote currency (USD) to indicate how many units of the latter are needed to purchase one unit of the former, facilitating global price discovery and liquidity.^[67] Similarly, in equity markets, tick sizes represent the minimum price increments for bids and asks, typically set in the local unit of account like USD for U.S. stocks, ensuring orderly trading and preventing excessive volatility in price movements.^[68] Settlement processes in financial markets rely on units of account to clear and finalize transactions in a consistent base currency, reducing discrepancies. For U.S. securities, the Depository Trust & Clearing Corporation (DTCC) processes settlements collectively at the end of the day using USD as the primary unit, handling trillions in value annually to transfer securities and payments efficiently.^[69] In derivatives markets, notional amounts serve as the reference unit of account, denoting the total underlying value of the contract (e.g., a swap's principal in USD), which determines settlement obligations without requiring full upfront exchange of that amount.^[70] Units of account are integral to risk management in financial markets, where mismatches can amplify exposures. In cross-border trades, currency unit mismatches—such as revenues in one currency against liabilities in another—create foreign exchange (FX) risks, potentially leading to balance sheet imbalances and financial instability, as highlighted in analyses of emerging markets.^[71] To mitigate such risks, market participants use benchmarks like the S&P 500 index, denominated in USD, for performance measurement and hedging, providing a stable unit reference for portfolio evaluation across global assets.^[72] Global financial markets often operate in multi-unit environments, requiring conversions to maintain interoperability. Eurobond markets exemplify this, with bonds frequently issued in USD (eurodollar bonds) or EUR, allowing issuers from various countries to access international capital while denominating obligations in these major units of account.^[73] Conversions between such units, such as USD to EUR, are executed using prevailing spot exchange rates published by central banks, ensuring accurate valuation and settlement in cross-currency transactions.^[74] The U.S. dollar's dominance as a global unit of account in these settings underscores its role in facilitating offshore finance and reducing conversion frictions.^[75]

Applications in Accounting

Standards for Measurement

In accounting practices, the unit of account is governed by established standards that ensure reliable measurement and reporting of financial information. Under U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), as outlined in the Financial Accounting Standards Board's (FASB) Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) Topic 830, financial statements are measured in the entity's functional currency, typically using historical cost for assets and liabilities unless another basis is specified.^[76] This approach requires remeasurement of foreign currency transactions into the functional currency at historical exchange rates for nonmonetary items, preserving the original cost basis.^[77] Internationally, the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), particularly IAS 21 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates, mandates that monetary items in foreign currencies be translated using the closing rate at the end of the reporting period, while nonmonetary items carried at historical cost use the exchange rate at the transaction date.^[78] Monetary items, such as cash and receivables, are defined as units of currency held or assets/liabilities settled in a fixed number of currency units, making them sensitive to exchange rate fluctuations.^[78] In contrast, nonmonetary items like inventory are measured at cost without retranslation unless impaired or revalued. For property, plant, and equipment, IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment permits a revaluation model where assets are carried at fair value less subsequent depreciation, provided revaluations are performed regularly to reflect current values, offering an alternative to the historical cost model.^[79] Standards emphasize consistency in applying the unit of account to enhance comparability across financial statements. IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements requires entities to select and apply accounting policies consistently for similar transactions, ensuring uniform use of the functional currency throughout the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flows.^[80] In hyperinflationary economies, where cumulative inflation approximates 100% over three years, IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies mandates restatement of financial statements using a general price index to express amounts in stable units of the functional currency at the reporting date, adjusting nonmonetary items for changes in purchasing power while leaving monetary items unadjusted.^[81] On November 13, 2025, the International Accounting Standards Board issued amendments to IAS 21 addressing translation of financial statements into hyperinflationary presentation currencies and handling cases of lack of exchangeability, effective for annual periods beginning on or after January 1, 2027.^[82] Similarly, FASB Concepts Statement No. 5 underscores consistency in accounting methods to support reliable financial reporting.^[83] Auditing standards require verification of the unit of account's integrity to detect potential manipulation or errors in measurement. Under the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) Auditing Standard (AS) 1105, auditors must obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence on assertions related to the existence, completeness, and accuracy of monetary and nonmonetary balances, including testing exchange rate applications and functional currency determinations.^[84] AS 2401 further directs auditors to assess risks of material misstatement due to fraud, such as intentional misapplication of translation rates or revaluation models, through substantive procedures like vouching transactions to supporting documentation. These requirements ensure that the unit of account is applied faithfully, contributing to the credibility of financial audits.

Impact on Financial Reporting

The choice of unit of account and its stability significantly affect the preparation of financial statements, particularly through fluctuations in foreign currency units that generate translation adjustments recorded in other comprehensive income (OCI) under International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).^[64] For multinational entities, IAS 21 requires translating foreign operations' financial statements into the reporting currency, with exchange differences arising from non-monetary items at historical rates and monetary items at closing rates, resulting in cumulative translation adjustments that accumulate in OCI rather than net income to avoid distorting operational performance.^[78] These adjustments represent unrealized gains or losses from currency volatility, which can materially alter equity balances without impacting reported earnings.^[85] Currency fluctuations also introduce earnings volatility in financial reporting by affecting the remeasurement of foreign currency transactions and hedges, where gains or losses from unsettled items flow through the income statement.^[86] For instance, under U.S. GAAP (ASC 830), transaction gains and losses from changes in exchange rates between the transaction date and settlement are recognized in net income, potentially amplifying period-to-period variability for companies with significant international exposure.^[87] This volatility arises because structural currency risks influence revenues and costs denominated in foreign units, leading to unpredictable financial results that complicate trend analysis.^[88] Interpretive challenges emerge when comparing financial statements across firms due to differing units of account, especially in multinational contexts where local currencies versus a common reporting currency like USD distort cross-border analysis.^[89] Exchange rate variations can inflate or deflate reported figures, making direct comparisons unreliable; for example, a company reporting in a strengthening local currency may appear more leveraged than a peer using USD, skewing debt-to-equity ratios and other key metrics.^[90] Such distortions hinder investors' ability to assess true economic performance, as fluctuating units obscure underlying operational efficiencies or risks. Financial reporting standards mandate disclosures on unit of account risks to enhance transparency, including notes on foreign currency exposures and hedging strategies under FASB ASC 830, which requires revealing aggregate transaction gains or losses in net income and the rationale for functional currency selection.^[76] These disclosures help mitigate interpretive issues by providing context on how currency volatility could undervalue assets in deflating units, influencing investor decisions on valuation and risk assessment.^[91] For hedges, ASC 830 specifies reporting the effects of designated instruments on OCI or earnings, enabling stakeholders to evaluate the stability of reported figures.^[92] Overall, these requirements support informed investment choices by highlighting potential distortions from unstable units.^[93] Post-2008 financial crisis reforms addressed issues in measurement by refining fair value accounting rules to emphasize reliability in volatile markets, with updates to IFRS 13 and ASC 820 clarifying measurement hierarchies to reduce procyclical effects on reported asset values. These changes, informed by crisis analyses, aimed to balance relevance with reliability in financial reporting amid economic instability.^[94]

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[PDF] Chapter 3 - Money, Coins
In Mesopotamia, a unit of reference was the shekel, about 8.3 grams of silver, but other units could be used. According to Powell (1996, p. 229), “ The temples ...
[36]
The Structure of Prices in the Neo-Sumerian Economy (I): Barley ...
The shekel of silver was the basis of valuing all commodities in the Ur III accounts with the prescribed norm of 1 shekel = 300 sila3 (“liters”) of barley as ...
[37]
[PDF] The Social Origins of Money: The Case of Egypt - Sacramento State
In Egypt, this unit of account was the deben, and it is important to note that the deben was an arbitrary standard that rested on a particular weight. And ...
[38]
[PDF] The birth of coinage - Columbia Academic Commons
The introduction of coinage marks an important innovation in the history of money and a transition in the development of civilization itself.
[39]
[PDF] A Papyrological Search for Luke Fifteen's Lost Economics
In the first century, the Greek drachma was roughly equivalent to the. Roman denarius, which in turn was traded in Roman-Egyptian transactions for the ...
[40]
[PDF] Money and Coins
Sep 10, 2024 · 1 aureus (40-45 to the Roman pound of 327 gr), about 8gr: $ 640. • 1 denarius (silver) : weight? – 1 denarius ˜ 1 drachma (Greece), one day work ...Missing: ancient | Show results with:ancient
[41]
[PDF] Gold, Silver, and Grain - BYU ScholarsArchive
the Aegean) was a weight of about 4.3 grams, but it was also a denomina- tion—the price of a clay jar might be expressed as two gold drachms or equivalently (at ...
[42]
(PDF) BYZANTINE COINAGE - Academia.edu
solidus The standard Byzantine gold coin, introduced by Constantine I the Great and struck 72 to the Roman pound, thus weighing 24 carats (q.v.), or 4.55 g ...
[43]
[PDF] The Economics of International Monies
Our historical survey begins with a discussion of the Byzantine gold solidus or bezant introduced by the Emperor Constantine in the fourth century and used ...
[44]
[PDF] Money and Coinage in the Middle Ages - OAPEN Home
Gold solidus of King Theodebert (534– 548). 74. 4.6 Gold tremissis of King ... unit of account, no longer represented by a physical coin. In the systems ...
[45]
[PDF] Working Paper No. 1076 - Levy Economics Institute of Bard College
This was a “stick of squared hazel-wood, notched in a certain manner to indicate the amount of the purchase or debt,” created when the buyer became a debtor by ...
[46]
Money, Currency, and Heterodox Macroeconomics for Archaeology
For many centuries, large transactions employed tally sticks to record debts denominated in pounds sterling. A notched hazelwood stick measured the amount of ...
[47]
[PDF] Turning the Economic Tables in the Medieval Mediterranean: The ...
New and old evidence uncovers the transformation of the commercial economy of the Byzantine Empire in its relations with the Middle East, western Europe, and ...
[48]
[PDF] The Silk Road - EdSpace
Jan 15, 2003 · Three kings of Assyria and King Solomon of ancient Israel placed orders with the traders of Saba, and none were disap- pointed. Delivery by ...
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Gold Standard - Econlib
England adopted a de facto gold standard in 1717 after the master of the mint, Sir Isaac Newton, overvalued the guinea in terms of silver, and formally adopted ...
[50]
Creation of the Bretton Woods System | Federal Reserve History
Countries settled international balances in dollars, and US dollars were convertible to gold at a fixed exchange rate of $35 an ounce. The United States had the ...
[51]
Bretton Woods-GATT, 1941–1947 - Office of the Historian
The IMF was charged with overseeing a system of fixed exchange rates centered on the U.S. dollar and gold, serving as a forum for consultation and cooperation ...
[52]
Nixon and the End of the Bretton Woods System, 1971–1973
... Nixon directed the suspension of the dollar's convertibility into gold. He also ordered that an extra 10 percent tariff be levied on all dutiable imports ...
[53]
Nixon Ends Convertibility of U.S. Dollars to Gold and Announces ...
President Richard Nixon's actions in 1971 to end dollar convertibility to gold and implement wage/price controls were intended to address the international ...Missing: floating | Show results with:floating
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The euro - four weeks after the start - European Central Bank
Jan 28, 1999 · The birth of the euro on 1 January 1999 was an event of historic proportions. After months and years of practical preparations and testing, ...
[55]
Special Drawing Rights - International Monetary Fund
The SDR is an international reserve asset, created by the IMF in 1969 to supplement its member countries' official reserves. To date, a total of SDR 660.7 ...
[56]
What is the SDR? - International Monetary Fund
The IMF created the SDR as a supplementary international reserve asset in 1969, when currencies were tied to the price of gold and the US dollar was the ...
[57]
China's Central Bank Digital Currency: Impact and Policy Implications
China is leading the way among major economies in trialling central bank digital currency (CBDC). Since April 2020, it has launched large-scale pilots of ...
[58]
Central Bank Digital Currency Tracker - Atlantic Council
Digital yuan (e-CNY) is still the largest CBDC pilot in the world. In June 2024, total transaction volume reached 7 trillion e-CNY ($986 billion) in 17 ...
[59]
What is a Stablecoin? A complete guide for beginners - USDC
There are many different types of stablecoins. USDC, for example, is a stablecoin tied to the US dollar. It's fully backed by cash and cash-equivalent assets ...
[60]
Mark to Market - Overview, Importance, Practical Example
Mark to market refers to a method under which the fair values of accounts that are subject to periodic fluctuations can be measured, ie, assets and liabilities.
[61]
Making Sense of Mark to Market - Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
MVA, also known as fair value accounting or marking to market, requires that an asset or liability be valued according to its market price.
[62]
IFRS 13 Fair Value Measurement - IFRS Foundation
IFRS 13 defines fair value, sets out a framework for measuring fair value, and requires disclosures about fair value measurements.
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3.6.2. Principal market and unit of account for investment property
IFRS 13 allows fair value to be determined in combination with other assets, where this would result in the highest and best use of the asset.
[64]
International finance through the lens of BIS statistics: the global ...
Jun 10, 2024 · BIS statistics have a currency dimension, enabling users to track how key currencies are used in international banking and bond markets, and in ...
[65]
https://www.ifrs.org/content/dam/ifrs/publications/pdf-standards/english/2022/issued/part-a/ias-21-the-effects-of-changes-in-foreign-exchange-rates.pdf
[66]
IAS 21 — The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates
IAS 21 outlines how to account for foreign currency transactions, translate financial statements, and uses functional currency, which is the currency of the ...
[67]
https://www.cmegroup.com/education/courses/introduction-to-fx/understanding-fx-quote-conventions.html
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[PDF] The Black-Scholes Model
The price of a European put-option can also now be easily computed from put-call parity and (9). The most interesting feature of the Black-Scholes PDE (8) is ...
[69]
Understanding FX Quote Conventions - CME Group
FX quotes use a base currency (first, like EUR) and a quote currency (second, like USD). European terms place USD first, American terms place USD second.
[70]
Tick Movements: Understanding How They Work - CME Group
Tick sizes are defined by the exchange and vary depending on the size of the financial instrument and requirements of the marketplace. Tick sizes are set to ...
[71]
Understanding the DTCC Subsidiaries Settlement Process
Settlement is the exchange of payment and transfer of securities. DTC and NSCC transactions are settled collectively at the end of the day.
[72]
Understanding Notional Value and How It Works - Investopedia
May 7, 2025 · Notional value is a term often used by derivatives traders to refer to the total value of the underlying asset in a contract.What Is Notional Value? · How It Works · Swap, Options, and Forex · Example
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[PDF] Looking at aggregate currency mismatches and beyond
Foreign currency mismatches have been traditionally seen as a key source of weakness for emerging market economies (EMEs), often triggering or aggravating ...
[74]
S&P 500® | S&P Dow Jones Indices - S&P Global
... index benchmarks worldwide. SPIVA Data. About SPIVA. SPIVA Library ... S&P 500®. 6,720.32 USD -1.12% 1 Day. Overview. Data. Index-Linked Products. News ...
[75]
Eurobond | Fixed Income Securities | Investment Products - HSBC
Eurobonds are typically denominated in US Dollars (USD). Euro, Pound, Japanese Yen, Swiss Francs and other currency denominated Eurobonds are also available.
[76]
US dollar (USD) - European Central Bank
US dollar (USD). ECB euro reference exchange rate. 7 November 2025. EUR 1 = USD 1.1561 0.0028 ...
[77]
Summary of Statement No. 52 - FASB
Identifying the functional currency of the entity's economic environment · Measuring all elements of the financial statements in the functional currency · Using ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical
[78]
[PDF] Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 52
Inventories carried at cost in the books of record in another currency should be first remeasured to cost in the functional currency using historical exchange.
[79]
[PDF] IAS 21 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates
IAS 21 prescribes how to include foreign currency transactions and operations in financial statements and how to translate them into a presentation currency.Missing: portfolio | Show results with:portfolio
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[PDF] IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment | IFRS Foundation
An entity shall choose either the cost model in paragraph 30 or the revaluation model in paragraph 31 as its accounting policy and shall apply that policy to an ...
[81]
[PDF] IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements | IFRS Foundation
In February 2021 the Board issued Disclosure of Accounting Policies which amended IAS 1 and IFRS Practice Statement 2 Making Materiality Judgements.
[82]
[PDF] IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies
In April 2001 the International Accounting Standards Board adopted IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies, which had originally been issued ...
[83]
[PDF] Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 5 - FASB
Historical cost (historical proceeds). Property, plant, and equipment and most inventories are reported at their historical cost, which is the amount of ...
[84]
AS 1105: Audit Evidence - PCAOB
This standard explains what constitutes audit evidence and establishes requirements regarding designing and performing audit procedures to obtain sufficient ...Missing: unit | Show results with:unit
[85]
5.2 Translation Process | DART – Deloitte Accounting Research Tool
The translation adjustments are recorded as a currency translation adjustment, a separate component of OCI. ... reporting currency would be deferred through OCI ...
[86]
Managing Currency Fluctuations in Financial Reporting - KNAV CPA
Mar 3, 2025 · Currency fluctuations affect financial reporting in several key ways, particularly for companies with subsidiaries or significant business ...
[87]
Accounting for foreign currency - GAAP Dynamics
ASC 830, Foreign Currency Matters summarizes the accounting guidance for transactions denominated in a foreign currency as well as financial reporting ...
[88]
[PDF] Getting a better handle on currency risk - McKinsey
The most important impact of currency changes, which comes from structural risk, finds its way into the income statement through movements in revenues and costs ...
[89]
International Financial Reporting and Disclosure Issues - SEC.gov
... financial statements of multinational registrants that report in different currencies generally are not comparable. Recasting financial statements into ...
[90]
Overcoming the Challenges of Global Financial Reporting
Apr 22, 2024 · When a multinational company conducts transactions in different currencies, exchange rate fluctuations can distort the analysis of its financial ...
[91]
21.5 Other disclosures - PwC Viewpoint
May 31, 2022 · ASC 830 does not require disclosure of the factors considered in determining functional currency. Nevertheless, in some instances, disclosure of ...
[92]
[PDF] Foreign currency - Handbook - KPMG International
This Handbook takes an in-depth look at the application of ASC Topic 830, Foreign. Currency Matters. It provides our current interpretations, which are based ...
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The real effects of financial reporting: Evidence and suggestions for ...
This article systematically reviews 94 accounting and finance studies that address the real effects of financial reporting.
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[PDF] Enron and the Use and Abuse of Special Purpose Entities in ...
This essay examines what, if anything, differentiates Enron's questionable use of off-balance-sheet special purpose entities, or SPEs, from the trillions of ...
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The Rise and Fall of Enron - Journal of Accountancy
Mar 31, 2002 · ... Enron's lack of full disclosure of its off-balance-sheet debt, downgrading Enron's rating to junk status. On November 30 the stock closed at ...Missing: unit | Show results with:unit
[96]
How the 2008–2009 Financial Crisis Shaped Fair Value Accounting ...
Jan 20, 2022 · The 2008-2009 financial crisis caused a heavy increase in fair value accounting literature, shifting focus to measurement, earnings management, ...