Space Shuttle Atlantis
Space Shuttle Atlantis was an American space shuttle orbiter vehicle owned and operated by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), serving as the fourth operational orbiter in the Space Shuttle fleet after Columbia, Challenger, and Discovery.[1] Named after the two-masted sailing research vessel RV Atlantis operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution from 1930 to 1966, the orbiter was constructed by Rockwell International under a contract signed on January 29, 1979,[1] with assembly beginning in 1980 and completing in April 1984.[2] Rolled out from the Palmdale, California facility on March 6, 1985, and ferried to NASA's Kennedy Space Center on April 12, 1985, Atlantis measured 122 feet (37.2 meters) in length, with an empty weight of approximately 151,314 pounds (68,635 kilograms), and was designed for reusable orbital flights carrying crews of up to seven astronauts, payloads, and scientific experiments.[3] Over its 26-year career, it completed 33 missions, logging 4,848 orbits and traveling more than 126 million miles (203 million kilometers) in space.[3] Atlantis launched on its maiden voyage, STS-51-J, on October 3, 1985, a classified Department of Defense mission that marked the fourth overall shuttle flight and the first to deploy a military satellite from the payload bay.[2] Among its most notable achievements, the orbiter deployed the Magellan spacecraft to Venus during STS-30 in May 1989, enabling the first planetary radar mapping of another world, and launched the Galileo probe to Jupiter on STS-34 in October 1989, which conducted extensive studies of the gas giant and its moons. It played a pivotal role in international cooperation by docking with the Russian space station Mir for the first time on STS-71 in June 1995, marking the 100th U.S. human spaceflight and facilitating crew exchanges and joint research.[4] Atlantis also contributed significantly to the construction of the International Space Station (ISS), delivering key modules such as the U.S. Destiny Laboratory on STS-98 in February 2001 and performing multiple assembly and resupply missions, including STS-129 in November 2009, which installed a spare gyroscope and conducted three spacewalks.[5] Additionally, on STS-125 in May 2009, it executed the final servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope, extending the observatory's lifespan through five spacewalks and critical upgrades.[6] The orbiter's final mission, STS-135, launched on July 8, 2011, from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Pad 39A, delivering supplies to the ISS and symbolizing the culmination of NASA's 30-year Space Shuttle Program, which encompassed 135 total missions across the fleet.[7] Atlantis landed at Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011, after a 12-day flight, concluding the program's operations amid transitions to new exploration initiatives like the Commercial Crew Program and Orion spacecraft.[8] Following retirement, Atlantis was processed for public display and installed at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Florida, where it remains a centerpiece exhibit highlighting human spaceflight achievements.[9]Development and Construction
Naming and Assembly
The Space Shuttle Atlantis was named after the RV Atlantis, a two-masted sailing ship operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution as its primary research vessel from 1930 to 1966.[2] This naming followed NASA's tradition of honoring historic seafaring vessels for its orbiters, emphasizing exploration themes.[2] The selection highlighted the ship's role in oceanographic research, paralleling the shuttle's mission in space exploration.[2] Construction of Atlantis, designated Orbiter Vehicle-104 (OV-104), began on March 30, 1980, at Rockwell International's Space Transportation Systems Division facility in Palmdale, California.[10] As the fourth operational orbiter in the Space Shuttle program, it was manufactured to the same basic design as its predecessors but incorporated refinements from prior builds, such as improved manufacturing processes learned from Columbia and Challenger.[10] Assembly progressed through structural integration of the crew module, fuselage, wings, and thermal protection systems, culminating in completion by April 1984.[1] Unlike earlier orbiters, Atlantis included specialized hardware for the Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable Space Structures (ACCESS), a truss framework intended to demonstrate space station assembly techniques.[1] This addition supported NASA's early plans for modular space infrastructure.[1] The orbiter rolled out of the Palmdale facility on March 6, 1985, for final processing and was ferried to NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida, arriving on April 13, 1985, aboard a modified Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft.[2] At Kennedy, it underwent outfitting, testing, and integration with shuttle systems in preparation for operational flights.[2]Key Milestones
The development of Space Shuttle Atlantis (OV-104) marked a significant phase in NASA's Space Shuttle program, as it was the fourth operational orbiter constructed following lessons learned from predecessors like Columbia and Challenger. Construction leveraged improved manufacturing techniques and spare components, reducing build time compared to earlier vehicles. Atlantis incorporated design refinements for enhanced reusability and payload capacity, reflecting evolving program requirements in the early 1980s.[10] Key milestones in Atlantis's construction began with the announcement of its name on January 25, 1979, selected to honor the research vessel of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, symbolizing exploration across air and sea domains. Just four days later, on January 29, 1979, NASA awarded the primary contract to Rockwell International's Space Transportation Systems Division in Palmdale, California, for the orbiter's fabrication at a cost integrated into the broader $1.9 billion shuttle production agreement.[1][10][11] Structural assembly commenced on March 30, 1980, with the crew module fuselage, utilizing aluminum-lithium alloys for weight savings and incorporating avionics bays tested on prior orbiters. By November 23, 1981, work shifted to the aft fuselage, which housed main engines and orbital maneuvering systems, benefiting from streamlined welding processes that accelerated integration. Wing assembly started on December 8, 1983, using graphite-epoxy composites for improved thermal protection, and the wings were mated to the fuselage on January 12, 1984.[12][10][13] Fuselage on-orbit closeout, sealing the payload bay for vacuum operations, was completed on April 10, 1984, followed by installation of the tail cone on October 10, 1984, to streamline aerodynamics during reentry. The nose cone and forward fuselage were attached on February 2, 1985, finalizing the basic airframe structure. Atlantis rolled out of the Palmdale facility on March 6, 1985, after approximately five years of assembly—shorter than Columbia's due to matured production lines and reuse of components like Discovery spares. It was ferried atop a Boeing 747 to Kennedy Space Center on April 13, 1985, where final outfitting, including thermal tiles and main engines, prepared it for operational testing.[12][10][14]| Milestone | Date | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Name Announcement | January 25, 1979 | NASA selects "Atlantis" for OV-104, evoking oceanographic exploration heritage.[1] |
| Contract Award | January 29, 1979 | Rockwell International contracted for construction under STS program.[10] |
| Crew Module Assembly Start | March 30, 1980 | Initial structural work on forward sections begins in Palmdale.[12] |
| Aft Fuselage Assembly Start | November 23, 1981 | Rear structure integration for propulsion systems.[13] |
| Wing Assembly Start | December 8, 1983 | Composite wing fabrication using advanced materials.[13] |
| Wings Mated to Fuselage | January 12, 1984 | Major airframe integration milestone.[13] |
| Fuselage On-Orbit Closeout | April 10, 1984 | Payload bay sealed for space operations.[13] |
| Tail Cone Installation | October 10, 1984 | Aerodynamic fairing added.[13] |
| Nose Cone Installation | February 2, 1985 | Forward fuselage completed.[13] |
| Rollout from Palmdale | March 6, 1985 | Orbiter emerges from assembly hangar.[10] |
| Delivery to KSC | April 13, 1985 | Transported for final processing and launch preparation.[14] |
Design and Specifications
Physical Characteristics
The Space Shuttle Atlantis (OV-104) is a reusable orbiter vehicle measuring 37.2 meters (122 feet) in length, with a wingspan of 23.8 meters (78 feet) and a height of 17.3 meters (57 feet) on its landing gear.[10] These dimensions accommodate the vehicle's delta-wing configuration, designed for hypersonic reentry and horizontal runway landings, while maintaining aerodynamic stability during orbital maneuvers.[15] At rollout, Atlantis had an empty weight of 68,635 kilograms (151,314 pounds); this increased to approximately 77,600 kilograms (171,000 pounds) upon installation of its three Rocketdyne Block II RS-25 main engines.[3] The orbiter's gross liftoff weight, including payload and onboard propellants for the Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) and Reaction Control System (RCS), typically ranged from 109,000 to 118,000 kilograms (240,000 to 260,000 pounds), depending on mission configuration.[16] This mass distribution supports a center of gravity optimized for launch, orbit insertion, and controlled glide during descent. The structural framework of Atlantis consists primarily of aluminum alloy, offering high strength-to-weight ratios essential for enduring launch vibrations, thermal stresses, and aerodynamic loads up to 3g during reentry.[17] Integrated into this airframe is a comprehensive Thermal Protection System (TPS) comprising over 20,000 silica-fiber tiles (High-Temperature Reusable Surface Insulation, or HRSI, for areas up to 1,260°C) and Low-Temperature Reusable Surface Insulation (LRSI, up to 650°C), reinforced carbon-carbon composites on the nose and wing leading edges (withstanding over 1,650°C), and felt blankets for intermediate zones.[18][19] The forward fuselage houses the pressurized crew module, seating up to seven astronauts (expandable to eight) across a flight deck for piloting and a middeck for habitation and experiments, with a total habitable volume of about 72 cubic meters.[10] Atlantis's payload bay spans 18.3 meters (60 feet) in length and 4.6 meters (15 feet) in diameter, enabling the transport of satellites up to 29,500 kilograms to low Earth orbit, as well as space station modules and servicing equipment via the integrated Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm).[15] Aft-mounted OMS pods, each containing 11,000 kilograms of hypergolic propellant, provide orbital adjustments and deorbit burns, while the vehicle's overall design emphasizes reusability, with the airframe certified for up to 100 missions.[15]Performance and Capabilities
The Space Shuttle Atlantis shared the core performance characteristics of NASA's orbiter fleet, achieving orbital velocities of approximately 17,500 mph (28,160 km/h) during missions. Its propulsion system consisted of three Rocketdyne Block II Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs), each delivering a sea-level thrust of 1.752 MN at 104% power level, for a combined thrust of 5.255 MN from the SSMEs alone; the full stack, including two Solid Rocket Boosters each providing 12.5 MN, generated a total liftoff thrust of 30.2 MN. Atlantis was capable of reaching altitudes ranging from 185 km to 643 km in low Earth orbit, with a maximum payload capacity of 29,500 kg to a 185 km orbit at 28.5° inclination, though actual missions to the International Space Station at 51.6° inclination were limited to about 16,000 kg due to the higher energy requirements.[10] The orbiter's payload bay, measuring 18.3 m in length by 4.6 m in diameter, accommodated large satellites, science experiments, and space station components, enabling versatile mission profiles including satellite deployment, retrieval, and in-orbit servicing. Atlantis supported a crew of up to eight astronauts and could remain in orbit for durations of up to 17 days, powered by orbital maneuvering system (OMS) engines with a total thrust of 2 × 26.7 kN for fine adjustments and deorbit burns. During reentry, it decelerated from orbital speed to a landing velocity of about 215 mph (346 km/h) over roughly 30 minutes, landing on runways up to 15,000 ft long with a crosswind tolerance of 15 knots.[15][20][21] Designed for partial reusability, Atlantis underwent refurbishment between flights, with the orbiter vehicle rated for up to 100 missions; in practice, it completed 33 flights from 1985 to 2011, accumulating 4,848 orbits and traveling a total distance of 126 million miles (203 million km). Its lighter empty mass of approximately 68,635 kg (compared to Columbia's) improved fuel efficiency and payload margins slightly, contributing to its selection for high-profile missions like Hubble Space Telescope servicing and International Space Station assembly.[3][10]Operational History
Mission Overview
Space Shuttle Atlantis completed 33 missions over its 26-year operational career, from its maiden flight on October 3, 1985, aboard STS-51-J, to its final flight on July 8, 2011, as STS-135, marking the last mission of the Space Shuttle program.[2][8] In total, Atlantis spent 307 days in space, completed 4,848 orbits around Earth, and traveled 125,935,769 miles, carrying 207 astronauts and supporting a wide array of scientific, technological, and international objectives.[22] Atlantis' early missions focused on military and scientific payloads, including its debut STS-51-J, a classified Department of Defense flight that deployed two DSCS-III military communications satellites into geosynchronous orbit.[23] Subsequent flights, such as STS-30 in May 1989, deployed the Magellan spacecraft to map Venus' surface, providing the first global view of the planet's geology. Other notable deployments included the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory on STS-37 in 1991, which advanced high-energy astrophysics by detecting gamma rays from cosmic sources. These missions demonstrated Atlantis' versatility in handling diverse payloads, from classified satellites to major observatories. Atlantis played a pivotal role in international space cooperation, particularly with the Russian space program. It conducted the first U.S. shuttle docking with the Mir space station during STS-71 in June 1995, enabling crew exchanges and joint research that paved the way for future collaborations.[4] Atlantis flew seven Mir docking missions in total, including STS-74 in November 1995, which delivered the Docking Module to facilitate shuttle-Mir alignments.[24] Transitioning to the International Space Station (ISS), Atlantis supported assembly and logistics, such as STS-115 in September 2006, which installed the P3/P4 truss segment and solar arrays to expand the station's power capabilities. Missions like STS-122 in February 2008 delivered the Columbus European laboratory module, enhancing the ISS's research infrastructure.[25] Later in its career, Atlantis performed critical astronomical servicing tasks, including the final Hubble Space Telescope mission, STS-125 in May 2009, where astronauts conducted five spacewalks to install new instruments like the Wide Field Camera 3 and repair the Advanced Camera for Surveys, extending the telescope's operational life.[6] Its concluding mission, STS-135, delivered the Raffaello multi-purpose logistics module filled with supplies and spare parts to the ISS, ensuring the station's continuity after the shuttle program's end.[8] Through these efforts, Atlantis advanced human spaceflight, scientific discovery, and global partnerships.Notable Missions
Space Shuttle Atlantis conducted 33 missions over its 26-year operational lifespan from 1985 to 2011, supporting diverse objectives such as satellite deployments, international space station collaborations, and astronomical observatory maintenance.[1] These flights contributed significantly to scientific research, military communications, and the assembly of orbital infrastructure, with Atlantis logging 125,935,769 miles in space.[1] Atlantis' inaugural mission, STS-51-J, launched on October 3, 1985, from Kennedy Space Center and marked the orbiter's debut as the fifth operational shuttle in NASA's fleet. This classified Department of Defense flight deployed two Defense Communications Satellite Program (DSCS-III) satellites into geosynchronous orbit, achieving a high-inclination trajectory of 57.5 degrees and demonstrating the shuttle's versatility for national security payloads. The crew of five completed 64 orbits in 4 days, 1 hour, and 45 minutes before landing at Edwards Air Force Base.[23] In April 1991, STS-37 saw Atlantis deploy the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO), NASA's second Great Observatory and the heaviest astrophysics payload launched by the shuttle at approximately 17 tons. The mission, lasting 5 days, 23 hours, 32 minutes, involved a spacewalk to manually release the CGRO after an initial deployment issue and conducted experiments on high-energy cosmic phenomena, providing data that advanced understanding of gamma-ray bursts and black holes until the observatory's deorbit in 2000.[26] A pivotal achievement came with STS-71 on June 27, 1995, when Atlantis became the first U.S. space shuttle to dock with Russia's Mir space station, fostering U.S.-Russian cooperation amid post-Cold War space diplomacy. The 10-day mission exchanged astronaut Norman Thagard—for his record 115 days on Mir—with John Blaha, transferred over 2,000 pounds of supplies, and conducted joint biomedical and materials science experiments; it also marked the 100th U.S. human spaceflight and created the largest spacecraft assembly in orbit at the time, weighing over 223 tons.[4] Atlantis advanced International Space Station (ISS) construction through several assembly flights, including STS-98 in February 2001, which delivered the 28,000-pound Destiny laboratory module—the Station's primary U.S. research facility equipped for microgravity experiments in biology, physics, and human health. The 13-day mission involved three spacewalks to connect power, data, and cooling systems, enabling Destiny to become operational and support ongoing ISS habitation and research.[5] Later, STS-115 in September 2006 resumed ISS assembly post-Columbia disaster by installing the 17.6-ton P3/P4 integrated truss segment with solar arrays, restoring full power generation capacity after a two-year hiatus in construction flights.[27] The orbiter's contributions to astronomy peaked during STS-125, launched May 11, 2009, as the final servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope. Atlantis' crew executed five spacewalks over 13 days—extended from 11 due to a guidance sensor failure—to replace the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 with the Wide Field Camera 3, repair the Advanced Camera for Surveys, install the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph, and upgrade batteries and insulation, thereby extending Hubble's lifespan by at least five years and enhancing its capabilities for deep-space imaging and spectroscopy.[6] Atlantis concluded the Space Shuttle Program with STS-135 on July 8, 2011, its 33rd and final flight, delivering the Raffaello Multi-Purpose Logistics Module filled with over 7,000 pounds of supplies, spare parts, and experiments to the ISS. The 13-day mission included one spacewalk for maintenance and payload installations, symbolizing the transition to future U.S. crewed spaceflight systems; Atlantis landed at Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011, after 4,848 orbits and 125,935,769 miles traveled.[8]Flight Crews and Manifest
Space Shuttle Atlantis missions featured crews ranging from five to seven members, structured around a commander—an experienced astronaut overseeing operations—a pilot handling vehicle control, and mission specialists managing payloads, experiments, and extravehicular activities. Occasionally, payload specialists with specific expertise joined the team, particularly in early classified or commercial satellite deployments. Across its 33 flights from 1985 to 2011, Atlantis carried 207 individuals, reflecting increasing international collaboration, especially during Shuttle-Mir dockings and International Space Station (ISS) assembly phases.[28] The inaugural mission, STS-51-J in October 1985, marked Atlantis's debut with a five-person crew dedicated to deploying a Department of Defense communications satellite. Commander Karol J. Bobko, a veteran of two prior shuttle flights, led the team, supported by Pilot Ronald J. Grabe and Mission Specialists Robert L. Stewart, David C. Hilmers, and Payload Specialist William A. Pailes, who monitored the payload. This all-military crew emphasized classified objectives, setting a precedent for Atlantis's role in national security missions.[23][2] As Atlantis transitioned to cooperative ventures, crews incorporated international partners. During STS-71 in June 1995, the first U.S.-Russian docking with Mir, a seven-member team included two cosmonauts for joint operations. Commander Robert L. "Hoot" Gibson piloted the rendezvous, with Pilot Charles J. Precourt, Mission Specialists Ellen S. Baker, M.D., Bonnie J. Dunbar, Ph.D., and Gregory J. Harbaugh, alongside Cosmonauts Anatoly Y. Solovyev (Mir commander) and Nikolai M. Budarin. This mission exchanged crew members and transferred nearly a ton of supplies, highlighting the shuttle's diplomatic role in space exploration.[29][30] Later ISS construction flights showcased diverse expertise, including engineers for hardware installation and scientists for research. On STS-125 in May 2009, Atlantis's crew of seven performed the final Hubble Space Telescope servicing, conducting five spacewalks to install new instruments and repair components. Commander Scott Altman, Pilot Gregory C. Johnson, and Mission Specialists Michael J. Good, K. Megan McArthur, John M. Grunsfeld, Andrew J. Feustel, and Michael J. Massimino—all with prior spaceflight or robotics experience—extended Hubble's operational life by years.[31][32] International participation grew in ISS resupply missions, such as STS-122 in February 2008, where Atlantis delivered the Columbus laboratory module for the European Space Agency (ESA). The seven-person crew comprised Commander Steven G. Frick, Pilot Alan G. Poindexter, and Mission Specialists Rex J. Walheim, Stanley G. Love, Leland D. Melvin, plus ESA astronauts Leopold Eyharts and Hans Schlegel, who oversaw module activation and experiments. Eyharts remained aboard the ISS as a flight engineer, underscoring multinational crew rotations.[33][25] Atlantis's final flight, STS-135 in July 2011, featured the program's smallest crew of four to deliver supplies via the Raffaello multipurpose logistics module. Commander Christopher J. Ferguson, Pilot Douglas G. Hurley, and Mission Specialists Sandra H. Magnus and Rex J. Walheim completed ISS outfitting tasks. This veteran team, all on multiple prior missions, symbolized the shuttle era's closure while advancing cosmic ray research.[8][7]| Mission | Date | Crew Roles and Key Members | Objectives |
|---|---|---|---|
| STS-51-J | Oct 1985 | Commander: Karol J. Bobko Pilot: Ronald J. Grabe MS: Robert L. Stewart, David C. Hilmers PS: William A. Pailes | DoD satellite deployment |
| STS-71 | Jun 1995 | Commander: Robert L. Gibson Pilot: Charles J. Precourt MS: Ellen S. Baker, Bonnie J. Dunbar, Gregory J. Harbaugh Cosmonauts: Anatoly Y. Solovyev, Nikolai M. Budarin | First Shuttle-Mir docking, crew exchange |
| STS-122 | Feb 2008 | Commander: Steven G. Frick Pilot: Alan G. Poindexter MS: Rex J. Walheim, Stanley G. Love, Leland D. Melvin ESA: Leopold Eyharts, Hans Schlegel | ISS Columbus module delivery |
| STS-125 | May 2009 | Commander: Scott Altman Pilot: Gregory C. Johnson MS: Michael J. Good, K. Megan McArthur, John M. Grunsfeld, Andrew J. Feustel, Michael J. Massimino | Hubble servicing and upgrades |
| STS-135 | Jul 2011 | Commander: Christopher J. Ferguson Pilot: Douglas G. Hurley MS: Sandra H. Magnus, Rex J. Walheim | Final ISS resupply, shuttle retirement |