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Stringybark

Stringybark is a common name applied to various species of eucalyptus trees (Eucalyptus spp.) native to Australia, distinguished by their persistent, rough, fibrous bark that forms long, string-like strips on the trunk and larger branches. These trees are adapted to fire-prone environments, where the thick bark insulates the cambium layer during bushfires, and they play a key role in supporting diverse woodland ecosystems across the continent.^[1]^[2] The most prominent stringybark species is Eucalyptus obliqua, also known as messmate stringybark, which holds historical significance as the first eucalypt formally described by European botanists in 1788, originating from a specimen collected during James Cook's 1777 voyage to Tasmania. This species, along with others like brown stringybark (E. baxteri), red stringybark (E. macrorhyncha), and yellow stringybark (E. muelleriana), typically grows in southeastern Australian regions, including Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales, and South Australia, thriving in well-drained soils within sclerophyll forests and woodlands at elevations up to 1,000 meters. They can reach heights of 25–80 meters, featuring lanceolate leaves, small white flowers, and woody capsules, with adaptations such as lignotubers or epicormic buds enabling rapid post-fire regeneration.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4] Stringybarks are economically important for their durable, termite-resistant timber, used in construction, furniture, flooring, and pulp production, with E. obliqua particularly prized for its golden-brown heartwood. Indigenous Australians have long utilized the fibrous bark for making ropes, baskets, and shelters, while infusions from the leaves treat ailments like headaches and rheumatism in traditional practices. Ecologically, these trees support wildlife by providing habitat, nectar for pollinators, and hollows for nesting, though some species face threats from habitat loss and climate change.^[1]^[5]^[2]

Description

Physical Characteristics

Stringybark eucalypts are a group of Eucalyptus species distinguished by their thick, coarsely fibrous bark, commonly referred to as "stringy" due to its persistent nature on the trunk and larger branches. This bark typically appears dark brown to black and shreds into long, narrow strips that inroll at the edges, providing a rough, spongy texture that persists without shedding annually.^[6] Unlike smooth-barked gums, which shed their outer layers seasonally, or the hard, tessellated box-type barks, the stringybark's long-fibrous structure remains intact, offering protection and contributing to the tree's resilience in various environments.^[6] The leaves of stringybark eucalypts exhibit distinct juvenile and adult forms adapted to their ecological roles. Juvenile leaves, particularly the lowermost pairs in coppice or seedling growth, are scabrid or covered in hairs, featuring stellate oil glands with radiating hairs that give a rough texture.^[6] Adult leaves are generally lance-shaped to curved, with sparsely reticulate venation between the side veins, and often hang obliquely or vertically, displaying a leathery texture typical of eucalypts.^[6] Reproductive structures further define the group, with axillary inflorescences bearing buds that possess a single operculum. The flowers feature reniform anthers, while the ovules are arranged in two rows within the ovary. Seeds are more or less pyramidal, characterized by a distinctly terminal hilum, aiding in dispersal and germination.^[6]

Growth and Size

Stringybark trees, encompassing various Eucalyptus species such as E. obliqua and E. muelleriana, typically attain heights of 10 to 40 meters in natural settings, with trunk diameters reaching up to 2 meters at breast height.^[7]^[4] In optimal conditions on fertile sites, exceptional individuals can exceed 80 meters, including the tallest recorded E. obliqua specimens surpassing 90 meters.^[7]^[8] These trees exhibit moderate to fast growth rates in suitable environments, often achieving significant height increments of 1 to 2 meters annually during early stages.^[2]^[7] Reproductive maturity is typically reached within 10 to 20 years, enabling flowering and seed production that supports population regeneration.^[9]^[10] Many stringybark species have lifespans extending 200 to 300 years, with some individuals persisting for several centuries in undisturbed habitats.^[11]^[12] Growth is strongly influenced by environmental factors, including annual rainfall exceeding 800 mm, which is essential for vigorous development, though preferences lean toward 900 to 1,000 mm or more.^[4]^[7] These trees respond positively to soil fertility, thriving on deep loams, yet demonstrate notable tolerance to poorer, nutrient-limited conditions such as sandy or clay loams with good drainage.^[13]^[7]^[2]

Taxonomy

Classification

Stringybarks are classified within the family Myrtaceae, genus Eucalyptus, subgenus Eucalyptus, section Capillulus, and series Pachyphloia.^[6] The term "stringybark" does not represent a formal taxonomic rank but rather a descriptive morphological group defined primarily by the presence of persistent, coarsely fibrous bark that persists along the full length of the trunk and larger branches; this group overlaps with other informal eucalypt categories such as boxes and mahoganies, though stringybarks are typically distinguished by axillary inflorescences, flower buds bearing a single operculum, reniform anthers, ovules arranged in two rows, and pyramidal seeds with a terminal hilum. While the term "stringybark" is informal and applied more broadly to other eucalypts with similar bark, such as E. obliqua (messmate), this section focuses on the core group of 28 species in series Pachyphloia as defined by Brooker (2000).^[6]^[1] All stringybark species originated in Australia and are endemic to the continent, with 28 recognized taxa restricted to the southeastern states of South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland; their phylogenetic relationships are considered tentative due to ongoing taxonomic revisions, and they are provisionally divided into five informal groups based on variations in bud morphology and operculum characteristics, plus an additional group of uncertain affinities.^[6] The descriptive term "stringybark" arose from early European botanical observations of the distinctive bark texture, while the genus name Eucalyptus derives from the Greek words eu (well) and kalyptos (covered), alluding to the operculum that conceals the developing flowers; the name was first formally applied to the messmate stringybark (E. obliqua) by Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle in 1788, based on specimens collected by Joseph Banks during James Cook's voyage to Australia in 1770.^[1]

Recognized Species

Stringybark refers to a group of 28 recognized species within the Eucalyptus genus, all endemic to Australia and primarily distributed across the eastern states, including New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, and South Australia. These species are characterized by their rough, long-fibrous bark that persists on both the trunk and larger branches, distinguishing them from other rough-barked eucalypts. They belong to the informal taxonomic series Pachyphloia, though identification often relies on morphological features such as bud structure, gumnut (fruit) shape, leaf oil content, and bark persistence.^[6] The species are grouped based on morphological affinities, particularly variations in bud pedicel length, shape, and operculum form, which aid in differentiation. Key identifiers include differences in gumnut morphology—for instance, urn-shaped gumnuts in some species versus hemispherical in others—and leaf oil profiles, such as higher cineole content in certain groups. Bark persistence also varies; for example, Eucalyptus obliqua retains stringy bark mainly on the trunk with smoother branches, contrasting with the more uniformly persistent bark of E. acmenoides. These traits help separate closely related species without overlapping into ecological or growth details.^[6] Group 1: Pedicellate, clavate buds
This group includes E. muelleriana (yellow stringybark) and E. laevopinea (south coast stringybark), characterized by their pedicellate buds with a rounded, clavate shape and a single operculum. Distinguishing features include relatively smooth, yellowish bark fibers and ovoid to globose gumnuts with low rims.^[6] Group 2: Red stringybark variants with pedicellate, beaked or conical operculum
Comprising E. macrorhyncha (red stringybark, including subspecies macrorhyncha and cannonii), E. prominula (rugged bark stringybark), and E. youmanii (Youman's stringybark), these species feature prominent, red-toned fibrous bark and buds with a distinctly beaked or conical operculum. Gumnuts are often turbinate with protruding valves, and leaf oils show elevated levels of alpha-pinene.^[6] Group 3: Highland species with sessile, angular buds and obscure affinities
This group encompasses E. mackintii (McKie's stringybark), E. williamsiana (Williams' stringybark), E. boliviana, E. capitellata (capitate stringybark), E. camfieldii (Camfield's stringybark), and E. bensonii (Benson's stringybark). They are adapted to highland environments with sessile, angular buds bearing a conical or rounded operculum. Traits include densely fibrous, greyish bark and campanulate gumnuts; E. boliviana has particularly obscure affinities within the group.^[6] Group 4: Diverse coastal and tableland forms with fusiform to ovoid buds
Including E. cameronii (Cameron stringybark), E. globoidea (white stringybark), E. caliginosa (broad-leaved stringybark), E. conglomerata (blue-leaved stringybark), E. eugenioides (narrow-leaved stringybark), E. erosa (Erosa stringybark), E. expressa (express stringybark), E. sparsifolia (narrow-leaved stringybark), E. tenella (slender stringybark), E. mckieana (McKie stringybark), E. ligustrina (privet-leaved stringybark), E. tindaliae (Tindal stringybark), and E. agglomerata (blue-leaved stringybark), this largest group exhibits fusiform to ovoid buds with conical or rounded opercula. Distinctions arise in gumnut shapes ranging from pyriform to urceolate and variable bark textures suited to coastal or tableland sites.^[6] Group 5: Southern and arid-adapted species with obovoid buds
This group features E. arenacea (desert stringybark), E. baxteri (Baxter's stringybark), E. blaxlandii (Blaxland's stringybark), E. imitans (imitans stringybark), E. serraensis (Serra stringybark), E. verrucata (verrucose stringybark), E. victoriana (Victorian red stringybark), and E. aurifodina (goldfields stringybark). Buds are sessile to pedicellate and obovoid with flat or obtuse opercula. They show adaptations like warty bark in E. verrucata and hemispherical gumnuts with high oil yields in arid conditions.^[6] One species with obscure affinities, E. deuaensis (Deua stringybark), does not fit neatly into the above groups but shares the persistent fibrous bark and is provisionally included among stringybarks due to its morphological similarities.^[6]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

Stringybark species are native to southeastern Australia, with their core distribution spanning from South Australia through Victoria, New South Wales, and southern Queensland to Tasmania. These trees are concentrated in coastal regions, tablelands, and open woodland formations, often on sites with variable soil fertility. While some strict taxonomic definitions (e.g., subgenus Eucalyptus, section Capillulus, series Pachyphloia) limit "true stringybarks" to the mainland, species commonly known as stringybarks, such as Eucalyptus obliqua (messmate stringybark), extend naturally into Tasmania. Superficially similar stringy-barked trees like Corymbia jacobsiana occur in the Northern Territory. Rare incursions into semi-arid mallee zones are represented by species such as Eucalyptus arenacea, which inhabits sandy rises in southeastern South Australia and adjacent western Victoria.^[6]^[7] In South Australia, stringybarks are confined to the southern and southeastern parts of the state, exemplified by Eucalyptus baxteri (brown stringybark), which dominates stringybark woodlands in the lower southeast on infertile soils. Victoria and New South Wales support the greatest diversity and abundance of stringybark species, with Eucalyptus obliqua (messmate stringybark) being particularly widespread across wet sclerophyll forests in Victoria's Otway Ranges and Central Highlands, as well as tableland woodlands east of the Great Dividing Range in New South Wales. In Tasmania, E. obliqua is common in wet forests across much of the island, except parts of the central, west, and southwest. Toward the northern limit in Queensland, species such as Eucalyptus acmenoides (yellow stringybark) mark the edge of the range, occurring in coastal and subcoastal forests up to areas like Yarraman.^[13]^[7]^[14] The overall geographic range of stringybarks has shown stability since European settlement, reflecting their adaptation to longstanding southeastern Australian landscapes, but extensive land clearing for agriculture and urbanization has led to significant habitat fragmentation across the distribution. In South Australia, for instance, approximately 90% of original Mount Lofty Ranges woodlands—key stringybark habitats—have been cleared or degraded, resulting in isolated remnants. Similar patterns of fragmentation are evident in Victoria, New South Wales, and Tasmania, where clearing has reduced continuous stands to patchy occurrences, though the core range boundaries remain intact.^[15]^[16]

Preferred Environments

Stringybarks, a group of Eucalyptus species characterized by their persistent fibrous bark, thrive in environments with specific abiotic conditions that support their growth and survival. They prefer nutritionally poor soils such as sandy loams or clay loams, showing strong tolerance for infertile and acidic substrates while being highly sensitive to waterlogging, which can lead to root rot and reduced vigor.^[13]^[2] These trees require climates with annual rainfall exceeding 800 mm, typically ranging from temperate to subtropical zones, where they exhibit drought tolerance once established but remain vulnerable during prolonged dry periods that stress young plants. For instance, species like brown stringybark (Eucalyptus baxteri) perform best with at least 900 mm of precipitation on well-drained sites, while white stringybark (Eucalyptus globoidea) favors 1,000–1,500 mm in warmer conditions.^[2]^[17] In terms of topography, stringybarks are commonly found on gentle to moderate slopes, ridges, and lowlands that provide moderate drainage, often forming open forests or woodlands in these settings. Their distribution favors elevated or undulating terrains that prevent soil saturation, as seen in messmate stringybark (Eucalyptus obliqua) communities on gradational soils in southeastern Australia.^[7] Key adaptations enable stringybarks to persist in these challenging environments, including their fibrous bark, which insulates the cambium against fire damage and helps retain moisture during dry spells. Additionally, certain species, such as the desert stringybark (Eucalyptus arenacea), exhibit multi-stemmed growth forms that enhance resilience in arid, sandy conditions by improving water uptake efficiency.^[18]^[19]^[20]

Ecology

Role in Ecosystems

Stringybarks, a group of Eucalyptus species characterized by their persistent fibrous bark, dominate open eucalypt forests and savanna woodlands across Australia, where they form the primary canopy layer and contribute to ecosystem structure on nutrient-poor, sandy, or infertile soils.^[13] These trees, such as Eucalyptus baxteri (brown stringybark) reaching up to 40 meters in height, provide essential overhead cover that moderates microclimates and stabilizes fragile landscapes by anchoring soils against wind and water erosion, particularly on sloping terrains.^[21] Their extensive root systems further enhance soil retention, preventing degradation in erosion-prone areas like hillsides and river valleys.^[22] In fire-prone ecosystems, stringybarks play a pivotal role through adaptations that promote resilience and regeneration. The thick, insulating stringy bark protects cambial tissues from low-intensity fires, allowing survival and facilitating rapid recovery via epicormic shoots from dormant buds along the trunk and branches, as seen in species like Eucalyptus obliqua (messmate stringybark).^[21] Some stringybarks also possess lignotubers—woody swellings at the base that store nutrients and produce basal resprouts—enabling vigorous regrowth after severe fires and maintaining forest composition.^[23] Stringybarks contribute to nutrient cycling by shedding leaf litter that decomposes to enrich the typically acidic, low-fertility soils of their habitats, recycling essential elements like nitrogen and phosphorus back into the ecosystem.^[24] This process sustains productivity in oligotrophic environments, where eucalypt litter forms a key component of soil organic matter.^[25] Additionally, their deep root networks mitigate erosion on slopes by binding soil particles and improving water infiltration, thereby preserving habitat integrity.^[26] Flowering of stringybarks, often peaking from June to August (dry season) in northern Australian regions, supports seasonal surges in insect populations by providing abundant nectar and pollen, thereby bolstering pollination dynamics within woodland communities.^[5] This temporal alignment enhances overall biodiversity and ecosystem health during critical dry periods.^[27]

Interactions with Wildlife

Stringybarks serve as a vital food source for various native Australian fauna, particularly through their leaves and floral nectar. The leaves of species such as the blue-leaved stringybark (Eucalyptus agglomerata) are highly preferred by koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus), which selectively browse on them in coastal forests of New South Wales, contributing significantly to the marsupial's diet in those regions.^[28] The nectar-rich flowers of stringybarks attract a diverse array of pollinators and nectarivores, including honeyeater birds (family Meliphagidae), possums (such as the common brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula), fruit bats (Pteropodidae), and insects like bees and beetles, fostering trophic interactions that support energy transfer in woodland food webs.^[29]^[30]^[31] Mature stringybark trees provide essential shelter and nesting opportunities for numerous wildlife species, enhancing habitat complexity in eucalypt-dominated ecosystems. Hollows formed in the trunks and branches of older trees offer secure roosting and breeding sites for sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps), various owl species (such as the barking owl, Ninox connivens), and microbats (families Vespertilionidae and Miniopteridae), which rely on these cavities for protection from predators and extreme weather.^[32]^[33] The fibrous, persistent bark of stringybarks creates microhabitats for invertebrates and small mammals; for instance, peeling strips shelter arthropods like spiders and beetles, while small mammals such as the bush rat (Rattus fuscipes) utilize the bark for cover and foraging.^[11]^[34] Stringybarks contribute to seed dispersal and propagation through mutualistic relationships with ants and birds, promoting regeneration in fire-prone habitats. Ant species, including non-harvester genera like Prolasius and Chelaner, collect fallen seeds, transporting them to nests where the elaiosome (if present) is consumed, often depositing viable seeds nearby to aid germination.^[35]^[36] Birds, such as cockatoos and parrots, inadvertently disperse seeds via ingestion or attachment to feathers during feeding on capsules, while the tree's prolific flowering draws pollinators like honeyeaters and insects, which enhance cross-pollination and overall biodiversity in open woodlands.^[37]^[33] As keystone species, stringybarks underpin savanna and woodland ecosystems by supporting diverse invertebrate communities, particularly through their rough, stringy bark that harbors more abundant and diverse arthropods than smooth-barked eucalypts.^[34] In northern Australian savannas, such as those in Kakadu National Park, species like the Darwin stringybark (Eucalyptus tetrodonta) form dominant canopies that sustain intricate food webs, providing habitat for endemic invertebrates, birds, and mammals while stabilizing soil and nutrient cycles essential for faunal persistence.^[5]^[38]

Uses

Timber and Commercial Applications

Stringybark species, such as Eucalyptus obliqua (messmate stringybark) and E. globoidea (white stringybark), yield dense and durable hardwoods prized for their strength and resistance to decay. These timbers typically exhibit densities ranging from 675 to 1010 kg/m³ at 12% moisture content, with high compressive and tensile strengths classified under groups S2–S3 (unseasoned) and SD3–SD4 (seasoned), enabling structural applications. For instance, messmate stringybark, marketed as part of "Tassie oak," features a fine, even grain and moderate hardness, making it suitable for high-quality finishes in furniture and joinery.^[39]^[14]^[40] In modern commercial applications, stringybark wood is widely used in construction for house framing, internal and external flooring, cladding, and decking due to its durability above ground (class 2–3, lasting 15–40 years). Engineering uses include sawn and round timber for railway sleepers, bridge construction, poles, piles, and mining timbers, leveraging its high stress grades (F11–F27 seasoned). Historically, during the 19th-century colonial era, stringybark was split into shingles for roofing and slabs for walls in early Australian settlements, forming a cornerstone of pioneer building practices.^[14]^[4]^[40] Beyond structural timber, stringybark serves in cabinetry, outdoor furniture, and turnery, with species like yellow stringybark (E. muelleriana) valued for veneers and panelling owing to its workable texture. The wood also provides excellent firewood and charcoal, burning hot and long due to its density. Stringybark leaves contain eucalyptol, but commercial distillation for medicinal and fragrance products is more common from other eucalypt species. Plantation cultivation shows promise in high-rainfall areas (over 800 mm annually) on well-drained soils, particularly in southeastern Australia, supporting sustainable sawlog production.^[4]^[3]^[41] Stringybark has been economically vital to Australia's timber industry since the 19th century, contributing to native hardwood harvests in states like Victoria and Queensland, where native eucalypt forests supply the majority of Australia's hardwood sawn timber (about 72% of hardwood sawlogs as of 2021–22), though overall sawnwood is dominated by softwood plantations. As of 2023–24, native forest log harvest was 2.3 million m³, with sustainable harvesting following national codes of practice, including coupe-based plans and retention of habitat trees to maintain ecosystem productivity and biodiversity.^[42]^[43]^[44]^[45]

Traditional and Cultural Uses

Indigenous Australian communities have long utilized stringybark (various Eucalyptus species with fibrous bark) for practical and ceremonial purposes. The Worimi people, for instance, craft traditional canoes known as kuueeyung from the bark of the Punnah (stringybark tree), softening it over fire to fold and shape the ends for waterproofing and stability, enabling navigation along coastal and riverine waters.^[46]^[47] This technique, passed down through generations, also extends to constructing shelters and tools, where bark sheets provide durable, lightweight material for temporary housing and implements like shields or containers.^[48]^[49] Additionally, stringybark leaves have been employed in medicinal practices, particularly by groups in southeastern Australia, to alleviate symptoms of colds and respiratory ailments through infusions or steam treatments leveraging their antiseptic properties.^[50]^[51] Stringybark holds deep cultural significance in Aboriginal traditions, serving as a medium for storytelling and artistic expression. In Victorian traditions, stringybark features in stories of ancestral journeys and environmental knowledge, with bark canoes symbolizing mobility across waterways and reinforcing cultural ties to landscape.^[52] Bark from stringybark trees, particularly species like Eucalyptus tetrodonta, has been harvested as canvas for paintings in northern and eastern Australia, depicting Dreamtime stories, totemic figures, and daily life with natural ochres, preserving cultural knowledge for future generations.^[53]^[54] European interactions with stringybark began notably with the collection of a Eucalyptus obliqua specimen during Captain James Cook's third voyage (1776–1780) at Adventure Bay, Tasmania, which contributed to the genus's naming by French botanist Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle in 1788, deriving "Eucalyptus" from Greek terms for "well covered" to describe its capped flowers.^[55] In the 19th century, stringybark gained notoriety in Australian folklore through events at Stringybark Creek in Victoria, where bushranger Ned Kelly's gang ambushed police in 1878 amid dense stringybark forests, immortalizing the tree in tales of colonial conflict and rebellion.^[56]^[57] Contemporary efforts reflect a revival of these traditions, with community programs across Australia restoring stringybark canoe-making as a means of cultural reconnection and education. Initiatives like the Nawi project at Bundanon Trust and workshops led by artists such as Mitch Mahoney involve Indigenous groups in harvesting, crafting, and launching bark canoes, fostering intergenerational knowledge transfer and public awareness of pre-colonial technologies.^[58]^[52]^[59]

Conservation

Threatened Species

Several stringybark Eucalyptus species face significant conservation challenges due to their restricted distributions and vulnerability to human-induced and environmental pressures. These include habitat fragmentation, which has led to small, isolated populations for many taxa, exacerbating risks from stochastic events like drought and fire. According to assessments, approximately 23% of all eucalypt species, including various stringybarks, qualify as threatened under IUCN criteria as of a 2019 assessment, primarily due to ongoing declines in extent of occurrence and area of occupancy.^[60] Eucalyptus alligatrix subsp. limaensis, known as the Lima stringybark, is critically endangered in Victoria under state legislation and vulnerable nationally under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). This subspecies, endemic to northeastern Victoria near Lima and Swanpool, persists in approximately 1,500 individuals across fragmented remnants of grassy woodland. Primary threats include weed invasion that outcompetes seedlings, grazing by livestock which prevents natural regeneration, and disturbance from road maintenance activities that degrade soil and introduce invasives.^[61]^[62]^[63] Eucalyptus conglomerata, or swamp stringybark, is listed as endangered under both the EPBC Act and Queensland's Nature Conservation Act 1992, as well as on the IUCN Red List. Confined to swampy habitats in southeastern Queensland, it has experienced considerable historical habitat loss from clearing for agriculture and urban expansion, reducing suitable wetland areas by over 50% in some regions. Livestock grazing further hinders recruitment by consuming young plants, while prolonged droughts associated with climate change have caused dieback in remaining stands during the 2000s. Populations are now limited to approximately 1,100 individuals in isolated patches.^[64]^[65] Eucalyptus boliviana, the Bolivia stringybark, was recently assessed as critically endangered in New South Wales due to its extremely restricted range near Bolivia Hill, encompassing a single location with an area of occupancy of 16 km². This species, with an estimated population of 1,275–1,700 mature trees, faces ongoing decline from severe droughts and infrequent but intense fires that kill adults without sufficient regeneration. Historical land clearing for grazing and agriculture has fragmented its shale-slope habitat, leaving it highly susceptible to edge effects and invasive weeds. It holds a Near Threatened status on the IUCN Red List.^[66]^[67] Eucalyptus deuaensis, commonly called the Mongamulla mallee or obscure stringybark, is known from a single, isolated stand of around 200-300 individuals in Deua National Park, New South Wales, making it highly vulnerable to localized threats. Its precarious status stems from extreme habitat isolation on steep rhyolitic cliffs, where regeneration is limited by poor soil and competition from weeds, compounded by risks from bushfires and climate-driven aridity that could eliminate the population in one event. Past minor disturbances, such as track maintenance, have also impacted seedling establishment in this tiny, unreplicated range.^[68]^[69]

Conservation Efforts

Conservation efforts for stringybark eucalypts primarily focus on species listed as threatened under Australian federal and state legislation, such as the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) and various state acts. For instance, the Lima stringybark (Eucalyptus alligatrix subsp. limaensis) is protected as Vulnerable under the EPBC Act and Critically Endangered under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, with recovery plans emphasizing habitat protection through environmental significance overlays and private land agreements under the Victorian Conservation Trust Act 1972.^[16] Similarly, the swamp stringybark (E. conglomerata) is classified as Endangered under both the EPBC Act and Queensland's Nature Conservation Act 1992, supported by a dedicated Recovery Action Plan for 2025–2035 that outlines population strengthening measures.^[64] In New South Wales, Camfield's stringybark (E. camfieldii) receives protection under the Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 as Vulnerable, including provisions for threat abatement and habitat safeguarding.^[70] The Grampians stringybark (E. serraensis) is listed as Vulnerable under Victoria's Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, with action statements guiding management to prevent further decline.^[71] Habitat restoration initiatives are central to these efforts, involving weed control, exclusion of grazing animals through fencing, and minimization of roadworks impacts to support regeneration. In Victoria, the Trust for Nature organization secures conservation covenants on private land—covering over 95% of Lima stringybark habitat—to enable weeding and stock exclusion, thereby aiding sapling establishment and preserving genetic diversity among the state's 27 threatened eucalypt species on private properties.^[72] For swamp stringybark in Queensland, projects focus on bolstering existing populations and establishing new ones in suitable wetland areas to enhance resilience against environmental pressures.^[73] Protected areas play a key role, such as the Stringybark Conservation Reserve in Albury Wodonga, managed to maintain flora diversity including stringybark communities through biodiversity enhancement programs.^[74] Seed banking and propagation programs are also implemented, particularly for Lima stringybark, where long-term seed storage and viability assessments support ex-situ conservation and reintroduction efforts.^[16] Research underpins these initiatives, with studies on genetic diversity addressing inbreeding risks in fragmented populations, as highlighted in Australia's national forest genetic resources assessment, which advocates for conserving eucalypt gene pools to ensure adaptive capacity.^[75] Climate adaptation modeling is prioritized, incorporating Victorian Government plans to evaluate drought resilience and adjust management for species like Grampians and Mt Abrupt stringybarks (E. verrucata), including biodiversity checks before fuel reduction burns.^[71]^[76] Community involvement is integral, with revegetation projects and education programs promoting sustainable practices; for example, the Swanpool and District Land Protection Group collaborates on Lima stringybark protection through signage and threat management, while over 1,500 Victorian landholders participate in covenants to safeguard eucalypt habitats.^[16]^[72] Successes include effective deer control in priority Grampians stringybark areas over the past decade, reducing herbivory threats, and community-driven protections that have stabilized Lima stringybark populations near Swanpool.^[71]^[16] International monitoring by the IUCN supports ongoing assessments, contributing to global tracking of these species' statuses.^[77]

References

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Stringybark is tough as boots (and gave us the word 'Eucalyptus')
Nov 2, 2018 · The name stringybark comes from the fibrous stringy bark that grows on the trunk of the tree, but no one knows the origins of the name messmate, ...
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Brown stringybark | Species guides | Plantations and farm forestry
Jun 24, 2025 · Brown stringybark is a moderate to fast-growing Eucalyptus, preferring 900 mm or more of annual rainfall and gradational well-drained soils.
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Red stringybark | Species guides | Farm forestry toolkit
Red stringybark is a slow to moderate-growing Eucalyptus preferring 800 mm or more of annual rainfall and gradational clay soils.
[4]
Yellow stringybark | Species guides | Farm forestry toolkit
Yellow stringybark is a fast-growing Eucalyptus that prefers 800 mm or more of annual rainfall and sandy loam/clay loam soils.
[5]
Stringybark | Kakadu National Park | Parks Australia
Stringybarks are common in Kakadu's lowland eucalypt and savanna woodlands, as well as beside the park's roads. They bloom in Wurrkeng (June – August), ...
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Stringybarks - Lucid Apps
Stringybarks are common rough-barked forest and woodland trees occurring on a variety of sites and often on nutritionally poor soils.
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Eucalyptus obliqua (messmate stringybark) | CABI Compendium
Bark colour is grey over red-brown. E. obliqua in southern Tasmania and particularly in coastal forests has smooth bark on the major branches but otherwise ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[8]
Eucalyptus obliqua (Messmate stringybark) Growing Guide
Feb 16, 2025 · The bark, thanks to its distinctive stringy nature, which holds together well when peeled from the tree, is also dried and used for rope making.
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[PDF] Exceptional Eucalyptus Trees - Department for Environment and Water
A gum tree can reach full maturity after only 10 years of being planted, whereas other trees usually take around 25-30 years. Eucalyptus flowers and leaves.
[10]
E. macrorhyncha - NZ Dryland Forests Innovation - NZDFI's
Flowering may begin in some trees from age 5 years. It flowers in autumn, producing useful nectar and pollen for bees and native birds. Growth models for E.
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Eucalyptus macrorhyncha (Red Stringybark) Growing Guide
Feb 22, 2025 · What is the lifespan of Eucalyptus macrorhyncha? E. macrorhyncha lives for several hundred years and will grow back from the lignotuber even ...
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https://sequoiavalleyfarms.com.au/messmate-stringybark/
[13]
[PDF] Stringybark-Woodland-FactSheet.pdf
Stringybark woodlands have two types: Brown and Desert, with grey-brown bark. They are found on well-drained soils, and provide habitat for native species.
[14]
White stringybark - Business Queensland
Dec 12, 2018 · Common coastal eucalypt and some adjacent tablelands of New South Wales, extending to Yarraman, Queensland. Isolated stands in the Carnarvon ...
[15]
(PDF) Paying the extinction debt: Woodland birds in the Mount Lofty ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Approximately 90% of the original woodlands of the Mount Lofty Ranges of South Australia has been cleared, modified or fragmented, most severely ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
[PDF] National Recovery Plan for the Lima Stringybark Eucalyptus ...
Epicormic growth is intermediate, with a broadly ovate leaf blade to 30 mm wide and 50 mm long, and a short petiole of 0.5–5 mm long. Buds are green, ...
[17]
White stringybark - Eucalyptus globoidea
Mean tree height after 8 years is about 12 m, after 22 years is about 30 m and after 50 years is typically about 45 m.<|separator|>
[18]
Hard to kill: here's why eucalypts are survival experts
Feb 21, 2024 · The bark is often an excellent insulator against hot, dry summers as well as a protective barrier against fire. Stringy bark is so fibrous ...
[19]
[PDF] Eucalypts and Fire - Forest Education Foundation
Some eucalypt species such as brown top stringy bark have developed thick, fibrous bark which acts as insulation, allowing the tree to survive moderate fires.
[20]
Desert Stringybark - Desert Blooms Nursery
Out of stockSoil Type: Sandy soils; particularly well-suited to deep, infertile sand dunes. Special Features: Well adapted to dry, coastal, or inland sands.
[21]
Why eucalypts are survival experts | AusGeo
Feb 27, 2024 · The bark is often an excellent insulator against hot, dry summers as well as a protective barrier against fire. Stringy bark is so fibrous ...
[22]
[PDF] eucalyptus species selection for soil conservation in seasonally dry ...
Hillside stabilisation tree plantings are aimed at maintaining erosion-prone land in pastoral use. Species selection trials on drought-prone hillsides in the ...
[23]
The role of lignotubers (basal burls) in the stress recovery of ...
Sep 21, 2015 · Dormant buds such as lignotuberous and epicormic buds are adaptations possessed by plants growing in stressful environments. Eucalyptus obliqua ...
[24]
Eucalypt forests dominated by epicormic resprouters are resilient to ...
Jun 17, 2019 · Communities of eucalypts that can resprout epicormically show resilience to biome change following repeated canopy fires, owing to the ...Missing: pollination | Show results with:pollination
[25]
a study based on litterfall and nutrient cycling - Ecological Processes
May 1, 2021 · Nutrient cycling via Eucalyptus spp. litter was less efficient than mixed composition of litter, demonstrating that reforestation programs ...
[26]
[PDF] NUTRIENT CYCLING INDIGENOUS FOREST ECOSYSTEMS
The aim of this symposium was to review our knowledge of the functioning of Australian forest ecosystems, particularly in relation to nutrient cycling, and to ...
[27]
Assessing the impact of eucalyptus trees on soil chemical properties ...
May 9, 2025 · It can thrive in high salinity and waterlogged conditions, withstanding over 250 cm rainfall in a year. Concerns have been raised about ...
[28]
Winter-flowering gums
May 5, 2005 · Eastern Australia. Winter-flowering eucalypts in eastern Australia tend to have white flowers, relying on insects and mammals for pollination.
[29]
Tree species preferences of koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) in the ...
The results established that grey gum (Eucalyptus punctata) and blue-leaved stringybark (E. agglomerata) were most preferred by koalas in the study area.
[30]
Eucalypts: The Icons of Australia - iNaturalist
Jan 8, 2025 · The leaves, often rich in aromatic oils, are a primary food source for koalas, while many insects depend on eucalyptus for sustenance. The bark ...Missing: stringybark interactions
[31]
https://sandiegozoowildlifealliance.org/story-hub/zoonooz/hug-a-gum-tree
[32]
Hug a Gum Tree | San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance
Eucalypts are food and shelter for many species of Australian animals, including koalas, possums, insects, bats, and birds.Missing: stringybark honeyeaters
[33]
Nesting boxes - Wildlife - La Trobe University
To attract gliders to your garden, consider planting members of Acacia and Eucalyptus which provide shelter and food in the form of nectar and sap. The box ...
[34]
Eucalypts - Backyard Buddies
These tall trees provide food and shelter for many birds, insects, and mammals. They also provide hollows for cockatoos, parrots, gliders, possums and other ...
[35]
The bark of eucalypt trees: habitat quality for arthropods and impact ...
Rough fissured bark (stringybark and ironbark) supported greater numbers of arthropods than smooth or tessellated (box) bark, with up to three times as many ...
[36]
Are post-dispersed seeds of Eucalyptus globulus predated in ... - WE
Apr 26, 2018 · However, successful ant-mediated dispersal may occur: Eucalyptus seeds may be stored by non-harvester ants (Berg, 1975), occasionally at a ...
[37]
Seed harvesting by ants in forests of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. in ...
Seed is removed from the top soil by several ant species– Prolasius pallidus, P. brunneus, P. flavicornis and Chelaner leae –and is taken into nests. Removal of ...
[38]
Dispersal of Eucalyptus torelliana seeds by the resin-collecting ...
Ants are the only group of invertebrates currently identified as significant dispersers of seeds, but we report here the dispersal of Eucalyptus torelliana ...
[39]
[PDF] NVIS Fact sheet MVG 12 – Tropical eucalypt woodlands/grasslands
Widespread species include E. tectifica. (Darwin box), E. tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark), E. megasepala, E. miniata, E. phoenicea, ...
[40]
Tasmanian oak | Business Queensland
Dec 12, 2018 · Properties · Density: 675-770kg/m3 at 12% moisture content; 1.3 to 1.5m3 of seasoned sawn timber per tonne. · Strength groups: S4 unseasoned, SD4 ...
[41]
Gympie messmate - Business Queensland
May 14, 2021 · Uses · Engineering: sawn and round timber used to construct wharves and bridges, railway sleepers, poles, piles, cross-arms and mining timbers.Missing: commercial | Show results with:commercial
[42]
White stringybark | Species guides | Plantations and farm forestry
White stringybark is a moderate-growing Eucalyptus needing 800+ mm rainfall, some clay at depth, and is used for structural purposes. It is not a plantation ...
[43]
Eucalypt forest - DAFF
Dec 15, 2023 · The term 'eucalypt' includes approximately 800 species in the three genera Angophora, Corymbia and Eucalyptus. Almost all eucalypt species are ...
[44]
[PDF] Management guidelines for private native forests and plantations
A T imber Harvesting Plan is the basic record of the forest manager's intended activities in an area of forest. It applies to a single coupe, a number of coupes ...
[45]
[PDF] Silvicultural guidelines - EPA
Forest managers need to know what wildlife inhabits their forests and the habitat requirements of each species, in particular rare or threatened species.
[46]
Kuueeyung - Newcastle Museum
For the Worrimai and Awarbukarl people, the Punnah, Stringybark tree, is used to construct kuueeyung. The bark is softened with fire to fold both ends that ...
[47]
Stringy Bark - Newcastle Museum
Stringy Bark (Eucalyptus obliqua) is a tree with rough bark, growing up to 90m tall. It's used in traditional boat building, and its wood is easily worked.
[48]
https://www.australian.museum/learn/cultures/first-nations-collections/cultural-objects/indigenous-bark-canoe-from-new-south-wales/
[49]
HOUSING AND SHELTERS - Aboriginal Culture
Shelters had earth floors, but in regions where paperbark and stringybark were available, people slept on bark sheets of these materials. Some rock shelters in ...
[50]
5 culturally-significant trees used in Aboriginal and Torres Strait ...
Mar 5, 2023 · They would do this to treat coughs and colds. They would also create a warm, wet mass from the leaves to treat wounds and infections topically.
[51]
Medicinal Plants of the Australian Aboriginal Dharawal People ...
Dec 27, 2016 · Plants from Eucalyptus species have special importance for the Dharawal indigenous people and are used for their anti-inflammatory activity ...
[52]
The Stringy-bark canoe - restoring the Coorong tradition - MDP
Oct 19, 2018 · This is the first time a stringy-bark canoe had been made in Ballarat in 150 years. This film and the canoe will go on to form education programs.
[53]
First Nations artist builds traditional stringybark canoe with help from ...
Oct 3, 2023 · First Nations artist Mitch Mahoney created a traditional canoe as part of a week-long public event; Community members were invited to take part ...Missing: modern revival programs
[54]
History of bark painting - National Museum of Australia
The bark, the artist's canvas, is stripped from Eucalyptus tetrodonta (stringybark) during the wet season, then cured over fire and flattened under weights.
[55]
Aboriginal Bark Paintings & Artefacts - Japingka Gallery
Aboriginal bark paintings use stringybark, cured and flattened, painted with ochre. They were traded from Arnhem Land and Kimberley, and are still produced ...
[56]
Birth of the Eucalypts – thanks to a Frenchman | The Gardenistas
May 17, 2015 · In 1778 the Eucalyptus obliqua was named as the very first in this exciting new genus – not thanks to Joseph Banks as many would have assumed – but a Frenchman.
[57]
Stringybark Creek site - Victorian Heritage Database
Stringybark Creek was the location where three police officers were shot and killed by Ned Kelly on 26 October 1878.
[58]
STRINGYBARK CREEK – Ned Kelly Touring Route
Dec 16, 2022 · In late 1878, Ned and Dan Kelly, with friends Joe Byrne, Steve Hart and Tom Lloyd junior, had been hiding in a rugged section of the ranges ...Missing: 19th century
[59]
https://www.hawkesbury.nsw.gov.au/museum/_resources/exhibitions/2023-exhibitions/bangadyi-nawi-making-a-canoe
[60]
Bangadyi Nawi: Making a Canoe - Hawkesbury City Council
Bangadyi Nawi: Making a Canoe was a community project between Hawkesbury Regional Museum, the Dharug community and Brewongle Environmental Education Centre.
[61]
[PDF] Rarity or decline: Key concepts for the Red List of Australian eucalypts
Highlights. • Overall, 193 (23%) of 822 eucalypt (Angophora, Corymbia, Eucalyptus) species qualified as threatened using IUCN Red Listing criteria.
[62]
National recovery plan for the Lima Stringybark (Eucalyptus alligatrix ...
Oct 3, 2021 · Major threats to populations include weed invasion, grazing and lack of regeneration and road works. This national Recovery Plan for the Lima ...
[63]
[PDF] Action statement - Lima Stringybark (Eucalyptus alligatrix subsp ...
Critically Endangered. Listing criteria: 3.1.1; 3.1.2(a)(b)(iii)(v) of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Regulations 2020. This means that:.
[64]
Eucalyptus alligatrix subsp. limaensis | Flora of Australia
Feb 28, 2025 · Conservation Status. Eucalyptus alligatrix subsp. limaensis is listed as "Vulnerable" under the Australian Government Environment Protection ...
[65]
[PDF] Eucalyptus conglomerata swamp stringybark Recovery Action Plan ...
The 'swamp stringybark Eucalyptus conglomerata Recovery Action Plan' was developed as part of the Queensland Department of the Environment, Tourism, Science ...
[66]
Eucalyptus conglomerata - Swamp Stringybark - iNaturalist
Eucalyptus conglomerata, commonly known as the swamp stringybark, is a species of straggly tree or mallee that is endemic to Queensland.
[67]
[PDF] Eucalyptus boliviana conservation assessment report
Feb 15, 2024 · Eucalyptus boliviana is a naturally rare species endemic to the Bolivia Hill Range south of Tenterfield in northern NSW. This area lies within ...
[68]
NSW Threatened Species Scientific Committee final determination
Apr 5, 2024 · Eucalyptus boliviana J.B.Williams & K.D. Hill has been listed as a critically endangered species. In New South Wales, this species is currently ...Missing: threats | Show results with:threats
[69]
Deua National Park houses only stand of rare species
The stand of Eucalyptus deuaensis, or the Mongamulla Mallee, is the only known population of its species on the planet. The couple of hundred trees grow in ...
[70]
Conserving Rare Trees - Gardening Australia - ABC News
Sep 16, 2011 · Right now, close to fifty percent of the world's plant species are at risk of extinction. Like the Mongamulla Mallee (Eucalyptus deuaensis).
[71]
Camfield's Stringybark | NSW Environment, Energy and Science
Nov 13, 2024 · Localised and scattered distribution includes sites at Norah Head (Tuggerah Lakes), Peats Ridge, Mt Colah, Elvina Bay Trail (West Head), Terrey ...Missing: Australia | Show results with:Australia
[72]
[PDF] Grampians Stringybark (Eucalyptus serraensis) - Action statement
endangered or extinct in a very short time. Corresponding International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) criteria: D2. More information on IUCN ...
[73]
Saving Victoria's threatened gum trees - Trust For Nature
Their habitat is now severely fragmented and degraded, and young trees are struggling to survive. There are thought to be fewer than 1,500 trees left in the ...
[74]
Strengthen Existing & Establish Additional Populations ... - WetlandInfo
Sep 14, 2020 · This project aims to strengthen the resilience of known Swamp Stringybark (Eucalyptus Conglomerata) populations and individual trees in ...<|separator|>
[75]
Stringybark Conservation Reserve - Parklands Albury Wodonga
Jul 12, 2018 · Stringybark Reserve is home to a community Red Stringybark trees. The reserve is also home to over 45 species of native flora and over 60 observed species of ...
[76]
[PDF] Status of Australia's Forest Genetic Resources 2021
conservation, climate change adaptation, sustainable use and commercial development. Page 97. Status of Australia's Forest Genetic Resources 2021. ABARES. 89.
[77]
[PDF] Action statement - Mt Abrupt Stringybark (Eucalyptus verrucata)
it has a restricted geographic distribution and plausible future threats could drive it to become critically endangered or extinct in a very short time.
[78]
https://www.iucnredlist.org/