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Subacute thyroiditis

Subacute thyroiditis, also known as de Quervain's thyroiditis or granulomatous thyroiditis, is a self-limited inflammatory disorder of the thyroid gland that typically follows a viral upper respiratory infection, including recent associations with SARS-CoV-2, and is characterized by painful thyroid enlargement, fever, and transient phases of thyrotoxicosis followed by hypothyroidism.^[1]^[2] The condition involves granulomatous inflammation with giant cell infiltration and disruption of thyroid follicles, leading to the release of preformed thyroid hormones into the bloodstream.^[3] It most commonly affects women aged 30 to 50 years, with an incidence of approximately 4.9 cases per 100,000 people annually, and is more prevalent in regions with higher viral infection rates during certain seasons.^[1]^[3]^[4] Clinically, subacute thyroiditis presents with acute anterior neck pain that may radiate to the jaw or ears, accompanied by systemic symptoms such as fatigue, malaise, low-grade fever (up to 104°F or 40°C), and myalgias.^[1]^[2] Early in the course, patients often experience symptoms of thyrotoxicosis, including palpitations, heat intolerance, weight loss, and tachycardia, due to the leakage of thyroid hormones; this is followed by a hypothyroid phase with fatigue, weight gain, and cold intolerance as the inflamed gland temporarily underproduces hormones.^[3]^[1] Physical examination reveals a tender, firm, and asymmetrically enlarged thyroid gland.^[2] The disease duration typically spans 1 to 3 months for the hyperthyroid phase and up to 6 months overall, with recurrences in approximately 20% of cases.^[3] Diagnosis is primarily clinical, based on history and presentation, and confirmed by laboratory findings including suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), elevated free thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) in the initial phase, markedly elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR, often >50 mm/h), and low radioactive iodine uptake (RAIU, <5% at 24 hours).^[1]^[3] Thyroid ultrasound may show heterogeneous hypoechoic areas, and fine-needle aspiration, if performed, reveals multinucleated giant cells, though it is not routinely needed.^[2] Differential diagnosis includes acute suppurative thyroiditis, which has higher fever and leukocytosis, and silent thyroiditis, which lacks pain.^[3] Treatment focuses on symptom relief, as the condition is self-resolving in over 90% of cases.^[1] Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin or ibuprofen, are first-line for mild pain and inflammation, while corticosteroids like prednisone (initial dose 40 mg/day, tapered over 4-6 weeks) are used for severe symptoms or when NSAIDs fail.^[2]^[3] Beta-blockers (e.g., propranolol) manage thyrotoxic symptoms, and levothyroxine replacement is provided if hypothyroidism persists beyond 3 months.^[1] Antithyroid drugs are ineffective and not recommended, as hyperthyroidism results from hormone release rather than overproduction.^[3] The prognosis is excellent, with full recovery of thyroid function in most patients within 12 months, though 5-15% may develop permanent hypothyroidism requiring lifelong therapy.^[2]^[1]^[5] Complications are rare but can include chronic hypothyroidism or, infrequently, atrial fibrillation during the thyrotoxic phase.^[3] Early recognition and supportive care are key to alleviating discomfort and preventing unnecessary interventions.^[2]

Background

Definition and synonyms

Subacute thyroiditis is a self-limited inflammatory disorder of the thyroid gland characterized by granulomatous inflammation, typically presenting with painful thyroid enlargement and systemic symptoms, and following a triphasic course of transient hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and eventual recovery to euthyroidism.^[6] This condition is classified as a form of painful thyroiditis, distinguishing it from other types through its granulomatous histology and self-resolving nature.^[7] Common synonyms for subacute thyroiditis include de Quervain's thyroiditis, subacute granulomatous thyroiditis, giant cell thyroiditis, and subacute nonsuppurative thyroiditis.^[6] It is differentiated from acute suppurative thyroiditis, which involves bacterial infection and pus formation leading to abscesses, and from chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis (Hashimoto's thyroiditis), an autoimmune condition characterized by lymphocytic infiltration without granulomas or significant pain.^[8] The eponym "de Quervain's thyroiditis" derives from the 1904 description by Swiss surgeon Fritz de Quervain, who first characterized the disorder as a subacute nonsuppurative thyroiditis based on its distinctive pathological features.^[9]

Epidemiology

Subacute thyroiditis has an estimated incidence of 4.9 to 12.1 cases per 100,000 person-years, based on long-term cohort data from iodine-sufficient regions such as the United States.^[8] In more recent assessments from the same cohort (1970-1997), the age- and sex-adjusted incidence rose to 12.1 cases per 100,000 person-years, with rates notably higher among women at 19.1 per 100,000 compared to 4.1 per 100,000 in men.^[8] These figures underscore the condition's relative rarity compared to other thyroid disorders, accounting for approximately 5% of thyroid-related presentations in clinical settings.^[10] The disease predominantly affects individuals aged 25 to 50 years, with a peak incidence in the fourth and fifth decades of life.^[11] It is rare in children and the elderly, with cases under 20 years or over 70 years comprising less than 5% of reported instances.^[8] A marked female predominance is observed, with a female-to-male ratio ranging from 3:1 to 5:1 across multiple studies, reflecting potential hormonal or immune-related influences on susceptibility.^[11]^[12] Epidemiological data are primarily reported from iodine-sufficient regions such as North America and Europe.^[8] Seasonal patterns reveal peaks in summer and early autumn, coinciding with increased enteroviral activity, as evidenced by Italian data indicating 66% of cases from June to September.^[13]^[14] During the COVID-19 pandemic from 2020 to 2022, reports of subacute thyroiditis surged, with incidence rates among COVID-19 survivors reaching 17.28 per 100,000—nearly double that of non-infected controls—and elevated proportions in thyroid clinics (up to 3% in 2020 versus 1.7-1.9% pre-pandemic).^[15]^[16] This trend included numerous post-vaccination cases, predominantly following mRNA vaccines, comprising over 60% of vaccine-associated thyroid disorders in systematic reviews of more than 50 reported instances.^[17]^[18]

Causes and mechanisms

Etiology

Subacute thyroiditis is primarily triggered by a post-viral inflammatory process, with many patients reporting a preceding upper respiratory tract infection 2 to 8 weeks earlier.^[19] This condition has been associated with various viral pathogens, including coxsackievirus, mumps, measles, adenovirus, and influenza.^[3] Initial case reports suggested an association with SARS-CoV-2 infection and post-vaccination events following mRNA COVID-19 vaccines, with multiple case reports and series documenting onset shortly after exposure, but a large-scale population study found no significant link.^[20]^[21]^[22] Genetic factors contribute significantly to susceptibility, with the HLA-B35 allele identified in approximately 70% of affected individuals across various populations.^[23] Additional genetic links include the HLA-B18:01 allele and the HLA-DRB101 haplotype, which may influence disease recurrence or severity in predisposed groups.^[24] Rare cases of subacute thyroiditis have been linked to drug exposure, particularly interferon-alpha used in treatments for hepatitis C or malignancies.^[25] Direct viral invasion of thyroid tissue has not been demonstrated; rather, the etiology involves an immune-mediated response triggered by the infection.^[26]

Pathophysiology

Subacute thyroiditis, also known as subacute granulomatous thyroiditis or de Quervain's thyroiditis, involves an immune-mediated inflammatory process that disrupts thyroid follicular architecture. Although often preceded by viral triggers such as upper respiratory infections, the condition is characterized by a granulomatous response without direct evidence of viral replication within thyroid tissue, as no viral particles or inclusion bodies have been identified in affected glands.^[3]^[11] This inflammation is driven by cytotoxic T lymphocytes and other immune cells targeting follicular cells, leading to epithelial disruption and release of stored thyroid hormones.^[11] The process is associated with genetic factors, including the HLA-B35 allele, which predisposes individuals to this immune dysregulation.^[23] Histologically, the thyroid exhibits granulomatous inflammation featuring multinucleated giant cells, epithelioid histiocytes, lymphocytes, and plasma cells surrounding disrupted follicles.^[3] These granulomas form as a response to follicular damage, with early stages showing extensive infiltration and colloid depletion, while later phases involve progressive fibrosis and partial glandular regeneration.^[11] Fine-needle aspiration typically reveals these characteristic giant cells and mixed inflammatory infiltrates, confirming the granulomatous nature without neoplastic changes.^[23] The hormonal perturbations arise from the destructive inflammation, resulting in a classic triphasic progression. Initially, the thyrotoxic phase occurs due to leakage of preformed thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) from damaged follicles, typically lasting 4-10 weeks and accompanied by suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels.^[3] This is followed by a hypothyroid phase, stemming from depletion of stored hormones and temporary inhibition of new synthesis amid ongoing inflammation, which may persist for 2-6 months and is often subclinical.^[11] Recovery ensues through follicular regeneration and resolution of inflammation, with 85-95% of patients achieving euthyroidism within 12 months, though a minority develop permanent hypothyroidism due to extensive fibrosis.^[23]

Clinical features

Signs and symptoms

Subacute thyroiditis typically presents with acute onset of anterior neck pain, which is the hallmark symptom and occurs in approximately 96% of cases. This pain is often severe and may radiate to the jaw, ears, or upper chest, exacerbated by swallowing, coughing, or head movement, and can migrate from one thyroid lobe to the other in a pattern known as "creeping thyroiditis." The thyroid gland is usually enlarged, forming a diffuse goiter that is tender and firm on palpation, though specific prevalence rates for goiter vary across studies but are commonly reported in the majority of patients.^[6]^[3] Systemic symptoms frequently accompany the local pain, including low-grade fever in about 54% of patients, malaise, fatigue, myalgias, and arthralgias, which contribute to a flu-like illness. These features often precede or coincide with the neck discomfort and can be prominent enough to mimic an infectious process.^[3]^[8] In the initial phase, approximately 47% of patients exhibit symptoms of transient thyrotoxicosis, such as palpitations, tachycardia, heat intolerance, tremor, anxiety, and weight loss, due to the release of stored thyroid hormones. These hypermetabolic signs typically last 2 to 8 weeks before potentially evolving into a hypothyroid phase.^[3]^[6]

Disease phases

Subacute thyroiditis typically progresses through three distinct phases, characterized by evolving thyroid hormone levels and associated symptoms. The initial thyrotoxic phase arises from the release of preformed thyroid hormones due to follicular damage and generally lasts 4 to 8 weeks. During this period, patients may experience hyperthyroid symptoms such as tachycardia, heat intolerance, nervousness, and weight loss, with exaggerated manifestations like atrial fibrillation occurring more frequently in older individuals. This phase resolves spontaneously as hormone stores deplete, without requiring intervention beyond symptom management.^[11] The hypothyroid phase follows in approximately 20% to 50% of cases, typically emerging after the thyrotoxic stage and persisting for 2 to 6 months. Symptoms during this time include fatigue, cold intolerance, constipation, dry skin, lethargy, and depression, reflecting depleted thyroid hormone reserves. This phase is often mild and self-limited, though it can cause significant discomfort if prolonged.^[27]^[11] Most patients enter a recovery phase thereafter, with euthyroid function returning in 85% to 95% of cases by 6 to 12 months from onset. Full restoration of normal thyroid hormone production occurs as inflamed tissue heals and follicles regenerate, though irregular scarring may occasionally impair function. Permanent hypothyroidism develops in only 5% to 10% of individuals, usually due to extensive follicular destruction.^[3]^[28]^[27] The overall risk of recurrence is low, affecting about 4% of patients, but it is substantially higher among those carrying the HLA-B35 allele, with up to a sixfold increased likelihood.^[11]^[27]

Diagnosis

Laboratory evaluation

Laboratory evaluation of subacute thyroiditis primarily involves assessing thyroid function, inflammatory markers, and autoantibodies to support diagnosis and distinguish it from other forms of thyroiditis. Thyroid function tests reveal a characteristic triphasic pattern that aligns with the disease phases, beginning with a thyrotoxic stage followed by hypothyroidism and eventual recovery.^[1]^[29] In the initial thyrotoxic phase, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels are suppressed, often below 0.05 μIU/mL, while free thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) are elevated, reflecting release of preformed hormones from damaged follicles.^[29] As the condition progresses to the hypothyroid phase, TSH rises significantly, and free T4 levels fall below normal, sometimes accompanied by low T3.^[1] Over time, typically within months, thyroid function normalizes in most patients, with serial testing every 2-4 weeks recommended to monitor this evolution.^[1] The total T3:T4 ratio is often less than 20 during this phase, aiding differentiation from Graves disease.^[29] Inflammatory markers are markedly elevated, providing key evidence of the granulomatous inflammation. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) exceeds 50 mm/h in approximately 90% of cases and frequently surpasses 100 mm/h, serving as a hallmark finding that helps distinguish subacute thyroiditis from painless or postpartum variants where ESR is normal.^[29] C-reactive protein (CRP) levels are also raised during the acute phase, correlating with disease activity and often paralleling ESR trends.^[30] These elevations typically resolve with clinical improvement.^[29] Autoantibody testing is essential to rule out autoimmune thyroid diseases. Antithyroperoxidase (anti-TPO) and antithyroglobulin (anti-Tg) antibodies are usually absent or present at low titers, with transient positivity in approximately 15% for anti-TPO and 40-60% for anti-Tg during the early phase; such findings do not indicate underlying autoimmune thyroiditis.^[29]^[31] Additional laboratory findings may include mild anemia and leukocytosis, reflecting the systemic inflammatory response, though these are nonspecific and occur in a subset of patients.^[11] Thyroglobulin levels are elevated in over 90% of cases during the early and active phases due to follicular disruption but tend to normalize in the recovery phase.^[32]

Imaging and biopsy

Ultrasound is a primary non-invasive imaging modality for evaluating subacute thyroiditis, revealing characteristic hypoechoic and heterogeneous areas within the thyroid gland, often with ill-defined margins and a lack of discrete nodular shape.^[33] These findings reflect the inflammatory involvement, and color Doppler ultrasound typically demonstrates reduced vascularity or avascularity in the affected regions during the acute phase, distinguishing it from hypervascular conditions like Graves' disease.^[34] Ultrasound is also useful for identifying rare complications such as nodules or abscess formation, though these are uncommon in subacute thyroiditis.^[35] Nuclear scintigraphy, particularly with technetium-99m pertechnetate or iodine-123, plays a key role in confirming the functional impact of subacute thyroiditis by showing low radioactive iodine uptake (RAIU), typically less than 5-10% at 24 hours during the thyrotoxic phase.^[29] This reduced uptake results from inhibited thyroid hormone synthesis due to follicular cell damage and release of preformed hormone stores, as detailed in the pathophysiology section.^[36] Scintigraphic images often display patchy or globally decreased tracer uptake in the thyroid, aiding differentiation from other causes of thyrotoxicosis with normal or high RAIU.^[37] Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy is not routinely required for diagnosing subacute thyroiditis but is indicated when malignancy is suspected, such as in cases of a persistent solitary nodule or atypical presentation.^[29] Cytological examination of FNA samples typically reveals multinucleated giant cells, epithelioid histiocytes, and a mixed inflammatory infiltrate including lymphocytes and plasma cells, with fragmented colloid material in the background.^[38] These features, particularly the presence of giant cells in nearly all cases, support the granulomatous inflammatory nature of the condition and help rule out neoplastic processes.^[39] Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is uncommonly employed in subacute thyroiditis, reserved for assessing potential extrathyroidal extension or complications in severe cases, though such extension is rare due to the self-limited inflammatory process.^[40] On CT, the thyroid may appear enlarged with heterogeneous attenuation, while MRI can highlight edematous changes as areas of high signal intensity on T2-weighted images, aiding in exclusion of alternative pathologies like abscess or tumor invasion.^[29] Recent advances as of 2025 include proposed diagnostic criteria requiring two major features (e.g., elevated ESR or CRP; ultrasound hypoechoic areas with reduced vascularity) plus at least one supporting finding (e.g., low RAIU, typical FNA); emerging tools such as contrast-enhanced ultrasound for differentiating from malignancy and biomarkers like hepcidin (AUC 0.735 for diagnosis) are being investigated.^[21]

Management and outcomes

Treatment approaches

Treatment of subacute thyroiditis is primarily symptomatic and supportive, focusing on alleviating pain, inflammation, and thyroid hormone-related symptoms while avoiding therapies that target hormone synthesis, as the condition involves hormone release rather than overproduction.^[25] The approach is tailored to the disease phase, with most cases resolving spontaneously within 3-6 months.^[6] For pain and inflammation management, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen at 400-800 mg every 8 hours are recommended as first-line therapy for mild to moderate symptoms.^[6] In severe or refractory cases, corticosteroids like prednisone at 40 mg daily are used, followed by a taper of 5-10 mg weekly over 4-6 weeks to minimize recurrence risk during withdrawal.^[6]^[3] During the hyperthyroid phase, beta-blockers such as propranolol at 10-40 mg every 6-8 hours are employed to control symptoms like tachycardia and tremors, titrated to effect.^[25] Antithyroid drugs are not indicated, as there is no excess thyroid hormone synthesis.^[25] In the hypothyroid phase, levothyroxine supplementation at 50-100 mcg daily is provided if patients are symptomatic or have TSH levels above 10 mIU/L, with discontinuation attempted after 1-2 months upon recovery of thyroid function.^[6]^[25] Adjunctive measures include analgesics for additional pain relief and rest to support recovery.^[6] Surgery is rarely required, occurring in less than 1% of cases, typically for complications such as abscess formation or unremitting pain unresponsive to medical therapy.^[3]

Prognosis and complications

Subacute thyroiditis is generally a self-limited condition, with full recovery of thyroid function occurring in 85-95% of cases.^[41]^[25] The median duration of the disease is 4-6 months, encompassing the thyrotoxic, hypothyroid, and recovery phases, after which most patients return to euthyroidism.^[3]^[28] Complications are uncommon but can include transient atrial fibrillation during the thyrotoxic phase, affecting approximately 5% of patients due to the associated hyperthyroxinemia.^[11] Permanent hypothyroidism develops in 5-10% of cases, typically resulting from extensive follicular destruction, and may require lifelong levothyroxine replacement.^[25]^[42] Rare complications include thyroid fibrosis in severe or recurrent cases, which can impair gland function, and coexistence of papillary thyroid carcinoma, reported in up to 4.4% of patients in some biopsied cohorts, though the association is likely coincidental and remains under investigation.^[43]^[44]^[11] Recurrence occurs in 1-4% of patients overall, though rates may reach up to 20% in certain populations, and is strongly associated with the HLA-B35 allele, particularly when co-occurring with HLA-B*18:01.^[45]^[46] Case reports have described subacute thyroiditis following COVID-19 infection or vaccination, potentially due to immune dysregulation, but large population studies as of 2024 have not found an increased incidence or recurrence risk.^[47]^[20]^[48] Monitoring involves follow-up thyroid function tests every 4-6 weeks until normalization to detect persistent hypothyroidism or recurrence early.^[14] Treatment with corticosteroids can reduce the duration of symptoms, though it does not alter the overall prognosis in most cases.^[25]

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