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Colloid

A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which microscopically dispersed insoluble particles of one substance are suspended throughout another substance, with particle sizes typically ranging from 1 to 1000 nanometers, placing it intermediate between true solutions and coarse suspensions.^[1] These particles remain evenly distributed without settling due to Brownian motion, the random zigzagging caused by collisions with molecules of the dispersing medium.^[2] Colloids exhibit unique optical properties, such as the Tyndall effect, where they scatter light passing through them, making the beam visible—unlike true solutions that allow light to pass without scattering.^[3] Colloids are classified by the phases of the dispersed and dispersing media, yielding types like sols (solid in liquid), emulsions (liquid in liquid), foams (gas in liquid), and aerosols (liquid or solid in gas).^[4] Common examples include milk (fat globules in water), fog (water droplets in air), and gelatin (solid network in liquid).^[5] Many colloidal particles carry electrical charges, which contribute to stability by electrostatic repulsion, preventing aggregation, though they can be destabilized by electrolytes leading to coagulation.^[6] Colloid science has broad applications across industries, including food science (e.g., mayonnaise as an emulsion), pharmaceuticals (drug delivery via nanoparticles), and biotechnology (enzyme immobilization).^[7] In environmental engineering, colloids play roles in water treatment through coagulation processes to remove suspended particles.^[4] Emerging uses in nanotechnology leverage colloidal assemblies for advanced materials like self-propelled particles and biomedical sensors.^[8]

Fundamentals

Definition and Characteristics

A colloid is a type of mixture in which one substance, consisting of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles, is suspended throughout another substance, known as the continuous phase or dispersion medium.^[9] The dispersed particles have at least one dimension in the approximate range of 1 nm to 1 μm (10^{-9} to 10^{-6} m), resulting in a system that appears homogeneous to the naked eye but is heterogeneous at the molecular scale.^[9] The term "colloid" was coined in 1861 by Scottish chemist Thomas Graham, who used it to describe gelatinous substances like silicic acid that failed to diffuse through parchment membranes, in contrast to crystalloids that diffused readily. Key characteristics of colloids include the Tyndall effect, in which the dispersed particles scatter incident light, rendering the beam visible as a path through the medium due to the particle size being comparable to the wavelength of visible light./Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Colloid/Tyndall_Effect) Colloids also exhibit kinetic stability, meaning the particles remain dispersed without rapid settling because Brownian motion—the random, incessant movement caused by collisions with molecules of the dispersion medium—counteracts gravitational forces.^[10] This stability arises from the small particle size, which limits sedimentation velocity while promoting constant agitation. Colloids differ from true solutions, where solute particles are smaller than 1 nm and fully dissolve without scattering light or settling, and from coarse suspensions, where particles exceed 1 μm and settle quickly under gravity./07%3A_Solids_Liquids_and_Gases/7.06%3A_Colloids_and_Suspensions) Representative examples include milk, an emulsion of fat globules (approximately 0.1–10 μm) dispersed in water, and fog, an aerosol of liquid water droplets (about 1–10 μm) in air.^[11]

Properties and Behavior

Colloidal systems exhibit distinctive optical properties arising from the interaction of light with dispersed particles typically ranging from 1 nm to 1 μm in size. The Tyndall effect, first observed by John Tyndall in 1869, describes the scattering of light by these particles, rendering the beam visible as a cone of scattered light when passed through the colloid, in contrast to true solutions where no such scattering occurs. For particles much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (<< 400–700 nm), scattering follows Rayleigh's theory, where intensity is proportional to 1/λ⁴, leading to preferential scattering of shorter blue wavelengths, analogous to the blue sky phenomenon but intensified in colloids due to higher particle density. This effect allows direct visualization of particle motion; using an ultramicroscope invented by Richard Zsigmondy in 1903, Brownian motion appears as erratic zig-zag paths of individual particles illuminated against a dark background, confirming their kinetic agitation without sedimentation. Rheological properties of colloids are governed by particle-solvent interactions and concentration, often deviating from Newtonian behavior. Many colloidal suspensions display non-Newtonian viscosity, where flow resistance changes with shear rate; for instance, thixotropic gels, such as certain paints or drilling muds, exhibit time-dependent viscosity reduction under shear due to temporary breakdown of particle networks. In dilute suspensions of spherical particles, viscosity η increases linearly with volume fraction φ according to Einstein's 1906 derivation:

\eta = \eta_0 (1 + 2.5 \phi)

where η₀ is the solvent viscosity; this relation holds for φ < 0.05, highlighting how even low particle loadings enhance drag through hydrodynamic perturbations. Electrical properties stem from surface charges on colloidal particles, leading to the formation of an electrical double layer. Charged particles in a polar medium attract counterions, creating a compact Stern layer of adsorbed ions tightly bound to the surface, followed by a diffuse layer of loosely associated ions extending into the solvent.^[12] The zeta potential ζ represents the effective potential at the slipping plane (interface between bound and diffuse layers), typically measured via electrophoresis; values exceeding |30| mV indicate electrostatic repulsion sufficient for stability against aggregation.^[12] Thermal properties of colloids are characterized by enhanced stability against temperature-induced changes, primarily due to Brownian motion. The random collisions from solvent molecules impart kinetic energy (3/2 kT per degree of freedom) to particles, counteracting gravitational settling and maintaining dispersion even as temperature rises, provided no phase transitions occur; this agitation ensures uniformity without external mixing at ambient conditions.^[13] Colloids display osmotic pressure intermediate between that of true molecular solutions and coarse suspensions. In true solutions, osmotic pressure π = cRT (from van't Hoff) arises from numerous solute molecules, yielding high values; coarse suspensions contribute negligibly due to settling and low particle count per volume. Colloidal osmotic pressure, measurable via semipermeable membranes, balances contributions from both solvent-solute and finite particle numbers, resulting in moderate values that sustain equilibrium without rapid diffusion or sedimentation.^[14]

Comparison with Solutions and Suspensions

Colloids occupy an intermediate position between true solutions and coarse suspensions in terms of particle size and mixture properties. In true solutions, the solute particles are molecularly dispersed with sizes less than 1 nm, resulting in a homogeneous mixture where the solute is completely dissolved and uniformly distributed at the molecular level.^[15] For example, sodium chloride in water forms a true solution, exhibiting no visible boundaries between solute and solvent.^[16] In contrast, coarse suspensions contain larger particles exceeding 1 μm (1000 nm) in diameter, leading to a heterogeneous mixture where the dispersed phase is distinctly visible and unevenly distributed.^[17] Sand particles suspended in water exemplify a coarse suspension, appearing opaque and allowing rapid separation by gravity.^[16] Colloidal dispersions, however, feature particles ranging from 1 to 1000 nm, which are large enough to influence mixture behavior but small enough to remain suspended for extended periods without immediate settling.^[18] A key optical distinction arises from the Tyndall effect, where a beam of light scatters visibly in colloidal dispersions due to the size of the particles, but passes undetected through true solutions, which lack such scattering particles.^[16] Coarse suspensions, while also scattering light, appear turbid overall because their larger particles block transmission more completely. Regarding settling, true solutions show no sedimentation, as solute particles do not aggregate or fall out. Coarse suspensions exhibit rapid settling under gravity, often within seconds or minutes, due to the substantial size and weight of the particles. Colloids demonstrate slow or negligible settling over time, maintaining apparent homogeneity despite their heterogeneous nature.^[16] Filtration further delineates these systems: particles in true solutions and colloids pass through ordinary filter paper, but those in coarse suspensions are retained, allowing easy separation. Dialysis provides a finer distinction, employing semipermeable membranes that permit crystalloids (small molecules from true solutions) to diffuse through while retaining larger colloidal particles. This technique, introduced by Thomas Graham in 1861 through experiments separating diffusible crystalloids from non-diffusible colloids using parchment or animal bladder membranes, established the foundational boundary between these mixture types.^[19] The slow settling in colloids can be quantified using Stokes' law, which describes the terminal settling velocity v of a spherical particle in a fluid as

v = \frac{2}{9} \frac{(\rho_p - \rho_f) g r^2}{\eta},

where \rho_p is the particle density, \rho_f the fluid density, g gravitational acceleration, r the particle radius, and \eta the fluid viscosity.^[20] For colloidal particles, the small radius r (on the order of 1-500 nm) results in a very low v, often approaching zero under ambient conditions, in contrast to the higher velocities for suspension particles with r > 500 nm. This kinetic barrier contributes to the kinetic stability of colloids, where dispersions remain dispersed despite being thermodynamically unstable and prone to eventual aggregation without stabilizing forces.^[21]

Classification

By Phases and Composition

Colloids are classified primarily according to the physical states of the dispersed phase and the continuous phase, which together determine their structure and behavior. This framework identifies eight principal types, each characterized by specific combinations of solid, liquid, or gas phases.^[22] The following table summarizes these types, including representative examples:

Dispersed Phase	Continuous Phase	Type	Example
Gas	Liquid	Foam	Whipped cream
Gas	Solid	Solid foam	Styrofoam
Liquid	Gas	Aerosol	Fog or mist
Liquid	Liquid	Emulsion	Mayonnaise
Liquid	Solid	Gel	Gelatin dessert
Solid	Gas	Solid aerosol	Smoke
Solid	Liquid	Sol	Paint
Solid	Solid	Solid sol	Opal

These classifications emphasize the phase states, though colloidal composition may also involve bimodal or multimodal particle size distributions within the dispersed phase, influencing overall properties without altering the primary type.^[22]^[23] An additional compositional distinction arises from the affinity between the dispersed phase and the continuous phase, leading to lyophilic and lyophobic colloids. Lyophilic colloids, or solvent-loving systems, exhibit strong interactions between phases, resulting in thermodynamic stability without added stabilizers; for instance, gelatin dispersed in water forms a stable sol due to solvation layers around particles.^[24] In contrast, lyophobic colloids, or solvent-repelling systems, show weak interactions and require electrostatic or steric stabilizers to prevent aggregation; gold sols in water exemplify this, relying on charged surfaces for dispersion.^[23] Among these categories, colloids with a liquid continuous phase—particularly aquasols where water serves as the medium—are the most prevalent in natural and industrial contexts, such as biological fluids and paints.^[23]

Hydrocolloids and Special Types

Hydrocolloids are a class of colloids in which water serves as the continuous phase, featuring dispersed particles or macromolecules—typically hydrophilic polymers derived from natural sources such as plants, animals, or microorganisms—that exhibit a strong affinity for water.^[25] These systems interact with water through solvation (e.g., starch and gelatin, which form stable sols or gels due to polar groups).^[18] The primary components of hydrocolloids include a dispersed phase consisting of hydrophilic macromolecules such as polysaccharides (e.g., pectin, alginate) or proteins (e.g., casein), which provide the structural backbone, and the continuous phase of water that hydrates and solvates these entities.^[26] Additives like electrolytes are often incorporated to modulate stability by adjusting ionic strength, which can either enhance repulsion between particles via electrostatic forces or promote flocculation at higher concentrations.^[27] Gelation in hydrocolloids occurs through mechanisms such as hydrogen bonding, as seen in agar where polysaccharide chains form a three-dimensional network upon cooling, trapping water molecules to create a semi-solid structure.^[28] Among special types of colloids, organosols represent dispersions of solid or liquid particles in organic solvents as the continuous phase, analogous to hydrosols but suited for non-aqueous environments, such as polymer nanoparticles in toluene for coatings or adhesives.^[29] Association colloids, on the other hand, form spontaneously from amphiphilic molecules like surfactants, aggregating into micelles above the critical micelle concentration (typically around 10^{-3} M for common ionic surfactants), where hydrophobic tails cluster inward and hydrophilic heads face the aqueous medium, enabling solubilization of otherwise insoluble substances.^[30] Recent advances as of 2025 have focused on biodegradable hydrocolloids, such as basil seed gum-based films, for sustainable materials in packaging, offering eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic plastics with enhanced barrier properties and renewability.^[31]

Particle Interactions and Dynamics

Interparticle Forces

In colloidal systems, interparticle forces dictate the balance between aggregation and dispersion stability. These forces primarily encompass attractive van der Waals interactions and repulsive electrostatic interactions between charged particles, as formalized in the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory developed in the 1940s.^[32] The theory posits that the net interaction potential determines whether particles remain dispersed or flocculate, with stability achieved when repulsion dominates at short ranges.^[33] Van der Waals forces arise from transient dipole-dipole interactions between molecules, leading to an attractive potential that scales inversely with separation distance. For two spherical particles of radius a separated by a surface-to-surface distance d, the non-retarded van der Waals potential is approximated as

V_A = -\frac{A}{6} \left( \frac{2a^2}{2d^2 + 4ad} + \frac{2a^2}{d^2 + 4ad} + \ln \left( \frac{d^2 + 4ad}{2d^2 + 4ad} \right) \right),

where A is the Hamaker constant, typically on the order of $10^{-20} to $10^{-21} J for interactions in vacuum or nonpolar media, reflecting material-specific dispersion forces.^[34] At larger separations (beyond ~10 nm), retardation effects reduce the potential due to finite propagation speed of electromagnetic interactions, modifying the $1/d^6 molecular decay to a slower $1/d^7.^[32] Electrostatic repulsion originates from the overlap of electrical double layers surrounding charged colloidal particles, governed by the surface charge and electrolyte concentration. The repulsive potential in the Derjaguin approximation for low potentials is

V_R = 2 \pi \epsilon a \psi^2 \exp(-\kappa h),

where \epsilon is the permittivity of the medium, \psi is the surface (or effective zeta) potential, \kappa is the Debye-Hückel screening parameter (inversely proportional to the Debye length), and h is the separation (approximating d for thin double layers).^[32] This exponential decay ensures repulsion is short-ranged in high-ionic-strength media, where \kappa increases. The total DLVO potential is then V_\text{total} = V_A + V_R, often exhibiting a repulsive energy barrier near contact; however, a shallow secondary minimum at larger separations (~10-50 nm) can form if van der Waals attraction outweighs repulsion, promoting reversible flocculation, while the deep primary minimum at close approach (~1-2 nm) drives irreversible aggregation.^[34] Steric stabilization supplements DLVO interactions by adsorbing or grafting polymer chains onto particle surfaces, creating a physical barrier that generates repulsive forces upon overlap. When two sterically stabilized particles approach, interpenetration of the polymer layers induces entropic repulsion from conformational restrictions and osmotic repulsion from solvent exclusion, with the potential scaling as the square of the overlap volume for good solvents.^[35] This mechanism is particularly effective in nonpolar media or at high ionic strengths where electrostatic repulsion weakens. Modern extensions to DLVO theory incorporate additional non-DLVO forces observed in specialized systems. Hydrophobic interactions, arising from structured water around nonpolar surfaces, introduce a strong, long-range attraction (up to 100 nm) that can dominate in aqueous dispersions of hydrophobic colloids, as quantified in extended DLVO models for mineral particles.^[36] For magnetic colloids, dipole-dipole forces add an orientation-dependent attraction or repulsion, integrated into extended frameworks to predict assembly in external fields, as demonstrated in recent studies of superparamagnetic nanoparticles.^[37]

Sedimentation and Diffusion

In colloidal systems, sedimentation refers to the gravitational settling of dispersed particles toward the bottom of a container, driven by the density difference between the particles and the surrounding fluid. For dilute suspensions of spherical particles, the sedimentation velocity v is described by Stokes' law:

v = \frac{2}{9} \frac{(\rho_p - \rho_f) g r^2}{\eta},

where \rho_p is the particle density, \rho_f is the fluid density, g is gravitational acceleration, r is the particle radius, and \eta is the fluid viscosity. This equation assumes laminar flow and negligible particle interactions, providing a foundational model for predicting settling rates in low-concentration colloids.^[38] To accelerate separation in practical applications, such as purifying colloidal suspensions, centrifugation applies an enhanced centrifugal force in place of gravity, achieving sedimentation velocities orders of magnitude higher than under normal gravity. This technique is particularly effective for separating nanoparticles or nanorods from mixtures, as the effective gravity scales with the square of the rotational speed, enabling precise isolation based on size and density.^[39] At higher particle concentrations, typically above 1-5% volume fraction, interparticle interactions lead to hindered settling, where the collective motion reduces individual velocities due to hydrodynamic coupling and increased effective viscosity. Semi-empirical models, such as those based on Richardson-Zaki correlations, quantify this hindrance as a function of the solids volume fraction \phi, often expressing the reduced velocity as v = v_0 (1 - \phi)^n, with n around 4-5 for many aqueous colloids, highlighting the transition from free to collective sedimentation dynamics.^[40] Diffusion in colloids arises from the random thermal motion of particles, quantified by the diffusion coefficient D via the Stokes-Einstein equation:

D = \frac{k T}{6 \pi \eta r},

where k is Boltzmann's constant and T is temperature, linking microscopic fluctuations to macroscopic transport. The mean square displacement \langle x^2 \rangle over time t in d dimensions follows

\langle x^2 \rangle = 2 d D t,

characterizing the diffusive spread and enabling experimental determination of particle size from observed trajectories.^[41] Brownian motion manifests as a random walk of colloidal particles due to collisions with solvent molecules, which in dilute systems counteracts sedimentation by maintaining suspension stability over timescales where gravitational settling would otherwise dominate. This stochastic process ensures that particles explore space uniformly, preventing rapid aggregation or layering unless external forces overwhelm thermal agitation.^[42] The interplay between sedimentation (advection) and diffusion is captured by the Péclet number \mathrm{Pe} = v L / D, where L is a characteristic length scale, such as particle diameter or container height; low \mathrm{Pe} (<<1) indicates diffusion-dominated transport, while high \mathrm{Pe} (>>1) signifies advection control, influencing structure formation in settling colloids. Interparticle forces can modulate this balance by altering effective diffusion rates.^[43] In biological contexts, sedimentation dynamics of colloidal-like red blood cells affect flow properties, where erythrocyte aggregation forms reversible networks that hinder settling and influence viscosity in microcirculation.^[44] Recent studies on the International Space Station, including experiments from 2020 published in 2023 and long-term investigations up to 2025, have revealed that microgravity suppresses sedimentation-driven clustering in charged colloids, allowing observation of diffusion-limited aggregation mechanisms otherwise masked by gravity, with implications for materials processing in orbital environments.^[45]^[46]

Preparation

Dispersion Techniques

Dispersion techniques involve top-down approaches to prepare colloids by mechanically breaking down bulk materials into nanoscale particles, typically ranging from 1 to 1000 nm in size. These methods are particularly useful for creating stable dispersions of insoluble substances, such as metals or pigments, where molecular-level assembly is impractical.^[47] Mechanical dispersion methods, including milling, grinding, and homogenization, apply shear and impact forces to fragment larger particles into colloidal dimensions. In ball milling, for instance, hard materials like pigments are ground using rotating balls in a drum, producing fine dispersions suitable for paints and inks by reducing particle aggregates through repeated collisions. High-shear mixing and homogenization employ rotor-stator systems or high-pressure jets to generate intense turbulence, effectively deagglomerating particles in viscous media like emulsions. These techniques achieve submicron particle sizes but require significant energy input and may introduce contaminants from milling media.^[48]^[49] Peptization converts freshly precipitated insoluble compounds into colloidal sols by adding small amounts of electrolytes that adsorb onto particle surfaces, imparting charge and preventing reaggregation. A classic example is the preparation of ferric hydroxide sol by adding a dilute ferric chloride solution to boiling water, where hydrolysis produces Fe(OH)₃ precipitate that is peptized by adsorbed Fe³⁺ ions, forming a positively charged reddish-brown sol. This method is efficient for hydrophilic colloids like metal hydroxides and relies on electrostatic repulsion for initial stability.^[50] Ultrasonic dispersion utilizes high-frequency sound waves to induce cavitation bubbles in the liquid medium, whose implosive collapse generates localized high shear and shock waves that break down particle aggregates. This technique is effective for dispersing nanoparticles in fluids, enhancing uniformity without mechanical contact. Similarly, Bredig's arc method, developed in the late 19th century, produces metal colloids like gold or silver sols by striking an electric arc between metal electrodes submerged in a cooling liquid, such as water; the arc vaporizes the metal, which condenses into fine particles upon quenching.^[51]^[52] A recent advancement in dispersion techniques is laser ablation in liquids, where a focused laser beam irradiates a solid target submerged in a solvent, ejecting and fragmenting material into ligand-free nanoparticles through plasma formation and cavitation. This method, refined post-2020 for scalable, contamination-free synthesis, yields highly pure colloids of metals and semiconductors with narrow size distributions, often below 10 nm, and is advantageous for biomedical applications due to its solvent tunability. Overall, dispersion techniques excel for insoluble materials but are energy-intensive and prone to contamination, contrasting with bottom-up condensation methods.^[53]

Condensation Techniques

Condensation techniques involve the aggregation of smaller molecular or ionic species to form colloidal particles, providing a bottom-up approach to colloid synthesis that contrasts with dispersion methods by building structures from atomic or molecular precursors. These methods rely on chemical reactions to nucleate and grow particles within a dispersion medium, often yielding sols or gels depending on the phases involved. Key processes include chemical condensation reactions and controlled polymerization, which enable precise control over particle size and composition when reaction conditions are optimized.^[54] Chemical condensation typically proceeds through reactions such as double decomposition, where ions combine to form insoluble precipitates that are peptized into colloidal form. For instance, silver iodide (AgI) sol is prepared by mixing silver nitrate (AgNO₃) with potassium iodide (KI) in aqueous solution, resulting in the formation of AgI particles stabilized by excess iodide ions to produce a negatively charged colloid. Similarly, oxidation or reduction reactions facilitate metal colloid formation; a classic example is the preparation of gold sol by reducing auric chloride (AuCl₃) with formaldehyde in alkaline medium, yielding stable ruby-red particles through the reaction 2AuCl₃ + 3HCHO + 3H₂O → 2Au (sol) + 3HCOOH + 6HCl. These techniques produce lyophobic colloids, such as metal or inorganic sols, with particle sizes typically in the 1-100 nm range.^[55]^[56] The sol-gel process represents another prominent condensation method, involving hydrolysis and subsequent polymerization of precursors to form oxide networks. In silica synthesis, tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) undergoes acid- or base-catalyzed hydrolysis followed by condensation to produce Si-O-Si bonds, forming a sol of silica nanoparticles that can gel upon further reaction; this is exemplified by ambient-temperature hydrolysis of TEOS in ethanol-water mixtures, yielding uniform particles around 20-50 nm in diameter. During growth in these processes, Ostwald ripening occurs, where larger particles grow at the expense of smaller ones due to the Gibbs-Thomson effect, which increases the solubility of smaller particles owing to their higher surface curvature and associated free energy. This phenomenon, described in the Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner theory, leads to polydispersity reduction over time but requires careful control to avoid excessive coarsening.^[57]^[54] Recent advances in condensation techniques emphasize microemulsion templating for synthesizing uniform nanoparticles, where reverse micelles in oil-water-surfactant systems act as nanoreactors to confine growth and enhance monodispersity. In the 2020s, green chemistry approaches have integrated this method using plant extracts as reducing agents and low-toxicity surfactants like castor oil, enabling eco-friendly production of gold nanoparticles with sizes around 20 nm. These templating strategies are particularly advantageous for creating hydrophobic or organophilic colloids with tailored morphologies. Overall, condensation techniques offer the benefit of producing highly uniform particles with specific compositions, though they are sensitive to variables like pH, temperature, and reactant concentrations, which can lead to aggregation or irregular sizing if not precisely managed.^[58]^[59]

Stability and Manipulation

Stabilization Methods

Stabilization methods in colloidal systems are essential to prevent particle aggregation and maintain dispersion uniformity by counteracting attractive interparticle forces, such as van der Waals interactions. These techniques primarily rely on generating repulsive forces or physical barriers between particles, ensuring long-term stability in suspensions used across industrial, medical, and environmental applications. The main approaches include electrostatic, steric, and depletion mechanisms, each tailored to specific colloidal compositions and environmental conditions. Electrostatic stabilization involves imparting surface charges to colloidal particles, which generate repulsive Coulombic forces via the formation of an electrical double layer. This is commonly achieved by adsorbing charged surfactants or introducing ions that bind to particle surfaces, increasing the zeta potential and thus the repulsion range. For instance, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), an anionic surfactant, adsorbs onto particles to confer a negative charge, effectively stabilizing aqueous dispersions of hydrophobic nanoparticles by preventing coagulation through double-layer overlap. This mechanism is particularly effective in low-ionic-strength media, where the Debye length remains sufficient to sustain repulsion, as demonstrated in studies of charged colloidal particles with adsorbed polyelectrolytes. Steric stabilization employs non-ionic polymers that adsorb onto particle surfaces, creating a protective layer that hinders close approach through entropic and enthalpic effects. Polymers such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) form extended coils in good solvents, generating an osmotic repulsion when layers from adjacent particles interpenetrate, which increases the free energy of the system. The underlying polymer-solvent interactions are described by the Flory-Huggins theory, which quantifies the mixing free energy via the Flory-Huggins interaction parameter \chi, where \chi < 0.5 indicates favorable solvation and effective stabilization. This approach is widely used for biocompatible colloids, as the polymer brush reduces protein adsorption and enhances circulation time in physiological environments. Depletion stabilization arises from the addition of non-adsorbing polymers to the dispersion, which create an effective repulsion between colloidal particles at larger separations despite inducing short-range attractions. In this mechanism, polymers are excluded from a thin layer around each particle (depletion zone), leading to an osmotic pressure imbalance that favors particle separation beyond twice the polymer radius, thereby stabilizing the colloid against sedimentation or flocculation. Theoretical models show that increasing polymer molecular weight or concentration shifts the interaction potential, enhancing stabilization by widening the repulsive barrier, as predicted for mixtures of colloids and unattached polymers. This method is advantageous for tuning stability in polymer-rich media without surface modification. A notable advancement in the 2000s involved the use of DNA-linked particles for programmable self-assembly of colloids mimicking atomic bonding, where complementary DNA strands on surfaces enable specific hybridization-driven attractions while maintaining overall repulsion through steric coatings. Recent extensions in 2023-2024 have refined DNA-mediated self-assembly for complex structures, incorporating temperature-responsive linkers to control reversibility and stability in dynamic environments.^[60] Biomimetic stabilization using peptides has emerged as a promising strategy in recent years (2020-2025), leveraging short amino acid sequences to mimic natural protein interactions for enhanced colloidal durability. Ultrashort peptides, such as those with aromatic or charged residues, adsorb onto nanoparticle surfaces to form self-assembled monolayers that provide both electrostatic and steric barriers, significantly improving stability against aggregation in saline solutions. For example, tripeptide-capped silver nanohybrids demonstrate pH-responsive assembly, where peptide amphiphilicity drives colloidal stabilization while enabling targeted disassembly, as shown in biomimetic designs for antimicrobial applications. These peptide-based approaches offer biocompatibility advantages over synthetic polymers, with advances focusing on sequence optimization for selective binding and long-term dispersion integrity.^[61]

Destabilization Processes

Destabilization processes in colloids involve mechanisms that overcome repulsive forces between particles, leading to aggregation and eventual phase separation. These processes are essential in applications requiring controlled aggregation, such as water purification, where colloids must be removed from suspension. The primary mechanisms include coagulation, driven by electrolytes, and flocculation, often induced by polymers or in specific systems like emulsions.^[32] Coagulation occurs when electrolytes neutralize the surface charge on colloidal particles, reducing the electrostatic repulsion that maintains stability. According to the Schulze-Hardy rule, the critical coagulation concentration (CCC) of an electrolyte decreases approximately with the sixth power of the counterion valence, making multivalent ions far more effective coagulants than monovalent ones; for example, divalent cations like Ca²⁺ coagulate at much lower concentrations than Na⁺. This valence-squared effect arises because higher-valence ions more efficiently screen and compress the electrical double layer around particles. The DLVO theory explains this instability: at high salt concentrations, the Debye screening parameter κ increases, compressing the double layer and lowering the repulsive energy barrier, allowing van der Waals attractions to dominate and promote aggregation.^[32] Coagulation can be perikinetic, dominated by Brownian motion for small particles (typically <1 μm), or orthokinetic, induced by hydrodynamic shear in larger particles or turbulent flows, with orthokinetic rates scaling with shear velocity gradient. Flocculation extends coagulation by forming larger aggregates through bridging, where polymers adsorb onto multiple particles via segments of their chains, creating interparticle links that enhance collision efficiency. This process is particularly effective with high-molecular-weight polyelectrolytes that extend far enough to span the gap between approaching particles, with bridge strength depending on adsorption energy and polymer conformation.^[62] In emulsions, additional destabilization occurs via Ostwald ripening, where smaller droplets dissolve and redeposit onto larger ones due to Laplace pressure differences, leading to polydispersity increase, or coalescence, where thin films between droplets rupture, merging them into larger ones and accelerating phase separation. Recent advances in the 2020s include the use of magnetic nanoparticles in wastewater treatment to enhance controlled destabilization; these particles, often iron oxide-based, act as coagulant aids by providing magnetic separability and improving flocculation efficiency, achieving up to 95% removal of colloidal pollutants like dyes or heavy metals under optimized conditions, with reduced sludge volume compared to traditional methods.^[63]

Monitoring and Prediction

Monitoring the stability of colloidal systems is essential for ensuring their performance in various applications, relying on techniques that detect early signs of aggregation, flocculation, or sedimentation. Turbidity measurements serve as a straightforward optical method to assess dispersion homogeneity, where an increase in turbidity signals particle growth or clustering due to light scattering by larger aggregates.^[64] Dynamic light scattering (DLS) provides detailed insights into particle size distributions and diffusion coefficients, enabling real-time tracking of aggregation kinetics by analyzing Brownian motion fluctuations.^[65] Zeta potential analysis complements these by quantifying the electrostatic repulsion between particles; absolute values greater than 30 mV generally correlate with enhanced colloidal repulsion and stability against coalescence.^[66] Post-2020 advancements have introduced spectroscopic approaches like nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) for non-invasive, real-time monitoring of colloidal dynamics, capturing molecular-level interactions such as diffusion and adsorption in complex dispersions.^[67] Centrifugal stability tests further accelerate evaluation by subjecting samples to enhanced gravitational fields, promoting phase separation or sedimentation to forecast long-term behavior in hours rather than weeks.^[68] These methods collectively allow for comprehensive profiling of stability indicators, from macroscopic changes to nanoscale events. Predicting the shelf life of colloids involves kinetic models that extrapolate data from controlled conditions to real-world storage scenarios. Arrhenius kinetics underpins temperature-accelerated predictions by modeling the exponential dependence of aggregation rates on thermal energy, facilitating shelf life estimates from elevated-temperature experiments.^[69] Shelf life models based on these rates integrate factors like particle concentration and environmental stressors to forecast destabilization timelines, often achieving accuracy within 10-20% for dispersions like silica gels or protein solutions.^[70] Accelerated testing protocols, such as freeze-thaw cycles, simulate cryogenic stresses by repeatedly forming ice crystals that mechanically disrupt particle interfaces, revealing vulnerabilities in emulsion or suspension stability.^[71] High shear simulations replicate processing-induced forces, assessing resistance to shear-thinning or breakup in fluidic environments. Recent 2025 reviews highlight the integration of artificial intelligence with molecular simulations to predict stability, using machine learning algorithms trained on interaction datasets to anticipate aggregation propensity with higher precision than traditional models.^[72]

Advanced Structures

Colloidal Crystals

Colloidal crystals are ordered, periodic arrays of colloidal particles that form on length scales much larger than atomic crystals but exhibit analogous structural periodicity. These structures arise through self-assembly processes where particles organize into lattice arrangements due to interparticle interactions and external forces. Common formation methods include sedimentation, where gravity drives particles to settle and pack into ordered layers, and evaporation, which concentrates the suspension and promotes crystallization as solvent is removed. For instance, controlled evaporation of suspensions containing monodisperse silica spheres can yield high-quality crystals mimicking the iridescent structure of natural opals, which display vibrant colors from light interference.^[73]^[74] The most prevalent lattice types in colloidal crystals are the face-centered cubic (FCC) and hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structures, both achieving close packing with a coordination number of 12 and a packing fraction near 74%. These configurations emerge under conditions favoring thermodynamic equilibrium, such as low polydispersity and appropriate particle interactions. A key optical property of these crystals, particularly when composed of high-refractive-index materials like silica, is their ability to exhibit Bragg diffraction, leading to photonic band gaps that selectively reflect certain wavelengths of light. This phenomenon is governed by Bragg's law:

\lambda = 2 d \sin \theta

where \lambda is the wavelength of the diffracted light, d is the interplanar spacing (often related to the interparticle distance), and \theta is the angle of incidence. Such diffraction produces the characteristic structural colors observed in opals and synthetic photonic crystals.^[75]^[76] The existence of colloidal crystals was first systematically studied in the mid-20th century, with early experimental observations dating to the 1940s and 1950s through investigations of charged suspensions. Recent advances include bioinspired 3D drifting colloidal collectives, reported in 2023, which self-assemble into dynamic structures capable of underwater locomotion, expanding possibilities for responsive materials. In 2024, studies demonstrated work hardening in hard-sphere colloidal crystals under shear, revealing enhanced strength post-deformation akin to metallic crystals.^[77]^[78]^[79] These crystals hold promise for applications in photonic devices, such as optical filters and sensors, by leveraging their tunable light manipulation properties.^[80]

Colloids as Atomic Models

Colloidal systems serve as powerful experimental models for atomic and molecular phenomena due to their micron-sized particles, which enable real-time visualization of collective behaviors that are otherwise inaccessible in atomic-scale systems. Unlike atoms, colloidal particles can be directly observed using optical techniques, allowing researchers to track individual trajectories and witness dynamic processes such as phase transitions and the formation of glassy states. This visibility stems from the larger length and time scales of colloidal dynamics, where Brownian motion occurs over seconds and micrometers, facilitating the study of thermodynamic equilibrium and non-equilibrium states that mirror those in hard-sphere atomic liquids.^[81]^[82] A key example is the simulation of hard-sphere packing and melting, where nearly monodisperse polymethyl methacrylate spheres dispersed in an index-matched solvent approximate ideal hard spheres with tunable volume fractions. By varying the particle concentration, researchers induce crystallization at around 0.494 packing fraction and melting at 0.545, directly observing the fluid-to-solid transition via confocal microscopy, which provides three-dimensional positional data for thousands of particles over extended periods. Similarly, depletion forces induced by adding non-adsorbing polymers create effective attractions between colloids, mimicking van der Waals interactions in atomic systems and enabling the study of attractive glass formation and liquid-gas-like phase separation. These tunable interactions, rooted in entropic effects, allow precise control over potential energy landscapes analogous to those in molecular simulations.^[83]^[84]^[85] The 2014 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, awarded for super-resolution fluorescence microscopy, has significantly advanced these models by enabling sub-diffraction imaging of colloidal assemblies, extending observations from classical liquid crystals to disordered colloidal glasses and validating theoretical predictions of dynamical arrest. Recent advancements from 2020 to 2025 incorporate AI-accelerated simulations to analyze confocal tracking data, unifying colloidal and atomic glass transitions through bond-orientational order parameters and enhancing predictive models for relaxation times. An emerging field involves quantum colloid analogs at the nanoscale, such as colloidal quantum dots, which exhibit size-tunable quantum confinement effects to model atomic quantum behaviors in optoelectronic contexts. Confocal microscopy remains central, providing high-resolution particle tracking essential for validating these atomic-scale analogies.^[86]^[87]

Applications

In Biology

In biological systems, colloids play essential roles in maintaining cellular structure and function, with the cytoplasm serving as a prime example of a lyophilic sol-gel system. The cytoplasm, the gel-like matrix within cells, consists of water, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids that form a complex colloidal network, exhibiting reversible transitions between sol (fluid) and gel (viscous) states to facilitate intracellular transport and organization.^[88] This lyophilic nature arises from the strong affinity of cytoplasmic components for the aqueous dispersion medium, enabling dynamic fluidity essential for processes like organelle movement and signal transduction.^[18] Cell membranes, composed of lipid bilayers, function as colloidal emulsions that compartmentalize cellular contents and regulate molecular exchange. These bilayers self-organize into vesicle-like structures, akin to emulsions where amphiphilic lipids form dispersed phases in an aqueous environment, providing mechanical stability and selective permeability.^[89] In living cells, active contractile stresses within these membrane emulsions drive the mesoscale organization of proteins and lipids, mimicking emulsion dynamics to support processes such as endocytosis and cell motility.^[89] Colloidal properties underpin key physiological functions, including protein folding and blood circulation. During protein folding, molecular chaperones operate within the crowded colloidal environment of the cytoplasm to prevent aggregation and guide nascent polypeptides into functional conformations, ensuring proteostasis amid high macromolecular concentrations.^[88] Blood exemplifies a biological emulsion, where red and white blood cells, platelets, and other particulates are suspended as colloidal dispersions in plasma, the liquid medium rich in proteins like albumin that maintain osmotic balance and prevent sedimentation.^[90] The enzyme lysozyme, abundant in tears, stabilizes the colloidal tear film by adsorbing to the lipid layer, reducing surface tension, and enhancing the integrity of this protective emulsion against evaporation and microbial invasion.^[91] In virology, recent insights from the 2020s highlight viral capsids as self-assembling colloidal structures, where capsid proteins form ordered, polyhedral enclosures around genetic material through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, analogous to colloidal crystallization.^[92] These assemblies enable efficient viral packaging and transmission, with computational models revealing kinetic pathways that mirror colloidal phase transitions.^[93] Reversible sol-gel transitions are critical in muscle contraction, where actin-myosin interactions in the sarcomere induce gelation of actin filaments to generate contractile force, followed by solation upon relaxation to reset the system.^[94] This dynamic modulation, mediated by actin-binding proteins, couples cytoskeletal gelation with solation to produce rhythmic contractions essential for movement.^[95] A 2023 advance in bioinspired colloidal systems demonstrates self-assembled collectives of active particles that mimic planktonic swarms, achieving 3D locomotion via photothermal flows, offering models for understanding biological collective behaviors in colloidal contexts.^[78]

In the Environment

Colloids play a significant role in natural environmental processes, particularly in aquatic and atmospheric systems. In soils and natural waters, humic substances—complex organic macromolecules derived from the decomposition of plant and animal matter—form colloidal dispersions that influence soil structure and water chemistry.^[96] These substances, including humic and fulvic acids, constitute a major fraction of dissolved organic carbon and act as natural colloids by stabilizing particles through surface interactions.^[97] Similarly, atmospheric aerosols, consisting of fine suspended particles such as dust, sea salt, and organic matter, behave as colloids in the air, affecting visibility, radiation balance, and air quality.^[98] These natural colloids facilitate key environmental roles, including the transport of nutrients and the mobility of pollutants. In soil and water systems, colloids enhance nutrient transport by binding and carrying essential elements like phosphorus through porous media, preventing rapid fixation and enabling delivery to ecosystems.^[99] Pollutant mobility is similarly augmented, as heavy metals such as cadmium and lead adsorb onto clay colloids, allowing facilitated transport beyond what would occur in dissolved form alone; this process is particularly evident in groundwater and surface waters where clays act as carriers.^[100] In the atmosphere, aerosol colloids serve as cloud condensation nuclei, promoting cloud formation through activation when supersaturated air contacts these particles, which influences precipitation patterns and weather dynamics.^[101] Emerging colloidal pollutants, such as microplastics, have gained attention for their environmental persistence and transport potential. The nanoplastics fraction of microplastics, ranging from 1 nm to 1 μm, behaves as colloids and can adsorb organic contaminants or heavy metals, facilitating their spread in aquatic environments.^[102] Recent climate models from 2020 to 2025 increasingly incorporate aerosol colloid effects, showing that changes in aerosol concentrations alter cloud droplet activation and indirectly suppress or enhance rainfall by modifying precipitation efficiency.^[103] Colloid-facilitated contaminant transport has been a focus of expanded research in geochemistry, highlighting mechanisms where mobile particles bypass retardation in soils and aquifers, leading to faster pollutant dispersion than predicted by traditional models.^[99] In river systems, the fate of these colloids often involves aggregation due to varying ionic strength and shear forces, promoting flocculation and subsequent sedimentation that removes particles from the water column and contributes to benthic deposits.^[104] This aggregation process in rivers aligns with broader sedimentation dynamics observed in colloidal systems.

In Medicine and Industry

In medicine, colloidal solutions play a role in intravenous therapy for plasma volume expansion, particularly in cases of hypovolemic shock or critical illness. Albumin, a natural colloid derived from human plasma, is used in specific conditions like cirrhosis with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis to maintain oncotic pressure, though evidence for reducing edema compared to crystalloids is inconclusive; crystalloids are recommended as first-line therapy and require larger volumes for equivalent effects.^[105]^[106] Crystalloids provide rapid fluid replacement and distribute into interstitial spaces, but clinical evidence shows little difference in tissue swelling or mortality compared to colloids.^[106] Dextran offers an alternative for volume expansion but carries risks of anaphylaxis at higher incidence rates than some other colloids; hydroxyethyl starch (hetastarch) use is restricted as of 2025 due to risks of kidney injury and is not recommended for critically ill patients.^[107]^[108] Nanoparticle-based colloidal systems, such as liposomes, have revolutionized drug delivery by encapsulating therapeutic agents within lipid bilayers, enabling targeted release, improved bioavailability, and reduced systemic toxicity.^[109] These vesicles mimic cell membranes, facilitating controlled pharmacokinetics and crossing biological barriers more effectively than free drugs. Recent innovations leverage artificial intelligence to optimize colloidal formulations for personalized medicine, using predictive models to tailor nanocarrier properties like size and surface charge to individual patient profiles, enhancing efficacy in herbal drug delivery as demonstrated in 2025 studies.^[110] In industry, colloids have long been integral to various products, with historical applications including the gelatin silver process in photography, where colloidal gelatin emulsions sensitized silver halide crystals to light, dominating black-and-white film production from the late 19th century onward.^[111] Modern paints rely on colloidal dispersions of pigments in polymer resins, ensuring stability and uniform application through sol-based systems that prevent aggregation.^[112] Similarly, inks incorporate colloid particles to stabilize pigment suspensions and control rheology, enabling high-resolution printing.^[113] Food and cosmetics industries utilize colloidal emulsifiers to create stable mixtures, such as oil-in-water emulsions in mayonnaise or lotions, where particles like proteins or polysaccharides adsorb at interfaces to prevent phase separation.^[114] Hydrocolloids, including gums and starches, function as emulsifiers in food products like dressings, providing viscosity and texture control.^[115] In cosmetics, these colloids stabilize creams and shampoos, imparting smooth textures and preventing ingredient separation.^[114] Advances in polymer colloids have extended to 3D printing, with 2023 developments focusing on synthesizing stable latex particles for additive manufacturing, enabling complex structures with tunable mechanical properties and biocompatibility.^[116] The sol-gel process further exemplifies colloidal utility in ceramics production, where metal alkoxides form sols that gel into homogeneous networks, yielding high-purity oxides at lower temperatures than traditional sintering.^[117] In detergents, micelles—colloidal aggregates of surfactant molecules—solubilize hydrophobic greases by encapsulating them in their nonpolar cores, facilitating cleaning in aqueous environments.^[118]

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Among them liposomes are the most common nanocarriers due to their inherent advantages such as high biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, cell-like membrane, ...
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Artificial intelligence in predicting personalized nanocarrier ...
Aug 27, 2025 · This study explores the role of AI in predicting and optimizing personalized nanocarrier formulations for herbal drugs, reviewing current ...
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The Gelatin Silver Process (10 of 12) - Smarthistory
The gelatin silver process was introduced at the end of the nineteenth century and dominated black-and-white photography in the twentieth century.
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Paints are colloidal systems with disperse particles, like pigments, that are dispersed in a continuous phase, such as a polymer or resin.Missing: inks | Show results with:inks
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Oct 14, 2018 · The control and design of colloidal dispersions play a key role in industrial products like paint, inks [3] , food products like mayonnaise ...
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Food colloids are defined as homogeneous mixtures consisting of particles and polymers, where the particles, such as liquid droplets or starch granules, ...
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Jan 31, 2003 · Most food colloids are emulsions: milk, cream and mayonnaise are oil-in-water emulsions while margarine and low-fat spreads are water-in-oil.<|separator|>
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Mar 23, 2023 · We seek to highlight the central challenges in the synthesis and use of polymer colloids, with respect to both existing and emerging applications.
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https://smarthistory.org/the-gelatin-silver-process-10-of-12/
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Science on the Shelves - Supermolecules
Inside the micelle, the greasy substances can avoid the polar water molecules and interact instead with the long hydrophobic tails of the detergent.