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Systematics

Systematics is the branch of biology that studies the diversity of living organisms, their evolutionary relationships, and the patterns of biological variation among them, encompassing both the description and classification of species (taxonomy) and the reconstruction of their phylogenetic histories.^[1]^[2]^[3] The field traces its roots to the 18th century, when Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus developed the binomial nomenclature system and hierarchical classification in works like Systema Naturae (1735), laying the foundation for organizing the natural world based on shared characteristics.^[4] Over time, systematics evolved from Linnaean typology—focused on fixed species—to evolutionary approaches influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection in On the Origin of Species (1859), which emphasized descent with modification and common ancestry as key to understanding relationships.^[5] In the 20th century, the rise of phylogenetic systematics, or cladistics, pioneered by Willi Hennig in the 1950s, shifted emphasis to constructing branching diagrams (cladograms) based on shared derived traits (synapomorphies) to infer evolutionary trees, distinguishing it from earlier phenetic methods that grouped organisms by overall similarity.^[6] At its core, systematics integrates multiple disciplines, including morphology, genetics, and ecology, to hypothesize relationships through methods like comparative anatomy, molecular sequencing, and fossil analysis, producing classifications that reflect evolutionary history rather than arbitrary groupings.^[7]^[8] Taxonomy, a key subset, involves naming organisms according to the International Code of Nomenclature and arranging them into nested hierarchies (e.g., domain, kingdom, phylum), while phylogenetics uses data to estimate divergence times and adaptive radiations.^[9] Modern tools, such as DNA barcoding and genomic phylogenomics, have accelerated discoveries, revealing cryptic species and resolving deep evolutionary splits.^[10] Systematics underpins nearly all biological research by providing the organizational framework for studying evolution, biodiversity, and ecological interactions, enabling accurate identification of species for conservation efforts amid global extinction crises.^[11]^[12] It supports practical applications in agriculture, medicine, and environmental management, such as identifying pests for biological control, tracing pathogen origins, and prioritizing endangered taxa for protection.^[13]^[14] Without systematics, scientific communication about organisms would lack precision, hindering advances in fields from ecology to biotechnology.^[15]

Core Concepts

Definition

Systematics is the scientific study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among organisms through time.^[16] This discipline encompasses the reconstruction of evolutionary histories, known as phylogenies, which trace the branching patterns of descent with modification among species.^[2] It also involves the organization of biodiversity into hierarchical classification systems that reflect these evolutionary connections, providing a framework for understanding organismal diversity.^[17] A central emphasis in systematics is on phylogeny, which seeks to infer the true evolutionary relationships among taxa using evidence from morphological, molecular, and fossil data, while classification arranges these taxa into nested groups such as genera, families, and orders.^[7] This dual focus distinguishes systematics as a foundational field in biology, enabling the documentation and interpretation of life's evolutionary tree.^[18] The term "systematics" derives from the Greek word "systema," meaning an organized whole, and was first applied in a biological context by Carl Linnaeus in the 18th century through his seminal work Systema Naturae, which laid the groundwork for systematic classification.^[19] Linnaeus's use of the term highlighted the need for a structured approach to naming and ordering organisms based on shared characteristics.^[20] The scope of systematics extends to both extant organisms, studied in neontology, and extinct forms, integrated through paleontology, allowing for a comprehensive view of evolutionary processes across geological time scales.^[21] This integration ensures that fossil evidence informs phylogenetic reconstructions, bridging the study of modern biodiversity with ancient lineages.^[22]

Relation to Taxonomy

Taxonomy serves as a foundational component within the broader discipline of systematics, representing the theory and practice of identifying, naming, and classifying organisms into hierarchical groups. This process typically employs the binomial nomenclature system, which assigns a two-part scientific name (genus and species) to each organism, as standardized by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.^[23] In contrast, systematics integrates taxonomy but extends beyond it by incorporating evolutionary principles to organize organisms based on their phylogenetic relationships and common ancestry.^[24]^[8] A primary distinction lies in their objectives and methodologies: taxonomy emphasizes descriptive categorization based on observable similarities and differences, which can sometimes produce artificial groupings that do not reflect true evolutionary histories, such as phenetic classifications relying on overall phenotypic resemblance.^[24] Systematics, however, focuses on reconstructing phylogenies to delineate natural groups, prioritizing monophyletic taxa—those comprising an ancestor and all its descendants—to ensure classifications align with evolutionary descent.^[24]^[8] This approach often utilizes cladistic analysis, which employs shared derived characters to infer branching patterns of evolution, differing from purely descriptive taxonomy that may overlook such historical context.^[24] The interdependence between the two fields is evident in modern practice, where taxonomy increasingly relies on systematic insights for accuracy and utility. For instance, the traditional Linnaean hierarchy—originally a descriptive framework—has evolved to incorporate cladistic principles, ensuring taxonomic ranks like genera reflect monophyletic assemblages, as seen in genomic reclassifications of species such as the Puebla deer mouse into a distinct genus based on phylogenetic evidence.^[8] This integration enhances the predictive power of classifications, allowing taxonomists to address evolutionary relationships that inform biodiversity conservation and ecological studies.^[8] Philosophically, systematics has driven a shift from viewing taxonomy as a neutral, descriptive exercise to one that should be phylogenetically informed, sparking debates over the role of evolutionary theory in classification. The historical rivalry between phenetics (emphasizing empirical similarity without evolutionary assumptions) and cladistics (mandating phylogenetic reconstruction) exemplifies this tension, with proponents arguing that only the latter yields "natural" systems capable of reflecting biological reality.^[25] This perspective has influenced alternatives like the PhyloCode, which separates nomenclature from rigid taxonomic ranks to prioritize explicit phylogenetic definitions, further blurring yet reinforcing the boundaries between the fields.^[26]

Historical Development

Early Foundations

The foundations of systematics trace back to ancient attempts at organizing the natural world, with Aristotle's Historia Animalium (circa 350 BCE) representing an early proto-systematic effort in biological classification. In this comprehensive work, spanning ten books, Aristotle systematically described animal forms, behaviors, and habitats through observation and division based on multiple differentiae, such as parts of the body, modes of reproduction, and locomotion. He grouped animals into natural kinds—such as birds, defined by wings, feathers, and beaks, or fish by gills and scales—emphasizing stable correlations of traits rather than strict dichotomies, which laid groundwork for later taxonomic hierarchies without invoking evolutionary change. This approach prioritized empirical collection of facts over rigid categorization, influencing subsequent natural history studies.^[27] A pivotal advancement occurred in the 18th century with Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae (1735), which revolutionized classification by introducing a hierarchical structure and binomial nomenclature centered on morphological similarities. Linnaeus organized living organisms into kingdoms, classes, orders, genera, and species, with the binomial system assigning each a two-part Latin name (e.g., Homo sapiens for humans), standardizing identification and reflecting presumed natural relationships. His method relied heavily on observable morphology, particularly reproductive structures for plants (e.g., number of stamens and pistils) and overall form for animals, aiming to create a stable, artificial yet natural order amid the era's exploratory influx of new species descriptions. This Linnaean framework provided the enduring backbone for systematics, facilitating global communication among naturalists.^[28]^[29]^[30] The 19th century marked a transformative shift with Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859), which integrated evolutionary theory into systematics and reframed classification as a dynamic representation of descent with modification. Darwin argued that species relationships arise from common ancestry and natural selection, explaining morphological similarities as evidence of shared evolutionary history rather than fixed divine design, thus moving beyond static hierarchies to a branching tree of life. This perspective validated the predictive power of classifications, as similarities in form and embryology indicated genealogical ties, profoundly influencing systematists to view taxonomy as a tool for reconstructing evolutionary lineages.^[31]^[32] Leading into the early 20th century, the pre-cladistic era saw refinements in natural classification systems through the works of August Wilhelm Eichler and Adolf Engler, who emphasized morphology and anatomy to infer evolutionary sequences. Eichler (1839–1887) proposed the first explicitly phylogenetic system in Blüthendiagramme (1875–1878), dividing plants into cryptogams and phanerogams based on reproductive visibility and structural affinities, using anatomical details like vascular tissue to establish natural groups without fully embracing descent. Engler (1844–1930), building on Eichler's framework in Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien (1887–1899, co-authored with Karl Prantl), developed a comprehensive phylogenetic arrangement of angiosperms, prioritizing ontogenetic sequences and morphological complexity (e.g., positioning gymnosperms as ancestral to wind-pollinated flowering plants) to reflect presumed evolutionary progression. These systems bridged Linnaean morphology with Darwinian evolution, dominating botanical systematics until molecular advances.^[33]^[34]

Modern Evolution

The mid-20th century marked a pivotal shift in systematics with the emergence of cladistics, pioneered by Willi Hennig in his seminal work Grundzüge einer Theorie der phylogenetischen Systematik (1950), later translated and expanded as Phylogenetic Systematics (1966).^[35] Hennig emphasized the reconstruction of evolutionary relationships based on shared derived characters, known as synapomorphies, to define monophyletic groups—clades comprising an ancestor and all its descendants—rejecting paraphyletic assemblages common in earlier taxonomy.^[36] This approach introduced cladograms as diagrammatic representations of branching phylogenies, prioritizing homology over overall similarity and laying the foundation for hypothesis-driven classification.^[35] Cladistics gained traction in the 1960s and 1970s through the efforts of the "transformed cladists," who integrated it with numerical methods, fundamentally reshaping systematics as a rigorous, testable science.^[36] The molecular revolution began in the 1960s, transforming systematics by incorporating genetic data to infer phylogenies with unprecedented precision. Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling's 1962 analysis of cytochrome c sequences across species demonstrated that protein differences could quantify evolutionary divergence, proposing a "molecular clock" where genetic changes accumulate at roughly constant rates.^[37] This enabled quantitative phylogenetics, shifting from morphological traits to molecular markers like DNA and amino acid sequences, which revealed hidden relationships undetectable by traditional methods.^[37] By the 1970s and 1980s, advancements in sequencing technologies, such as restriction enzymes and PCR, accelerated the adoption of molecular data, allowing systematists to test cladistic hypotheses empirically and resolve deep evolutionary histories.^[38] The computational era from the 1980s onward revolutionized tree-building by developing sophisticated algorithms to handle complex datasets. Maximum parsimony, which seeks the tree requiring the fewest evolutionary changes, was formalized in early works like those of Kluge and Farris (1969) and became a cornerstone for analyzing discrete characters.^[39] Maximum likelihood methods, introduced by Felsenstein in 1981, model evolutionary processes probabilistically to estimate the most likely tree given sequence data and substitution models.^[40] Bayesian inference, advanced by Huelsenbeck and Ronquist in 2001 through the MrBayes software, incorporates prior probabilities and Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling to generate posterior distributions of trees, improving uncertainty quantification.^[41] Software like PAUP*, developed by Swofford starting in the 1980s, implemented these algorithms, enabling parsimony, likelihood, and distance-based analyses on growing molecular datasets.^[42] As of 2025, phylogenomics has integrated whole-genome data, big data analytics, and artificial intelligence to address longstanding challenges in tree reconstruction. High-throughput sequencing has generated massive datasets, revealing complexities like incomplete lineage sorting—where ancestral polymorphisms persist across rapid radiations, causing gene tree discordance—and horizontal gene transfer, which introduces reticulate evolution especially in microbes.^[43] Methods such as multi-species coalescent models (e.g., ASTRAL) and network-based approaches mitigate these issues by summarizing gene trees into species trees.^[44] AI-driven tools, including deep learning for alignment and anomaly detection, enhance scalability and accuracy, as seen in recent frameworks that automate phylogenomic inference from genomic assemblies.^[45] These advances promise more robust phylogenies, though computational demands and data heterogeneity remain key hurdles.^[45]

Methods and Tools

Taxonomic Characters

Taxonomic characters are observable traits or features of organisms that vary among taxa and can be systematically coded and compared to infer evolutionary relationships in systematics. These characters serve as the fundamental data units for constructing hypotheses about phylogeny, encompassing a wide range of biological attributes that provide evidence of shared ancestry or divergence.^[46] The primary types of taxonomic characters include morphological, which involve external or internal structures such as leaf shape in plants or limb morphology in animals; molecular, including DNA sequences, protein compositions, or nucleic acid patterns; cytological, such as chromosome number or karyotype arrangements; and ecological, reflecting adaptations to specific habitats like drought resistance in desert species. Additional categories encompass physiological traits (e.g., metabolic rates), reproductive features (e.g., flower symmetry in angiosperms), and behavioral attributes (e.g., mating rituals). These diverse types allow systematists to draw from multiple lines of evidence, enhancing the robustness of phylogenetic inferences when integrated.^[1]^[47] Character states refer to the discrete variations within a character, distinguished as ancestral (plesiomorphic) or derived (apomorphic). Plesiomorphic states represent primitive conditions inherited from a distant common ancestor, such as the five-digit limb structure in tetrapods, while apomorphic states are novel innovations defining a clade, like the feathered wings in birds. Distinguishing homology—similarities due to shared evolutionary origin—from analogy—similarities arising from convergent evolution, as in the streamlined bodies of sharks and dolphins—is crucial, since homologous characters reliably signal phylogeny, whereas analogous ones can mislead analyses. Vertebrate forelimbs exemplify homology, modified for flight, swimming, or grasping yet retaining underlying bone patterns from a common ancestor.^[46]^[48]^[49] Selecting informative taxonomic characters requires rigorous evaluation based on criteria such as variability (sufficient differences across taxa to resolve relationships), independence (minimal correlation among characters to avoid redundancy), and falsifiability (testable against alternative hypotheses). Characters should ideally be heritable and homologous, with synapomorphies (shared apomorphies) prioritized for clade support. Common pitfalls include overlooking convergent evolution, which produces homoplasy and inflates similarity unrelated to ancestry, or subjective weighting that biases outcomes; thus, multiple character types are often combined to mitigate such issues and ensure phylogenetic accuracy.^[46]^[50]

Phylogenetic Analysis Techniques

Phylogenetic analysis begins with the coding of taxonomic characters—such as morphological traits or molecular sequences—into a data matrix, where rows represent taxa and columns represent characters with their states.^[51] Algorithms are then applied to this matrix to infer evolutionary relationships, producing outputs like cladograms (unrooted trees showing branching patterns without branch lengths) or phylograms (trees scaled by evolutionary change).^[52] These methods aim to reconstruct the most plausible tree topology and, where applicable, branch lengths representing time or genetic divergence.^[51] Parsimony methods, particularly maximum parsimony, seek the tree requiring the fewest evolutionary changes (steps) to explain the data, embodying the principle of Occam's razor in phylogenetics.^[53] Introduced as a computational framework for Wagner trees, maximum parsimony evaluates candidate trees by summing the minimum steps needed for each character across the tree.^[53] For weighted characters, step matrices assign costs to state transitions, allowing differential penalties for changes (e.g., higher costs for reversals than forward substitutions), as formalized in algorithms for ancestral state reconstruction under Wagner parsimony.^[54] Distance-based methods construct trees from a matrix of pairwise evolutionary distances between taxa, often derived from sequence data corrected for multiple substitutions. The neighbor-joining algorithm, a widely used heuristic, iteratively joins the pair of taxa that minimizes total branch length in a star-like starting tree, producing an unrooted topology efficient for large datasets. A foundational distance metric is the Jukes-Cantor model for nucleotide substitutions, assuming equal rates among the four bases; the corrected distance d is calculated as

d = -\frac{3}{4} \ln \left(1 - \frac{4}{3} p \right),

where p is the observed proportion of differing sites between sequences.^[55] Model-based approaches incorporate explicit evolutionary models to evaluate tree likelihoods or posteriors. Maximum likelihood searches for the tree and parameters (e.g., substitution rates) that maximize the probability of observing the data under a specified model, such as those extending Jukes-Cantor to account for transition/transversion biases.^[40] Bayesian inference, in contrast, uses Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling to explore tree space and estimate posterior probabilities, incorporating priors on parameters like branch lengths to integrate uncertainty.^[41] Software like MrBayes implements this via Metropolis-Hastings sampling, generating a distribution of trees from which consensus topologies and node supports are derived.^[41] To assess tree robustness, bootstrapping resamples the character matrix with replacement (typically 100–1000 times) and recomputes trees, yielding percentages of replicates supporting each clade as a measure of confidence.^[56] In Bayesian analyses, posterior probabilities from MCMC samples provide clade credibility intervals, often interpreted alongside bootstraps for comparative support, though they differ in assuming model-based variability.^[41] Values above 70–95% typically indicate strong support, depending on the method and dataset size.^[56]

Branches and Applications

Major Branches

Systematics encompasses several major branches, each employing distinct data sources and methodologies to reconstruct evolutionary relationships among organisms. These subdisciplines include cladistics, molecular systematics, paleosystematics, and biosystematics, which together provide complementary perspectives on phylogeny and classification. While they share the common goal of inferring monophyletic groups, they differ in their primary evidence—ranging from morphological traits to genetic sequences and fossil records—and often intersect in integrative approaches to achieve more robust inferences. Cladistics, also known as phylogenetic systematics, classifies organisms into clades based on shared derived characters (synapomorphies) that reflect common ancestry, explicitly rejecting paraphyletic or polyphyletic groupings in favor of strictly monophyletic taxa. This approach emphasizes the hierarchical branching patterns of evolution, using parsimony or other optimality criteria to construct phylogenies from character matrices. Developed by Willi Hennig, cladistics revolutionized taxonomy by prioritizing evolutionary relationships over overall similarity, as outlined in his seminal 1966 work. For instance, in vertebrate studies, cladistic analysis has resolved debates on the monophyly of groups like archosaurs by identifying synapomorphies such as antorbital fenestrae. Molecular systematics utilizes genetic and biochemical data, including mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and nuclear genes, to infer phylogenetic trees, offering an independent line of evidence from morphology to resolve relationships at various taxonomic levels. Techniques involve sequence alignment and models of nucleotide substitution to estimate divergences, often revealing cryptic species or convergent evolution undetected by traditional methods. A key application is DNA barcoding, which employs the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene as a standardized marker for rapid species identification across animals, enabling large-scale biodiversity assessments. This branch has been pivotal in reconstructing deep-time phylogenies, such as the tree of life for eukaryotes using multi-gene datasets. Paleosystematics integrates fossil evidence with neontological data to study the evolutionary history of extinct lineages, addressing gaps in the living record by incorporating stratigraphic and morphological information into phylogenetic analyses. It employs methods like stratigraphic congruence, which evaluates the fit between inferred tree topologies and the temporal sequence of fossils in geological strata to calibrate divergence times and test evolutionary hypotheses. For example, in mammalian paleontology, this approach has dated the origin of primates to the Late Cretaceous by aligning fossil occurrences with molecular clocks. By bridging temporal scales, paleosystematics refines understanding of macroevolutionary patterns, such as rates of cladogenesis in response to mass extinctions. Biosystematics, often termed experimental taxonomy, combines morphological, ecological, and experimental data—such as hybridization experiments and cytological studies—to define species boundaries and evolutionary processes, with a particular emphasis on plants where polyploidy and introgression are common. It assesses reproductive isolation through controlled crosses and chromosome analyses, revealing mechanisms like hybrid sterility that maintain species integrity. In angiosperms, biosystematic studies have clarified boundaries in genera like oaks (Quercus), where morphological overlap is extensive but genetic and fertility barriers distinguish taxa. This branch is especially valuable for understanding speciation in rapidly evolving groups. These branches interlink through integrative taxonomy, which synthesizes evidence from cladistics, molecular data, fossils, and experimental approaches to produce more comprehensive classifications, reducing biases inherent in single-method analyses. For instance, Bayesian phylogenetic methods may incorporate molecular sequences, fossil calibrations, and morphological characters simultaneously to estimate evolutionary trees with uncertainty quantification. This holistic strategy enhances accuracy in resolving complex relationships, such as those in adaptive radiations.

Practical Applications

Systematics plays a crucial role in biodiversity assessment by enabling the identification and cataloging of species through phylogenetic relationships and taxonomic classifications. This process has led to estimates of global eukaryotic species diversity, such as the widely cited figure of approximately 8.7 million species, derived from patterns in taxonomic hierarchies.^[57] These assessments rely on systematic methods to extrapolate from known taxa, highlighting undescribed diversity in groups like insects and fungi.^[57] In conservation biology, systematics informs prioritization strategies using phylogenetic diversity indices, such as Faith's PD metric, which quantifies the evolutionary history represented by a set of taxa as the total branch length spanning them on a phylogenetic tree.^[58] This approach helps identify endangered lineages with unique evolutionary heritage, guiding efforts to protect areas like biodiversity hotspots where phylogenetic diversity is highest.^[59] For instance, PD has been applied to vertebrate phylogenies to allocate resources toward conserving ancient branches over species richness alone.^[59] Systematics facilitates evolutionary and ecological studies by reconstructing phylogenies that trace adaptive radiations, such as the diversification of Darwin's finches in the Galápagos, where beak morphology evolved in response to ecological niches.^[60] Similarly, it reveals co-evolutionary patterns in host-parasite systems, where congruent phylogenies indicate co-speciation events, as seen in primate-louse associations.^[61] These analyses provide insights into how ecological interactions drive speciation and trait evolution across taxa.^[61] In medicine and agriculture, systematics supports epidemiology through viral phylogenies that track outbreak dynamics, exemplified by SARS-CoV-2 trees that mapped global transmission routes during the COVID-19 pandemic.^[62] For crop improvement, phylogenies of wild relatives guide gene transfer, such as incorporating drought resistance from allied species into wheat breeding programs.^[63] This phylogenetic approach enhances resilience against climate change and pests by identifying compatible genetic donors.^[63] As of 2025, systematics faces challenges including data biases in global phylogenies, where taxonomic uncertainty and uneven sampling skew representations of tropical and microbial diversity.^[64] Efforts to integrate AI for predictive modeling, such as deep learning frameworks that refine tree inference from genomic data, aim to mitigate these biases and forecast evolutionary trajectories.^[65]

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Confidence Limits on Phylogenies: An Approach Using the Bootstrap
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How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?
Aug 23, 2011 · Our current estimate of ∼8.7 million species narrows the range of 3 to 100 million species suggested by taxonomic experts [1] and it suggests ...Missing: systematics | Show results with:systematics
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Conservation evaluation and phylogenetic diversity - ScienceDirect
In this study, a simple measure of phylogenetic diversity is defined based on cladistic information. The measure of phylogenetic diversity, PD, is ...Missing: metric | Show results with:metric
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Global conservation of phylogenetic diversity captures more than ...
Feb 20, 2019 · The biodiversity measure, phylogenetic diversity (PD), links evolutionary history to the conservation of feature-diversity (broadly, the ...
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Phylogeny of Darwin's finches as revealed by mtDNA sequences
The group, referred to as Darwin's finches, subsequently became one of the best known and the most studied cases of adaptive radiation. Based on ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Comparative analyses of co-evolving host-parasite associations ...
Jan 31, 2018 · Co-evolution among parasites and their hosts offers a unique and ideal system in which to investigate how convergent and parallel evolution ...
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Phylogenetic and phylodynamic approaches to understanding and ...
Apr 22, 2022 · Phylogenies (evolutionary trees) have provided key insights into the international spread of SARS-CoV-2 and enabled investigation of individual ...
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Incorporating evolutionary and threat processes into crop wild ...
Oct 21, 2022 · We introduce an approach to develop proxies of genetic differentiation to identify conservation areas, applying systematic conservation planning tools.
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Global Patterns of Taxonomic Uncertainty and its Impacts on ...
Feb 15, 2025 · We investigated the patterns and potential drivers of species- and assemblage-level variation in synonym counts across terrestrial vertebrates globally.
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PhyloTune: An efficient method to accelerate phylogenetic updates ...
Jul 26, 2025 · In this study, we introduce a new solution to accelerate the integration of novel taxa into an existing phylogenetic tree using a pretrained DNA ...