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Table-turning

Table-turning, also known as table-tipping or tables tournantes, is a spiritualist practice that emerged in the mid-19th century, in which participants sit around a table with their hands placed upon its surface, believing that spirits will cause it to move, tilt, or rotate as a form of communication from the afterlife.^[1] The phenomenon is typically conducted during séances, where individuals form a circle and focus their will or energy to invite spirit intervention, often interpreting the table's motions—such as raps, tilts, or full rotations—as responses to questions posed by the group.^[1] This practice became a hallmark of modern Spiritualism, a religious movement that gained widespread popularity in the United States and Europe during the 1840s and 1850s.^[2] The origins of table-turning trace back to the 1848 events in Hydesville, New York, involving the Fox sisters, whose reported communications with spirits through mysterious "rappings" evolved into adaptations like table-rapping and eventually full table movements as a more interactive method of spirit contact.^[3] By 1852, the practice had spread to England via American medium Mrs. Maria B. Hayden, igniting a "table-turning mania" that swept through Europe, with participants from all social classes engaging in sessions to seek guidance, entertainment, or proof of immortality.^[4] Prominent figures, including scientists and intellectuals, experimented with it; for instance, the Davenport Brothers popularized elaborate demonstrations starting in 1855, incorporating ropes and cabinets to enhance the theatrical elements of spirit-induced table activity.^[1] In France, it was formalized under the term tables tournantes, with early treatises like Count Agénor de Gasparin's 1854 work attributing the movements to a non-physical "psychic force" rather than overt supernatural agency.^[1] Scientific scrutiny quickly challenged the spiritualist claims, most notably through physicist Michael Faraday's 1853 experiments, which used a mechanical apparatus with dials and pulleys to demonstrate that table movements resulted from unconscious muscular pressures exerted by the participants themselves, rather than external spirit forces.^[5] Faraday's findings, published in the Athenaeum, highlighted the role of ideomotor action—subtle, involuntary motions influenced by expectation—revealing how believers could generate the effects without awareness.^[5] Despite such debunkings, table-turning persisted as a cultural phenomenon, influencing literature, theater, and even early psychology, though it waned by the late 19th century as Spiritualism evolved toward more complex manifestations like materializations and ectoplasm.^[2] Today, it remains a historical curiosity, emblematic of Victorian-era fascination with the occult and the blurred line between science and the supernatural.^[6]

Overview and Practices

Description

Table-turning is a form of mediumship practiced in spiritualist séances, in which a group of participants lightly places their fingertips on the edge or surface of a table, which is said to tilt, rock, rotate, or even levitate to convey messages from spirits.^[7]^[4] This practice serves as a method for spirit communication, predating tools like Ouija boards, where the table's movements are interpreted as direct responses to questions posed by the participants.^[8] Within the broader spiritualism movement, it functions as an accessible entry-level technique for engaging with purported supernatural entities.^[2] The core setup involves 4 to 8 individuals seated around a small, lightweight wooden table, often in a dimly lit or darkened room to enhance focus and atmosphere.^[7]^[1] Participants form a circle, positioning their hands with fingertips gently touching the table's surface or edges, sometimes linking little fingers or holding wrists to create a collective "magnetic" connection.^[1] The table is typically free of metal components and may be covered with a simple cloth, ensuring it remains unencumbered for movement.^[7] In operation, the table allegedly responds to verbal inquiries by producing controlled motions, such as tilts or rotations, which participants interpret as affirmations, negations, or spelled-out messages.^[4] Communication often occurs through a surrounding alphabet arranged on the floor or wall, with the table pointing or tilting toward specific letters to form words, or via a code of taps and knocks corresponding to yes/no answers.^[9]^[7] These movements are viewed as guided by spiritual influences channeling energy through the group.^[4] Participants commonly describe sensory experiences that contribute to the practice's immersive quality, including the table quivering or pulsating as if "alive," accompanied by tingling sensations in the fingertips or a sense of involuntary pressure in their hands.^[7]^[1] The table may resist attempts to restrain it, creating a feeling of external force, while subtle vibrations or creaks heighten the perception of otherworldly presence.^[4]^[7]

Methods and Variations

Table-turning sessions generally begin with a group of participants, typically four to eight individuals, seating themselves around a small, lightweight wooden table, ensuring even distribution to facilitate balanced contact. Participants place their hands or fingertips lightly on the tabletop, often with fingers extended and touching those of adjacent sitters to form a continuous chain, while keeping feet flat on the floor and avoiding any pressure or muscular effort.^[4]^[10] Once positioned, the group invites spirit communication through collective focus, sometimes preceded by a prayer or moment of silence to establish a receptive atmosphere. Questions are then directed to the spirits, starting with simple yes/no inquiries; the table responds by tilting or rapping— a single movement or sound signifying "yes," two indicating "no," and successive raps or tilts used to denote letters of the alphabet for spelling out more complex messages.^[9]^[10] Variations in technique include maintaining only minimal fingertip contact to encourage subtle movements, progressing in some cases to no-contact scenarios where the table shifts independently after initial invitation. Rapping sounds, often emanating from the table legs or surface, serve as an alternative or complementary communication method, interpreted similarly to tilts for yes/no responses or alphabetic spelling. In certain practices, prayer enhances the session's harmony, believed to draw spirit influence more readily.^[4]^[10] Etiquette emphasizes light, passive touch to prevent conscious influence, with sitters instructed to remain relaxed and open-minded while holding hands in a chain to monitor for unintended actions. Sessions are kept brief to avoid physical fatigue from sustained positioning. Equipment favors simple wooden tables without elaborate features, though adaptations for larger tables involve additional participants for stability.^[10]^[4]

Historical Development

Origins in America

Table-turning emerged in mid-19th-century America as an extension of the nascent Spiritualism movement, which originated with the mysterious rappings reported by the Fox sisters in Hydesville, New York, on March 31, 1848. Margaretta (Maggie) and Catharine (Kate) Fox, aged 14 and 11 respectively, claimed that the knocks emanating from their family home were communications from the spirit of a murdered peddler named Charles B. Rosna, identified through an alphabet-based questioning method that spelled out messages. These events, initially confined to the Fox household, quickly drew public attention in nearby Rochester, where the sisters demonstrated the rappings in homes and public venues, marking the inception of organized spirit communication practices. By interpreting the knocks as direct interventions from the afterlife, early Spiritualists viewed them as a democratized form of mediumship, accessible without elaborate rituals.^[11] In the early 1850s, these rappings evolved into more tangible physical manifestations, including the first documented instances of table movements, which spread through spiritualist circles in New York and Ohio. A pivotal early account came from Rev. C. Hammond, who visited the Fox family in January 1850 and described a table rising suddenly during a sitting: "Suddenly... the side next to me move upward," lifting several inches while participants maintained light contact, interpreted as spirit agency causing the motion. Similar reports proliferated as the Fox sisters toured with their mother, Leah, conducting demonstrations in Rochester and beyond, where tables were observed tilting, "dancing," or shifting distances of up to six feet without mechanical aid. In Ohio, manifestations appeared in Cincinnati by 1849 and intensified in 1853 with events like the Koons family's spirit room in Athens County, where heavy furniture moved independently during family gatherings. This domestic spread was facilitated by itinerant mediums, transforming table-turning from a novelty into a communal practice for eliciting yes/no answers or simple spelled messages via tilting toward letters.^[4]^[11] The rise of table-turning occurred amid a fertile social context shaped by the Second Great Awakening's religious revivals of the 1840s, which emphasized personal piety, emotional experiences, and a proliferation of sects, leaving many seekers disillusioned with orthodox doctrines and open to alternative paths to the divine. Concurrently, the popularity of mesmerism—animal magnetism techniques popularized by figures like Andrew Jackson Davis—provided a pseudoscientific veneer, framing spirit interactions as observable forces akin to hypnotic trances, thus appealing to an educated middle class eager for empirical validation of immortality. Table-turning, in particular, suited this milieu as a low-barrier, home-based activity for middle-class families grieving Civil War-era losses or seeking familial consolation, often conducted in parlors without professional mediums, reinforcing its role as an extension of revivalist enthusiasm for direct supernatural encounters. Initial interpretations universally attributed the phenomena to benevolent spirit intervention, with tables serving as "intelligent" conduits for guidance, free from prior European precedents and rooted in America's burgeoning interest in the occult.^[12]^[11]

Spread and Popularity in Europe

Table-turning reached England in late 1852, introduced by American medium Maria B. Hayden, who arrived in London and began conducting paid séances demonstrating spirit communications through table movements.^[13] The practice rapidly gained traction, exploding in popularity by 1853 as a fashionable parlor diversion among Victorian middle- and upper-class society, with participants gathering in homes to experience table rotations and tilts as entertainment and spiritual inquiry.^[9] From England, the phenomenon spread swiftly across continental Europe, reaching France in early 1853, Germany and Switzerland by mid-1853, and Italy by 1854, fueled by word-of-mouth among emigrants, traveling mediums, and early press reports in newspapers like The Times and French journals.^[14] Key figures accelerated its adoption and intellectual framing. In France, Count Agénor de Gasparin, a Protestant scholar and former government official, conducted systematic séances at his estate from September to December 1853 and published Des tables tournantes, ou les petits faits surnaturels in 1854, presenting over a dozen experiments as evidence of a supernatural agency independent of fraud or physical contact. In Geneva, physicist Marc Thury, professor at the University of Geneva, oversaw public experiments in 1853–1854, observing table levitations without touch and proposing in his 1855 report that the movements resulted from a novel "psychode" force emanating from human participants.^[4] English physician John Elliotson, a prominent advocate of mesmerism, publicly endorsed table-turning in 1853 lectures and writings, interpreting the motions as manifestations of odylic or nervous energy akin to hypnotic effects, thereby bridging it to established pseudoscientific traditions.^[15] Meanwhile, Allan Kardec (pseudonym of Hippolyte Léon Denizard Rivail) incorporated table-turning into the foundational texts of French Spiritism, notably in The Spirits' Book (1857), where he described it as a reliable medium for spirit teachings and moral philosophy.^[16] The craze manifested as a widespread social phenomenon, with public demonstrations in salons and halls drawing crowds, extensive newspaper coverage sensationalizing successes and controversies, and its transformation into a casual after-dinner activity dubbed "tea and table-turning" in English society.^[9] Religious authorities responded with prohibitions; the Catholic Church issued condemnations in 1853, viewing the practice as demonic deception or superstition, particularly in Italy and France where priests like Taddeo Consoni initially experimented before ecclesiastical rebukes.^[17] By 1855, table-turning had permeated urban and rural Europe, engaging participants from elites to common folk in a shared cultural fad estimated to involve hundreds of thousands in regular sessions.^[4] Its peak waned gradually through the 1860s, supplanted by more structured Spiritualist mediums and séances, before fading significantly by the 1870s amid growing public disillusionment from documented frauds and rational critiques that highlighted unconscious muscular actions as the cause.^[4]

Interpretations and Explanations

Spiritualist Perspectives

Spiritualists interpreted table-turning as a direct manifestation of discarnate spirits interacting with the physical world, using the table as a medium for communication from the afterlife. They believed that spirits, being non-material entities, could influence objects through subtle energies projected by living participants, often described as a form of psychic or vital force that bridged the gap between the earthly and spiritual realms. This core conviction positioned table-turning not as mere entertainment but as verifiable proof of continued existence beyond death, accessible to ordinary individuals without requiring elaborate rituals.^[4] Key theories among spiritualists emphasized specific mechanisms for these spirit-induced movements. In 1854, Count Agénor de Gasparin proposed the concept of "ectenic force," a vital energy emanating unconsciously from the sitters' nervous systems, which spirits could direct to cause the table to tilt, rotate, or even levitate, as demonstrated in controlled experiments where tables moved without physical contact. Allan Kardec, the founder of Spiritism, viewed the phenomenon as spirits manipulating "universal fluid" combined with the perispirit—a semi-material envelope surrounding the spirit—to animate the table and convey messages, integrating it into his broader doctrine of reincarnation and moral evolution. John Elliotson, a prominent advocate of mesmerism, linked table-turning to animal magnetism, asserting that magnetic effluences from participants enabled spirits to produce intelligent motions, thereby validating the reality of spirit agency over purely physiological explanations.^[18]^[4] Reported phenomena during spiritualist sessions often included intelligent responses that exceeded the participants' collective knowledge, such as the table spelling out prophecies or historical facts via alphabetic raps or tilts, interpreted as direct spirit dictation. More dramatic effects encompassed full table levitation, where heavy furniture rose and spun in mid-air, sometimes spelling messages while elevated, and integration with trance mediumship, where the table's movements synchronized with a medium's utterances to form coherent dialogues from the deceased. These occurrences were seen as transcending chance or subconscious action, reinforcing the spiritualist narrative of purposeful intervention from beyond.^[4] Within the Spiritualist movement, which gained popularity from the 1850s onward, table-turning played a pivotal role as accessible evidence of survival after death, allowing everyday people to engage with the spirit world without the need for trained mediums or costly apparitions. It democratized spirit communication, fostering communal séances that built faith communities and challenged materialist worldviews, ultimately contributing to Spiritualism's growth as a global religious and philosophical system.^[4]

Scientific Accounts

Scientific accounts of table-turning attribute its movements to the ideomotor effect, a psychological phenomenon where unconscious muscular actions produce motion in response to expectations or suggestions without the participants' awareness. This effect involves subtle, involuntary pushes and pulls by those touching the table, driven by shared anticipation of movement. British surgeon James Braid first described related ideodynamic responses in 1852, linking them to hypnotic suggestion where ideas alone trigger physical actions. Physiologist William B. Carpenter formalized the term "ideo-motor" in 1852, explaining it as automatic muscular motions arising from ideas associated with motion, independent of conscious volition, and applied it directly to phenomena like table-turning.^[19]^[20] The physiological basis for these movements lies in involuntary nerve responses to suggestion, where sensory cues and expectations elicit subtle muscle contractions that amplify into apparent table motion. French chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul demonstrated this in his 1854 experiments with a hand-held pendulum, showing that oscillations occurred only when the subject expected movement and believed in an external influence, but ceased when attention was fixed on the hand's role, revealing unconscious self-motion rather than supernatural forces. Chevreul's work paralleled table-turning by illustrating how ideomotor responses could mimic divining or spiritual effects through amplified involuntary actions.^[21] Physicist Michael Faraday provided empirical evidence in 1853 through a mechanical apparatus designed to detect forces in table-turning sessions. His device used a bundle of insulating materials under participants' hands, connected via pulleys, rollers, and dials to indicators that measured relative motion between hands and table; results showed that movements originated from unconscious pressures by the turners, with no evidence of external agencies like spirits or unknown energies. Faraday concluded that "the turners are the cause of the motion, no matter how it be directed, nor by what power," emphasizing the unwitting muscular exertion. When participants observed the indicators revealing their own forces, the table ceased moving, further proving the role of unconscious expectation.^[22] These explanations connect table-turning to broader principles of hypnosis and suggestibility, where ideomotor actions are reliably elicited in controlled settings without invoking supernatural causes. Experiments replicating the effect, such as those with Ouija boards or pendulums, consistently demonstrate that movements align with participants' subconscious biases and expectations, underscoring the phenomenon's basis in human physiology rather than external intervention.^[23]

Skepticism and Investigations

Early Scientific Probes

In the mid-19th century, as table-turning gained widespread attention, scientists began conducting systematic investigations to determine whether the phenomenon involved supernatural forces or could be explained through natural means. One of the earliest and most influential probes was conducted by Michael Faraday in London in 1853. Faraday, a prominent physicist, designed mechanical apparatus, including pointers and friction wheels attached to tables, to detect and measure the forces applied by participants' hands. His experiments demonstrated that the table's movements were solely due to unconscious muscular pressures from the sitters, who inadvertently pushed or pulled the table in the direction they anticipated it would move, with no evidence of external or spiritual agency.^[5] Similar controlled tests emerged across Europe. In Geneva, physicist Marc Thury organized sessions from 1853 to 1854, employing sensitive balances and weighing devices to quantify the forces acting on tables during sittings. Thury's measurements revealed that the motions originated from subtle, involuntary human muscular actions rather than any independent or otherworldly power, though he acknowledged the possibility of an unknown physiological force emanating from participants.^[24] Concurrently, British physicians James Braid and William B. Carpenter examined table-turning in 1852–1853 through observational studies, attributing the effects to psychological expectancy that induced unconscious ideomotor responses in the participants. In Paris, chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul conducted experiments in 1854, isolating variables such as participant visibility by blindfolding sitters or concealing the table's motion; he found that movements ceased when expectations could not be visually reinforced, confirming the role of subconscious suggestion in producing the phenomenon.^[25] These early probes, spanning 1853 to 1860, predominantly rejected spiritual causation in favor of unconscious human actions, introducing methodological innovations like mechanical detectors and bias-controlled environments to isolate variables. While most investigators, including Faraday and Chevreul, firmly concluded natural explanations, a few such as Count Agénor de Gasparin in his 1854 experiments remained somewhat ambiguous, proposing a non-spiritual but unidentified "directive force" from the human will, though leaning toward physiological origins. This ideomotor effect, where expectations trigger involuntary movements, became a key conceptual framework emerging from these studies. Overall, the investigations emphasized empirical rigor, quantifying forces and eliminating sensory cues to reveal the psychological underpinnings of table-turning.

Exposés of Deception

Common techniques employed in fraudulent table-turning demonstrations included the use of hidden strings attached to the table's legs to pull or tilt it, foot levers operated by the medium or accomplices to rock the furniture, and exploitation of uneven table legs to facilitate easy movement. Participants often feigned a light touch with their fingertips while secretly pressing down with knees or thumbs to generate motion, creating the illusion of supernatural force. These methods were detailed by magician John Mulholland in his analysis of spiritualist practices, emphasizing how subtle physical manipulations could mimic spirit activity without detection under lax controls. Key exposures of such deceptions came from performers and investigators in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In his 1898 book Spirit Slate Writing and Kindred Phenomena, magician Chung Ling Soo (William Ellsworth Robinson) described a fraudulent table-turning technique involving a pin driven into the underside of the table and a slotted ring worn on the medium's finger; the pin's head caught in the slot to "levitate" the table while maintaining the appearance of hands-off contact. This method highlighted how simple mechanical aids could deceive observers, as documented in analyses of spiritualist tricks. Similarly, in the 1890s, medium Eusapia Palladino was caught in fraudulent acts during controlled séances, including freeing her limbs from restraints to manipulate tables; despite observed instances of fraud, including substitution techniques to escape ties during table movements, supporters like Charles Richet believed in the genuineness of some phenomena.^[26] Magicians provided further breakdowns of these ruses. Mulholland, in his 1930s writings, described toe and knee manipulations where mediums hooked their feet under the table edge or used leg pressure to tip it, often under dim lighting to obscure actions. Houdini, in his 1920s critiques, linked table-turning frauds to broader medium deceptions, exposing how accomplices or hidden devices produced "spirit" effects and warning of their exploitation in spiritualist circles.^[27] These revelations contributed to widespread public disillusionment with table-turning from the 1870s through the 1920s, as high-profile exposures by figures like Houdini eroded faith in spiritualist claims and raised ethical concerns about profiting from bereaved audiences through deliberate trickery.^[28]

Cultural and Modern Legacy

Societal Influence

Table-turning, as a key practice within the emerging Spiritualist movement, significantly influenced social dynamics in 19th-century Victorian society by providing women with unprecedented opportunities to act as mediums and gain public influence in a patriarchal era. Young women were often viewed as particularly receptive to spiritual communications, allowing them to host séances in domestic parlors, where the activity blended elements of scientific curiosity with occult entertainment. This role empowered figures like Emma Hardinge Britten, who delivered trance lectures on social reforms starting in the late 1850s, and Victoria Woodhull, who leveraged her clairvoyant reputation to establish the first female-owned brokerage firm in 1870 and run for U.S. president in 1872 with Spiritualist backing.^[29]^[29] Religious institutions reacted strongly against table-turning, viewing it as a threat to orthodox faith and a form of superstition that undermined moral authority. The Catholic Church, for instance, issued the 1856 encyclical Adversus magnetismi abusus from the Holy Office, condemning table-turning and related spiritualistic practices as fraudulent and superstitious, particularly when involving women summoning spirits, and restricting animal magnetism to scientific contexts only. Protestant denominations similarly fueled anti-Spiritualist sermons, decrying the phenomena as demonic or delusional, though the movement's emphasis on direct communion with the deceased inspired the formation of new sects that challenged traditional religious hierarchies.^[17]^[17] In media and literature, table-turning permeated cultural narratives, reflecting both fascination and ridicule. Edward Bulwer-Lytton's 1862 novel A Strange Story incorporated spiritualistic elements, including table-turning and spirit-rapping, to explore themes of mesmerism and the supernatural, influencing the Gothic fiction tradition's preoccupation with otherworldly forces. Satirical depictions appeared in Punch magazine in 1853, such as cartoons parodying clerical involvement in table-turning as absurd theatrics, with one illustrating a table leaping from a window under a reverend's grip, and another showing participants enduring discomfort from unmoving hands during experiments. These portrayals highlighted societal tensions between credulity and skepticism.^[30]^[30] Overall, table-turning contributed to Spiritualism's rapid expansion, with estimates indicating at least four million adherents in the United States by 1860 and up to eleven million by the Civil War's end, drawing participants through its promise of empirical proof of the afterlife. This growth ignited broader debates on the boundaries between science and faith, as phenomena like table movements were scrutinized for natural explanations while fueling interest in the paranormal that echoed into later cultural explorations.^[31]^[32]

Contemporary Practices

In contemporary spiritualism, table-turning persists as a form of physical mediumship practiced in small, informal groups, often facilitated by organizations such as the Spiritualists' National Union in the UK, where it serves as a method for spirit communication during private sessions or development circles.^[33] Practitioners gather around a lightweight table, placing their hands lightly upon it to invite spirit energy, which purportedly causes tilting, rotation, or levitation to convey yes/no responses or messages. This practice has been adapted for therapeutic purposes, particularly in grief counseling, where participants seek solace through alleged contact with deceased loved ones, fostering emotional healing and personal growth by enhancing intuition and psychic sensitivity.^[34] Parapsychological investigations into table-turning from the 20th and 21st centuries, including those by the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), have largely attributed the phenomena to ideomotor responses, fraud, or group suggestion rather than genuine paranormal activity, though some studies noted psychological benefits such as improved group cohesion and coping mechanisms for bereavement. For instance, Kenneth Batcheldor's experiments in the 1960s demonstrated table movements beyond conscious muscular control, proposing it as a learnable psychological skill requiring a relaxed, positive mindset, while later SPR-affiliated probes like the 2012 Felix Experimental Group observed apparent levitations under controlled conditions but remained inconclusive. Rare claims of authentic psychokinetic effects persist in select cases, such as the 1970s recordings by Colin Brookes-Smith, yet overall, these studies emphasize the absence of replicable evidence for supernatural causes.^[4]^[10] Table-turning has seen revivals in popular culture, appearing in stage magic performances that recreate Victorian-era séances through illusions like floating tables, as seen in modern ghost shows and midnight spook spectacles that blend horror theater with deceptive feats.^[35] It influences horror films inspired by Ouija board dynamics, such as 1970s works evoking séance-induced supernatural terror, and amateur online tutorials promote it as an accessible entry to spirit work, often shared via spiritualist workshops. By 2025, however, table-turning remains a marginalized historical curiosity, with occasional features in ghost-hunting investigations on shows and media, but no evidence of widespread revival amid declining interest in physical mediumship.^[36]

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### Summary of Table Tipping from the Article
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