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Mediumship

Mediumship is the purported ability of certain individuals, known as mediums, to mediate communication between the living and spirits of the deceased or other non-physical entities, often through empathic sensing of their presence and energies.^[1] This practice has been described as a form of anomalous information reception, where the medium allegedly receives and relays messages, impressions, or evidence from the spirit world to the living.^[2] While historically viewed in some contexts as a pathological dissociation, contemporary understandings frame mediumship on a continuum of experiences, ranging from benign perceptual abilities to more intense interactions, without necessarily implying distress or dysfunction.^[1] The roots of mediumship extend across diverse cultures worldwide, where communication with the deceased has long been considered a normal and socially integrated aspect of spiritual life, often integrated into rituals, healing practices, and community guidance.^[3] In its modern Western form, mediumship gained prominence through the Spiritualist movement, which emerged in the United States in 1848 with the reported rappings—mysterious knocks interpreted as spirit communications—experienced by sisters Kate and Margaret Fox in Hydesville, New York.^[4] This event sparked widespread interest, leading to the proliferation of séances, public demonstrations, and a new religious orientation centered on the survival of personality after death and ongoing interaction with spirits.^[5] By the mid-19th century, Spiritualism had spread globally, attracting millions of adherents, including intellectuals, scientists, and reformers, and influencing social movements such as women's suffrage and abolitionism.^[4] Mediumship manifests in two primary categories: mental mediumship, in which spirits purportedly impress thoughts, images, or words upon the medium's mind—via clairvoyance (seeing), clairaudience (hearing), or clairsentience (feeling)—which are then relayed verbally to sitters; and physical mediumship, involving tangible phenomena such as independent voices, table levitations, apports (materializations of objects), or ectoplasmic substances produced in altered states.^[3] These experiences occur along a spectrum of consciousness, from full waking awareness to deep trance, and mediums often report abilities emerging in childhood, with about 42% of surveyed individuals endorsing such experiences at some point in their lives.^[1]^[6] Scientific scrutiny of mediumship began systematically in the late 19th century with the founding of the Society for Psychical Research in 1882, which employed empirical methods to investigate claims of spirit communication, including cross-correspondences (interlinked messages across multiple mediums) and veridical information unknowable to the medium.^[3] Early research declined by the 1930s amid challenges like fraud allegations and evidential ambiguities, but interest resurged in the early 2000s, with peer-reviewed studies exploring mediums' accuracy in blind conditions and correlations with traits like dissociation (elevated but non-pathological in mediums). Research has continued into the 2020s, including studies on genetic factors associated with mediumship experiences as of 2025.^[3]^[1]^[7] Despite methodological advances, the field remains marginalized, receiving less than 5% of major funding from bodies like the NIH or NSF, and debates persist over whether reported accuracies stem from survival of consciousness, psi abilities, or subtle cues.^[3]

Concept

Definition

Mediumship is the alleged practice in which individuals, referred to as mediums, purportedly serve as intermediaries facilitating communication between living persons and the spirits of the deceased or other discarnate entities.^[2] This mediation involves the medium interacting with the non-physical aspect of a deceased individual, which is claimed to persist after bodily death through unspecified mechanisms.^[2] The term "mediumship" derives from the English word "medium," rooted in the Latin medius meaning "middle" or "in the midst," underscoring the central role of the practitioner as a conduit between realms.^[8]^[9] Unlike broader psychic phenomena such as clairvoyance, which involves extrasensory perception of visual information about distant or hidden objects and events, or telepathy, which entails direct mind-to-mind communication among the living, mediumship specifically centers on purported interactions with deceased personalities.^[10] This distinction highlights mediumship's focus on survival after death and spirit intervention rather than general anomalous cognition.^[2] In the basic process of mediumship, practitioners claim to receive messages from spirits through various sensory impressions, including auditory or visual perceptions, emotional insights, or symbolic visions, which they then interpret and relay to a sitter—the individual seeking contact with the deceased.^[2] These communications often occur in controlled settings, such as readings, where the medium provides specific details about the spirit to validate the connection.^[10] Mediumship manifests in forms like mental or physical varieties, though the core intermediary function remains consistent across them.^[2]

Core Principles

Mediumship is fundamentally grounded in the belief that human consciousness survives physical death and persists in a spiritual realm or afterlife, where the soul—often described as an eternal form of energy—continues to exist independently of the body. This core assumption posits that the spirit world operates as a parallel dimension to the physical one, allowing for ongoing personal evolution and interaction between the living and the deceased. According to the foundational principles of Spiritualism, the continuous existence of the soul enables individuals to retain their personality and memories post-mortem, facilitating potential communication when conditions align.^[11] Central to mediumship is the assumption that spirits possess free will and agency, choosing whether and how to engage in communication with the living, often driven by motivations such as providing guidance, resolving unfinished earthly matters, or offering comfort to survivors. This voluntary participation underscores that spirits are not compelled to manifest but act out of their own volition, influenced by the law of cause and effect that governs spiritual progression. Mediums view this autonomy as essential, recognizing that spirits, like the living, bear personal responsibility for their actions and growth in the afterlife.^[11] Facilitating contact between realms relies on the role of subtle energies or vibrations, which mediums attune to through heightened sensitivity, bridging the physical and spiritual planes. In various traditions, this involves concepts such as the aura—an energetic field surrounding the body—or ectoplasm, a purported physical substance extruded during séances to enable spirit manifestations, though its existence remains debated in parapsychological research. These energetic mechanisms are seen as aligning vibrational frequencies between the medium and spirits, allowing information to flow without direct sensory input.^[11]^[12] Ethical principles guide mediumship practice to ensure integrity and respect, emphasizing the medium's duty to obtain consent from both clients and spirits before attempting communication, while avoiding any manipulation of vulnerable individuals seeking solace. Mediums are expected to uphold confidentiality, deliver information accurately without personal bias, and prioritize client autonomy, refraining from dictating life choices or exploiting emotional dependencies. These standards, developed through collaborative efforts in parapsychological communities, promote responsible engagement that honors the free will of all involved parties.^[13]

History

Ancient and Early Modern Periods

Mediumship, the practice of purportedly communicating with spirits or the deceased, has roots in ancient spiritual traditions where individuals entered altered states to interact with supernatural entities. Among the earliest manifestations were shamanic practices in indigenous cultures, dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period over 30,000 years ago. Shamans, serving as intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds, induced trance states through rituals involving drumming, chanting, psychoactive plants, or dance to journey into spiritual realms for healing, divination, and guidance.^[14] In these trances, shamans consulted ancestors and other spirits to diagnose soul loss or spiritual imbalances, retrieving lost souls or extracting malevolent entities to restore harmony.^[14] Such practices, evidenced by cave art and artifacts across Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas, emphasized the shaman's role in facilitating communication with the deceased or supernatural beings for communal benefit.^[14] In ancient Greece and Rome, oracular mediumship emerged as a formalized institution, exemplified by the Pythia at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, active from the 8th century BCE onward. The Pythia, a priestess selected for her purity, would enter a trance-like state, often described in ancient accounts as induced by inhaling vapors rising from a chasm beneath the temple, to channel prophecies from Apollo.^[15] Historical sources, including Plutarch's writings from the 1st century CE, detail how these emissions—possibly ethylene gas from geological fissures—produced ecstatic utterances interpreted as divine messages by attending priests.^[15] The Delphic Oracle influenced major decisions in Greek city-states and beyond, positioning the Pythia as a medium whose trance-enabled communications bridged the mortal world and the gods, a practice that persisted into the Roman era until the 4th century CE.^[16] During the medieval period in Europe, from roughly the 12th to 15th centuries, necromancy represented a clandestine form of mediumship involving the invocation of spirits for knowledge or power, often condemned by the Church as demonic heresy. Necromancers, typically educated clerics or lay practitioners, used rituals with circles, incantations, and astrological timing to summon and communicate with the dead or demons, seeking revelations about the future or hidden matters.^[17] This practice blurred with broader accusations of witchcraft, as seen in the Malleus Maleficarum (1487), which linked spirit invocation to pacts with the devil.^[17] By the 15th to 17th centuries, amid the European witch hunts, thousands faced trials for alleged mediumistic acts, such as conjuring spirits through familiars or trances, with estimates of 40,000 to 60,000 executions across the continent reflecting intense persecution of these perceived threats to Christian orthodoxy.^[18] Court records from regions like Germany and England document confessions extracted under torture, portraying accused individuals as mediums who facilitated spirit communication for malefic purposes. In the early modern era of the 18th century, figures like Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) bridged mystical visions with emerging ideas of spiritual communication, influencing later developments without direct ties to organized movements. A Swedish scientist and theologian, Swedenborg reported vivid spiritual experiences beginning in the 1740s, including out-of-body travels and direct conversations with spirits in the afterlife during waking states and dreams.^[19] In works like Heaven and Hell (1758), he described the afterlife as a structured spiritual world where souls retain individuality and communicate telepathically, drawing from his claimed visions of heavens, hells, and interactions with the deceased.^[20] These accounts, grounded in his theological framework, portrayed mediumship as a rational communion with divine order, setting a precedent for personal spiritual revelations in Enlightenment Europe.^[19]

19th Century Spiritualism

The Spiritualist movement in the 19th century originated with the 1848 Rochester Rappings incident involving the Fox sisters in Hydesville, New York. On March 31, 1848, sisters Margaretta "Maggie" (aged 14) and Kate Fox (aged 11) reported mysterious knocking sounds in their family home, which they claimed were communications from the spirit of a murdered peddler.^[21] The sisters developed a code where raps answered yes-or-no questions—one rap for yes, two for no—leading to public demonstrations that drew crowds in Rochester, a hub of religious and reform activity.^[21] This event is widely credited with igniting the organized Spiritualist movement, as the sisters toured cities like New York, hosting paid séances and inspiring others to claim similar spirit contacts.^[21] Spiritualism rapidly expanded across the United States and Europe, attracting adherents from middle- and upper-class backgrounds seeking empirical evidence of the afterlife amid scientific advancements. By the end of the American Civil War in 1865, Spiritualism had attracted an estimated several million adherents in the U.S., with thousands practicing as mediums.^[21] The movement reached over eight million followers in the U.S. and Europe by 1897, fueled by public lectures, printed periodicals, and the sisters' influence.^[22] In France, educator Hippolyte Léon Denizard Rivail, under the pseudonym Allan Kardec, codified Spiritism—a structured form of Spiritualism emphasizing reincarnation and moral evolution—through key works like The Spirits' Book (1857), which compiled spirit communications into a philosophical doctrine.^[23] He followed with The Mediums' Book (1861) and others, founding the Parisian Society of Spiritist Studies in 1858 to systematize the practice.^[23] The movement intertwined with social reforms, particularly women's rights, as most mediums were women who gained unprecedented public platforms and financial independence through séances.^[24] Figures like the Fox sisters and Victoria Woodhull, a medium who ran for U.S. president in 1872, used spirit messages to advocate for suffrage, abolition, and gender equality, aligning Spiritualism with progressive causes.^[24] Early public demonstrations often featured table-turning, where participants placed hands on a table in a dimly lit room, and spirits allegedly tilted or moved it to respond to questions, popularizing the practice from the U.S. in 1848 to Europe by 1852.^[25] Automatic writing emerged as another key phenomenon, with mediums producing involuntary script purportedly from spirits, as seen in séances by figures like Florence Cook, enabling rapid communication during gatherings.^[26]

20th Century and Contemporary Developments

The First World War profoundly influenced mediumship, sparking a surge in public interest during the 1910s and 1920s as families sought to connect with the approximately 9 million fallen soldiers through séances and other practices. This grief-driven revival was exemplified by prominent figures like Sir Oliver Lodge, who claimed communications from his son Raymond—killed in 1915—via the medium Gladys Osborne Leonard, as documented in Lodge's 1916 book Raymond or Life and Death, which sold widely and inspired similar accounts among bereaved relatives.^[27] The concurrent 1918 influenza pandemic, which claimed at least 50 million lives worldwide, further intensified this trend, with mediums employing automatic writing and table-tipping to relay messages from deceased soldiers describing a peaceful afterlife.^[28] Following the Second World War, mediumship experienced a notable decline attributed to heightened scientific scrutiny and the ascendance of psychological explanations for paranormal experiences. Investigations exposing fraudulent mediums, building on earlier exposures like those by Harry Houdini in the 1920s, eroded public trust, while post-war advancements in psychology—such as those influenced by the era's traumas—reframed spirit communications as manifestations of grief or subconscious processes rather than genuine supernatural events.^[29] This downturn persisted into the mid-20th century until a revival emerged in the 1970s amid the New Age movement, which reincorporated mediumship as a form of channeling and holistic spirituality, blending it with practices like meditation and Eastern mysticism to appeal to a countercultural audience seeking personal empowerment and cosmic connection.^[30] In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, mediumship gained renewed visibility through television, with figures like John Edward popularizing it via his show Crossing Over with John Edward (2001–2004), which reached millions by staging live audience readings that blended traditional séance elements with modern entertainment formats. Similarly, Theresa Caputo's Long Island Medium (2011–2019), a TLC reality series, portrayed her daily interactions with spirits, influencing contemporary perceptions by normalizing mediumship as a tool for emotional closure in everyday life and inspiring a wave of similar programming.^[31]^[32] Technological advancements have also reshaped mediumship since the 1990s, particularly through electronic voice phenomena (EVP), where recordings purportedly capture spirit voices on audio devices. Building on earlier experiments by pioneers like Friedrich Jürgenson and Konstantin Raudive, EVP integrated with instrumental transcommunication (ITC) techniques—using radios, computers, and multi-frequency generators—gained traction in parapsychological circles, as chronicled in publications like the ITC Journal (2000–2017), allowing practitioners to claim objective evidence of afterlife communication beyond traditional human mediation.^[33]

Types of Mediumship

Mental Mediumship

Mental mediumship involves the purported communication between a living medium and spirits of the deceased through non-physical, mental impressions received while the medium remains fully conscious and aware. This form of mediumship relies on extrasensory perceptions known as the "clairs," where information is conveyed telepathically without the involvement of the medium's physical senses.^[34] The core process centers on the medium receiving subtle impressions from spirits: clairvoyance manifests as visual images or scenes in the "mind's eye," such as pictures or symbols; clairaudience appears as internal auditory messages, like voices or sounds perceived as thoughts; and clairsentience involves tactile or emotional sensations, such as feelings of presence, temperature changes, or physical echoes of the spirit's experiences. These impressions are interpreted and relayed by the medium in real-time, often building a narrative from fragmented data provided by the communicating entity. For example, a medium might describe seeing a symbolic image of a broken bridge to represent a past family event, hearing a whispered name, or feeling a sudden chill associated with a spirit's manner of passing.^[35]^[6] In practice, mediums deliver specific evidential details to sitters, such as names (e.g., a deceased relative's full name like "Uncle Tom"), dates (e.g., birth or death years), or personal anecdotes (e.g., a unique habit like fondness for a particular hobby or location of a lost item), aiming to validate the spirit's identity and provide comfort or closure. These readings typically occur in one-on-one sessions or larger gatherings, where the medium conveys the information directly without any trance or loss of control.^[35]^[6] Techniques for mental mediumship emphasize honing intuitive reception through meditation, symbolic interpretation, and associative recall, where spirits may draw on the medium's personal knowledge to clarify impressions, all without producing physical manifestations. Practitioners frequently develop these abilities in supportive group environments called development circles, often held at spiritualist centers, where participants practice sharing and validating messages to refine their sensitivity and accuracy. Unlike trance mediumship, which involves altered consciousness and spirit control, mental mediumship keeps the medium actively engaged and interpretive throughout.^[35]^[6]

Trance Mediumship

Trance mediumship involves a medium entering an altered state of consciousness, often described as a spectrum ranging from partial to full dissociation, to facilitate communication by discarnate spirits who purportedly control the medium's body for speech, writing, or other expressions.^[36] In this practice, the medium typically relinquishes conscious control, allowing the spirit to use their vocal cords, limbs, or faculties directly, distinguishing it from more conscious forms of mediumship. Historical and contemporary accounts emphasize the voluntary induction of trance through relaxation, prayer, or environmental cues, with the depth of the state influencing the clarity and autonomy of the spirit's manifestations.^[37] The process unfolds in distinct stages, primarily light trance and deep trance, each characterized by varying degrees of awareness and control. In a light trance, the medium retains partial consciousness and can sometimes guide or interrupt the session, experiencing impressions or voices while maintaining some oversight of their actions; this state may involve heightened suggestibility and subtle personality shifts without complete amnesia.^[38] Conversely, deep trance entails full surrender, where the medium becomes unconscious or amnesic, with the spirit assuming complete control over the body—altering voice, mannerisms, and even pain insensitivity—as seen in classic spiritualist demonstrations.^[37] Transitioning between these stages can occur rapidly, often marked by physical signs like convulsions or eye closure, and the choice of depth depends on the medium's training and the intended communication.^[39] Key phenomena in trance mediumship include direct spirit speech, where the entity uses the medium's voice to converse, and automatic writing or actions performed without the medium's volition. A prominent historical example is Leonora Piper in the late 19th century, who, during deep trances induced by sitting quietly, allowed spirits such as "Phinuit" or "George Pellew" to speak through her, delivering detailed personal information to sitters with altered accents and gestures that mimicked the deceased.^[37] These sessions, often lasting hours, focused on evidential communications verified by researchers, highlighting the trance's role in bypassing the medium's normal personality for ostensible spirit autonomy.^[37] Practicing trance mediumship carries potential risks, including physical exhaustion from prolonged altered states and challenges in personality reintegration post-session, such as lingering dissociation or fatigue. Studies indicate that mediums report higher dissociation scores than non-mediums, though typically below pathological levels, which may contribute to emotional drain or identity blurring after deep trances.^[1] Less experienced mediums show tendencies toward executive dysfunction and common mental health symptoms like fatigue, suggesting a need for careful management to avoid cognitive strain.^[38] In modern variants, trance mediumship has evolved into channeling within New Age groups, exemplified by Jane Roberts' work with the entity "Seth" from the 1960s to 1980s. Roberts entered trance states twice weekly, speaking as Seth in a deeper voice while producing metaphysical teachings on consciousness and reality, compiled into books that influenced contemporary spiritual practices.^[39] This form emphasized voluntary possession without Ouija aids after initial sessions, fostering group explorations of personal growth and aligning with broader New Age emphases on self-realization through spirit contact.^[40]

Physical Mediumship

Physical mediumship refers to a form of mediumship in which spirits are believed to produce tangible, observable physical effects during séances, distinguishing it from purely mental or verbal communications. These phenomena are attributed to the manipulation of subtle energies by discarnate entities, often requiring the medium to enter a deep trance state to facilitate the process. Common manifestations include levitation of objects or the medium's body, apports where physical items appear or disappear inexplicably, and table rapping, where knocks or movements on furniture convey messages from spirits.^[41]^[42] The process typically begins with the medium achieving a trance, during which spirits are said to draw upon the medium's vital energy to interact with the physical environment. This energy manipulation can result in object movement without apparent human intervention or the production of independent voices, sometimes using a trumpet as a conduit. Many such demonstrations occur in darkened rooms to enhance the conditions for phenomena like ectoplasm production, a luminous substance purportedly extruded from the medium's body to form temporary spirit forms or enable physical interactions.^[42]^[41] A prominent historical example is the Italian medium Eusapia Palladino, whose séances in the 1890s drew international scientific attention. During sessions in Milan and Naples, investigators observed table levitations and movements of distant objects, such as furniture and a piano, under controlled conditions where Palladino's hands and feet were restrained. Key figures like criminologist Cesare Lombroso and astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli participated in these 1891–1892 experiments, reporting genuine physical disturbances that they could not fully explain through trickery at the time.^[43]^[41] To ensure the integrity of these events and contain the purported energies, safety protocols such as the use of cabinets—enclosed spaces with curtains or barriers—were employed to restrain the medium and prevent unauthorized actions. These setups allowed observers to monitor the medium's limbs with luminous tabs while isolating the phenomena to specific areas. Direct voice phenomena, where spirits speak independently, represent a related subset often integrated into physical mediumship sessions.^[41]^[42]

Key Terminology and Phenomena

Spirit Guides and Operators

In mediumship, spirit guides are typically described as benevolent discarnate entities, such as deceased individuals or ascended beings, who provide ongoing guidance and support to mediums in their communicative roles.^[35] These guides are often perceived as highly evolved personalities with specialized skills, acting as intermediaries to facilitate connections between the living and the spirit world while offering protection and wisdom.^[44] In Western traditions, common examples include figures like Native American Indians or angelic beings, which mediums report encountering as lifelong protectors who relay messages or avert harm, such as warning against accidents.^[35]^[44] Spirit operators, sometimes referred to as "controls," represent a subset of these entities specialized in orchestrating physical phenomena during séances, such as materializations or table movements, by directing the medium's energies.^[44] These operators function as gatekeepers, managing the flow of spirit interactions to ensure controlled manifestations, often drawing from cultural archetypes like historical or ethnic figures to lend authority to the proceedings.^[44] Mediums often develop relationships with these guides through meditative practices, entering altered states to "meet" and establish rapport, which fosters a sense of non-interference and positive alignment.^[44] In the readings of Edgar Cayce, conducted in trance states during the early 1900s, guardian angelic forces were invoked as personal guides offering spiritual advice and oversight throughout an individual's life journey, emphasizing their role in soul development.^[45] Culturally, the concept of spirit guides varies significantly; in African traditional religions, ancestors—known as the "living-dead"—serve as primary guides, acting as moral guardians who communicate moral imperatives and community harmony through healers or diviners.^[46]^[47] This contrasts with the more individualized, non-familial entities prevalent in Western mediumship, where guides like nuns or ethnic figures provide personal counsel rather than collective ethical oversight.^[35] In African contexts, these ancestral guides are consulted via rituals, reinforcing their eternal presence and role in linking the living to divine wisdom.^[47]

Psychic Senses

In mediumship, psychic senses refer to the purported extrasensory modalities through which practitioners claim to receive communications from discarnate spirits, distinct from ordinary physical perception. These senses are central to mental mediumship, where mediums interpret impressions to convey messages to living individuals.^[3] Clairvoyance, or clear seeing, involves the reception of visual information such as images, symbols, or scenes associated with spirits or deceased persons. Mediums describe this as perceiving mental pictures or visions that may appear internally, like in the mind's eye, or externally as apparitions. This sense allows for detailed descriptions of a spirit's appearance, surroundings, or symbolic representations relevant to the recipient.^[3]^[48] Clairaudience, or clear hearing, entails auditory perceptions from spirits, ranging from whispers and fragmented words to complete conversations or sounds like music. Practitioners report hearing these messages internally, as if in their own voice, or externally as distinct voices. This modality facilitates direct verbal communications, such as personal advice or evidential details about the deceased.^[3]^[48] Clairsentience, or clear feeling, encompasses tactile, emotional, or kinesthetic impressions that convey a spirit's intentions, personality, or experiences. Mediums may feel physical sensations, such as touches, temperatures, or pains mirroring the deceased's conditions, alongside emotional states like joy, sorrow, or urgency. This sense often provides intuitive "knowing" without visual or auditory cues, emphasizing empathy in spirit interactions.^[3]^[48] Mediums frequently employ a combination of these senses simultaneously, resulting in a synesthesia-like blending where visual, auditory, and tactile impressions merge to form complex, layered messages from spirits. For instance, a visual image might accompany an emotional feeling and auditory phrase, enhancing the depth of the communication. This integrated approach is honed through training in psychic development circles, structured group sessions led by experienced mediums in spiritualist churches, where participants practice meditation, exercises in sensing impressions, and feedback to refine their abilities over years.^[48]^[44] These psychic senses are primarily applied in mental mediumship to provide evidential readings, though their use underscores the subjective nature of mediumistic experiences.^[3]

Specific Demonstrations

Direct voice refers to a phenomenon in physical mediumship where spirit entities purportedly produce audible speech independent of the medium's vocal apparatus, often emerging from the air or a device such as a trumpet, without the medium's lips moving.^[49] This voice is described as drawing energy from the circle of sitters to manifest, sometimes in multiple languages unknown to the medium, and may include simultaneous communications from several entities.^[49] Historical examples include the American medium Etta Wriedt (1859–1942), whose sittings in the early 20th century featured voices amplified through a metal trumpet, observed in subdued light or darkness, and endorsed by investigators like Vice-Admiral Sir William Moore of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR).^[49] Another notable case is the British medium Leslie Flint (1911–1994), who conducted hundreds of séances producing independent voices, including those of historical figures, with recordings preserved by the Leslie Flint Educational Trust; SPR researchers attended some sessions but noted challenges in verifying authenticity due to conditions like darkness.^[50] Automatic writing, also known as psychography, involves the medium's hand producing written messages, drawings, or scripts purportedly controlled by spirit entities, often in a relaxed or semi-trance state without conscious direction from the medium.^[51] The process typically requires a stimulus, such as a name or object, to initiate communication, resulting in rapid output—up to 2,000 words per hour—far exceeding normal conscious writing speeds.^[51] In spiritualism, this technique has been used to convey detailed narratives or teachings; for instance, Irish medium Geraldine Cummins (1890–1969) produced scripts attributed to the deceased Frederic W.H. Myers, published in The Road to Immortality (1932), which captured Myers' philosophical style and were verified against his known writings by collaborators like Beatrice Gibbes.^[51] Similarly, Swiss medium Hélène Smith (1861–1929) generated automatic writings and drawings depicting extraterrestrial scenes, including a Martian language, studied by psychologist Théodore Flournoy in From India to the Planet Mars (1900), who noted the creative yet structured nature of the output. Materializations encompass the temporary appearance of spirit forms, body parts, or objects during séances, often emerging from a cabinet or the medium's vicinity, and are considered a hallmark of physical mediumship.^[52] These may include full figures, such as a veiled woman or child, interacting tactilely with sitters, or partial forms like luminous hands manipulating objects.^[52] Apports involve the sudden materialization of objects from unknown sources, such as flowers or artifacts, while teleports refer to the displacement of existing items to new locations without physical intervention.^[52] Italian medium Eusapia Palladino (1854–1918) demonstrated these in controlled sittings, including apports of a mandolin and teleports of a glass lifted by a materialized arm, investigated by scientists like Cesare Lombroso and Charles Richet in 1894 at Île Roubaud, where phenomena occurred under observation despite fraud suspicions in other sessions.^[52] SPR members, including Frederic W.H. Myers, documented similar events in 1895 Cambridge tests, emphasizing the need for rigorous controls to distinguish genuine effects from trickery.^[52] Group dynamics in mediumship sessions, particularly through circle sittings, involve a collective of participants gathered in a dedicated space to foster and amplify phenomena, with multiple mediums or sensitive individuals enhancing energy flow.^[53] These home circles, a staple of 19th-century spiritualism, typically consist of 4–12 sitters meeting regularly in dim light, holding hands or focusing intent to build "magnetic rapport," which purportedly strengthens manifestations like voices or materializations.^[54] Historical accounts describe how such groups, as in the Fox sisters' early circles post-1848, progressed from raps to complex communications, with the combined vitality of participants believed to energize spirit operators.^[53] Investigators like William Barrett noted in SPR reports that circle cohesion reduced fraud risks and intensified effects, though outcomes varied by group harmony.^[55]

Explanations and Beliefs

Paranormal Interpretations

Believers in mediumship often interpret its phenomena through the lens of the survival hypothesis, which posits that human consciousness persists after physical death and can communicate via mediums, providing veridical information—accurate details unknown to the medium or sitter—that serves as evidence of postmortem survival. This hypothesis emphasizes cases where mediums relay specific facts about deceased individuals, such as personal histories or relationships, that could not be obtained through ordinary means like prior knowledge or sensory cues. For instance, research highlights proxy sittings, where a third party uninvolved with the deceased receives the communication, reducing possibilities of telepathic leakage from living sources and yielding verifiable details confirmed later by family members.^[56] A notable example supporting this view is the cross-correspondence phenomenon, investigated by the Society for Psychical Research in the early 1900s, where independent automatists—often separated by distance—produced interconnected scripts containing complementary fragments of obscure references, such as classical allusions or puzzles, that formed coherent messages only when combined. These scripts, spanning over 3,000 documents from 1901 to 1936, were attributed to deceased psychical researchers like Frederic Myers, suggesting intentional orchestration by surviving intelligences beyond the capabilities of individual mediums or chance coincidence. Proponents argue this demonstrates the survival of complex personality traits and intellectual continuity post-death. Recent reviews (e.g., de Abreu Costa et al., 2025) continue to examine evidence of accurate anomalous information provided by mediums, evaluating it against conventional explanations and supporting hypotheses of mind beyond the brain.^[57]^[58] Paranormal interpretations also draw on energy-based theories, particularly from Theosophy, where spirits are seen as entities operating through subtle energies or astral forces to influence the physical plane during mediumistic sessions. In this framework, derived from esoteric traditions, the astral light—a pervasive subtle medium—stores impressions of events and thoughts, allowing discarnate beings to manipulate these energies for communication, as explored in Theosophical writings on psychic phenomena. Annie Besant, a key Theosophical figure, elaborated on such processes in her works on occult research, describing how higher spiritual entities could employ refined etheric forces to bridge realms, though she cautioned against uncontrolled mediumship due to risks of lower astral influences.^[59]^[60] Religious integrations further frame mediumship as compatible with established faiths. Within Christianity, some interpret it as an extension of the gifts of the Holy Spirit outlined in 1 Corinthians 12, such as prophecy, discernment of spirits, and words of knowledge, elevating psychic sensitivity to a spiritual ministry when dedicated to God for healing and guidance. This view holds that mediumship, when prayerfully discerned, aligns with biblical calls to test spirits (1 John 4:1-3) and serve others, distinguishing it from prohibited necromancy by its focus on divine purpose.^[61] In Eastern-influenced paradigms, particularly Spiritism codified by Allan Kardec in the 19th century, mediumship facilitates communications revealing reincarnation as a mechanism for soul evolution across multiple lives, drawing from Hindu and Buddhist concepts of karma and rebirth. Through mediums, spirits convey lessons from past incarnations, emphasizing progressive spiritual development and the continuity of consciousness beyond death, as detailed in Kardec's foundational texts based on channeled teachings.^[62]^[63]

Psychological and Cultural Perspectives

Psychologists have long examined trance states in mediumship through the lens of dissociation and hypnosis, viewing them as altered states of consciousness rather than supernatural phenomena. In the late 19th century, William James, a pioneering figure in psychology, investigated trance mediums like Leonora Piper through the Society for Psychical Research, finding their states akin to hypnotic conditions involving shifts in awareness, as detailed in his reports on such phenomena. James advocated for the serious study of such trance mediumship as essential to understanding the human psyche, suggesting it revealed "exceptional mental states" that expanded conventional notions of consciousness.^[64]^[65] Contemporary research builds on this by classifying trance mediumship as a non-pathological form of dissociative trance or possession, where individuals voluntarily enter states of divided consciousness without the identity fragmentation seen in disorders like dissociative identity disorder.^[66] For instance, a neuroimaging study of mediums in trance showed decreased activity in brain regions associated with language, motor control, and sensory integration during automatic writing in experienced mediums, supporting the view of these states as dissociative experiences that may enhance imaginative absorption.^[67] From a cultural anthropological standpoint, mediumship serves as a socially sanctioned mechanism for coping with grief, allowing communities to maintain bonds with the deceased and facilitate emotional resolution. In many societies, mediums act as intermediaries who affirm the presence of the departed, providing reassurance that helps the bereaved transition from liminal mourning to renewed engagement with life.^[68] This role is evident in Mexican traditions like Día de los Muertos, where rituals involving altars and communal remembrance—often guided by spiritual practitioners—enable collective grief processing, reducing isolation and fostering a sense of continuity with ancestors.^[69] Anthropological analyses highlight how such practices normalize death as part of the life cycle, offering psychological benefits like decreased anxiety and enhanced meaning-making during bereavement.^[70] Mediumship has historically empowered women within patriarchal structures by granting them authoritative roles typically denied in secular or religious spheres. In 19th-century Spiritualism, women mediums gained public speaking platforms and financial independence, subverting gender norms through their perceived spiritual authority during trance communications.^[71] This empowerment stemmed from cultural associations of femininity with intuition and receptivity, allowing women to lead séances and influence social reform movements, such as suffrage and abolition, from positions of reverence.^[72] Scholarly examinations of female mediumship in Britain and America underscore how these roles challenged domestic confinement, enabling women to assert agency in male-dominated societies by embodying "deviant gender-authority patterns" tied to trance-induced unconventionality.^[73] In modern contexts, mediumship parallels intuitive counseling in therapy, where practitioners use heightened empathy and subconscious cues to support clients without invoking spiritual entities. Counselors trained in humanistic approaches increasingly incorporate intuitive insights—similar to mediums' reported "psychic senses"—to access emotional depths, fostering grief resolution through empathetic attunement rather than evidential claims.^[74] Research on mediumship sessions demonstrates outcomes akin to therapeutic interventions, such as reduced grief intensity and improved coping, as clients experience validation and closure via the medium's facilitative role.^[75] This convergence highlights mediumship's therapeutic potential when reframed as a form of relational, intuition-based support in mental health practices.^[76]

Skepticism and Investigations

Scientific Critiques

Scientific investigations into mediumship have consistently failed to produce replicable evidence supporting claims of communication with the deceased, with challenges like those from the James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) highlighting the absence of demonstrable abilities under controlled conditions. From the 1970s through the 2000s, the JREF offered escalating prizes—culminating in a one-million-dollar award from 1996 to 2015—for anyone who could prove paranormal powers, including mediumship, through rigorous scientific testing. No claimant, including purported mediums, ever succeeded in meeting the protocol requirements, which involved double-blind setups to eliminate sensory cues or fraud.^[77]^[78] Psychologists such as Ray Hyman have attributed the perceived successes of mediums to psychological mechanisms like cold reading and confirmation bias, rather than genuine supernatural contact. Cold reading involves the medium making vague, high-probability statements or observing subtle nonverbal cues from the sitter to elicit confirming responses, creating the illusion of specific knowledge about the deceased. Confirmation bias further reinforces this by leading sitters to remember accurate "hits" while dismissing misses or ambiguous statements as irrelevant. In his critique of experimental mediumship studies, Hyman demonstrated how these techniques account for results without invoking paranormal explanations, emphasizing that proper controls expose such methods.^[79] Meta-analyses of parapsychological research have concluded there is no replicable evidence exceeding chance expectations, often due to methodological flaws like selective reporting and inadequate blinding. Reviews and broader assessments by skeptics like Hyman have scrutinized pooled data from mediumship experiments, finding that positive outcomes diminish or vanish under stricter scrutiny, with effect sizes attributable to bias or error rather than anomalous information transfer.^[80] Neurological studies using brain imaging further support naturalistic explanations for mediumship experiences, revealing patterns of heightened suggestibility and dissociation rather than indicators of supernatural activity. Functional neuroimaging during trance states in mediums shows decreased blood flow in brain regions associated with self-awareness and executive control, such as the frontal lobes, alongside increased dissociation—traits linked to high hypnotic suggestibility. These findings align with psychological models of trance as an altered state of consciousness, where suggestibility amplifies subjective experiences without evidence of external paranormal input.^[81]^[82]

Notable Fraud Cases

One of the most infamous cases in the history of mediumship occurred in the 19th century with the Fox sisters, Margaretta (Maggie) and Catherine (Kate) Fox, who ignited the Spiritualist movement in 1848 with reports of mysterious "rapping" sounds attributed to spirits in their Hydesville, New York, home. In 1888, Maggie confessed to the New York World that the rappings were a hoax produced by cracking their toe and knee joints, a technique she publicly demonstrated at the New York Academy of Music, with Kate in attendance.^[83] Maggie explained that the deception began as a youthful prank but grew into a lucrative career, stating, "When I began this deception I was too young to know right from wrong… It is the greatest sorrow of my life."^[84] Despite partial retractions later, the confession undermined the foundational claims of Spiritualism.^[84] In the early 20th century, Mina "Margery" Crandon, a prominent Boston medium, faced exposure during séances in the 1920s, where she claimed to channel her deceased brother "Walter" through levitations, telekinesis, and direct voice. Harry Houdini, a renowned magician and skeptic, attended a 1924 séance rigged with controls, using a concealed collapsible ruler sewn into his sleeve to activate a spirit bell box himself while trapping Crandon's hand, and a tight bandage under his knee to detect her foot movements manipulating objects.^[85] Houdini also implicated her husband, Dr. Le Roi Crandon, and committee member Malcolm Bird as accomplices who facilitated the deceptions, including pre-arranged signals and hidden aids like a dummy hand for imprints.^[85] Houdini detailed these tricks in his 1924 pamphlet Houdini Exposes the Tricks Used by the Boston Medium "Margery," preventing Crandon from winning a $2,500 prize from Scientific American and tarnishing her reputation, though she continued performing until her death in 1941.^[85] Mid-20th-century fraud surfaced prominently with William Roy, a British medium active in the 1950s who specialized in direct voice séances, claiming spirits spoke independently in darkened rooms. Roy employed ventriloquism, along with hidden microphones, amplifiers, and confederates, to simulate these voices, while gathering personal details from clients' belongings and public records to craft convincing messages.^[86] His methods were exposed in August 1955 by Two Worlds magazine after a former accomplice revealed the techniques, including how Roy exploited a widow for £15,000 through fabricated spirit communications promising a bogus divorce.^[86] Roy confessed in the Sunday Pictorial in 1958 but persisted under aliases like "Bill Silver" until his death in 1977, with his apparatus later displayed at Scotland Yard's museum.^[86] In the 2010s, online mediums increasingly drew scrutiny for using social media data to feign psychic insights, a practice debunked through sting operations led by skeptic Susan Gerbic. Gerbic's team created elaborate fake Facebook profiles with fabricated personal details, such as family histories and pet photos, then sent attendees to psychic events under these identities to record when mediums recited the planted information as "readings."^[87] For instance, in Operation Pizza Roll (2017), targeting medium Thomas John in Los Angeles, a profile as "Susanna Wilson" included a fictional deceased twin brother; John repeated these exact details during the show, confirming pre-event online research.^[87] Similar efforts, like Operation Peach Pit against Matthew Fraser, yielded videos posted online to highlight the deception, emphasizing how public social media enables "hot readings" without paranormal ability.^[87]

Cultural and Modern Impact

Global Variations

Mediumship manifests diversely across non-Western cultures, often integrating local spiritual beliefs, rituals, and ecological knowledge to facilitate communication with spirits, ancestors, or deities. These practices emphasize communal participation, trance states induced by music, dance, or substances, and roles tailored to cultural gender norms, distinguishing them from more individualistic Western forms. In the African diaspora, Haitian Vodou exemplifies mediumship through possession by loa spirits during ceremonial dances. Mediums, known as horses (chwal), invite loa to mount them, temporarily displacing their consciousness to channel divine guidance, healing, or prophecy. This occurs in public rituals where drumming and fervent dances, synchronized to specific rhythms, evoke the loa's presence, often marked by trembling, convulsions, and adoption of the spirit's gestures or attire—for instance, a male medium possessed by the feminine loa Erzulie may dress and speak as a woman.^[88] Asian traditions feature the itako, blind female mediums from Japan's Tohoku region, who consult kami—Shinto spirits or deities—primarily through rhythmic chanting to invoke ancestors or the deceased. Trained from childhood in shamanic apprenticeships, itako enter trance states during kuchiyose rituals, where possession allows spirits to speak through them, offering advice on personal matters or resolving family disputes. This practice blends Shinto animism with Buddhist elements, positioning itako as vital intermediaries in rural communities, though their numbers have declined with modernization.^[89]^[90] Among the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Mapuche machi in southern Chile employ herbal-induced trances to heal through ancestor communication. Predominantly women, machi undergo initiation involving climbing a sacred rewe altar and entering ecstatic states to connect with ancestral spirits (wenu mapu), who guide diagnoses of illnesses caused by spiritual imbalances. Herbs like latué (Latua pubiflora) induce hallucinations for visionary insights, while tobacco is smoked or blown over patients to fumigate malevolent forces and invoke ancestors as intermediaries. Healing rituals culminate in drumming with the kultrun, restoring harmony between the living, dead, and cosmos.^[91]^[92] In Islamic contexts, mediumship remains rare due to orthodox prohibitions on spirit possession, yet Sufi traditions incorporate elements of divine communication through ecstatic trances. The Mevlevi order's whirling dervishes achieve fana—annihilation of the self in union with God—via sema ceremonies involving spinning dances, repetitive music, and chanting, fostering direct mystical communion with the divine rather than intermediary spirits. This practice, rooted in Rumi's teachings, symbolizes cosmic rotation and spiritual ascent, performed in controlled ritual settings to attain prophetic insights or purification.^[93]^[94]

Contemporary Practices and Media Influence

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, mediumship has increasingly shifted to digital formats, with online platforms enabling virtual séances and readings via tools like Zoom. This adaptation surged in 2020, as physical gatherings were restricted, leading to a proliferation of live-streamed sessions and apps dedicated to spirit communication. For instance, platforms such as Keen and Kasamba reported significant increases in psychic readings during lockdowns, with interest in supernatural readings more than doubling according to data from Yelp.^[95] This trend has continued post-pandemic, with the U.S. online psychic reading market projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.43% from USD 360.65 million in 2023 to USD 580.45 million by 2032.^[96] Media portrayals have significantly shaped public perceptions of mediumship in the 21st century, often romanticizing mental mediumship through television and film. The CBS series Ghost Whisperer (2005-2010), starring Jennifer Love Hewitt as a clairvoyant who mediates between the living and the dead, drew an average of 10 million viewers per episode and popularized the archetype of empathetic, everyday mediums resolving ghostly dilemmas. Similar influences appear in films like The Sixth Sense (1999), which, despite predating the show, contributed to a cultural fascination that persists in modern productions, blending supernatural elements with emotional storytelling to normalize mediumistic practices. To professionalize the field, organizations have introduced ethical standards and certifications, emphasizing integrity and client welfare. The Forever Family Foundation, established in 2004, offers training and validation programs for mediums, including evidential mediumship workshops that stress verifiable spirit communication over vague generalizations. These initiatives, which have certified around 30 practitioners since the 2000s due to rigorous evaluation processes, aim to distinguish legitimate mediums from charlatans and promote accountability through codes of conduct, such as avoiding cold reading techniques.^[97] Contemporary mediumship has also integrated with wellness trends, appearing in retreats that combine spirit communication with practices like yoga and mindfulness. Events such as those hosted by the Omega Institute in New York feature mediumship sessions alongside meditation and holistic therapies, attracting participants interested in spiritual growth and grief resolution. This fusion, evident in programs since the mid-2010s, positions mediumship as a therapeutic tool for emotional healing, with retreats often reporting high satisfaction rates among attendees seeking alternative paths to well-being.

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Psychics Challenged, Offered $1 Million to Prove Powers - ABC News
Aug 27, 2011 · The James Randi Foundation, a non-profit group, has offered $1 million to 'psychic mediums' capable of proving their powers in a scientific ...
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Skeptic Revamps $1M Psychic Prize - WIRED
Jan 12, 2007 · James Randi, 79, has offered a million dollars to anyone who can demonstrate a paranormal occurrence under controlled circumstances.
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How Not to Test Mediums - Skeptical Inquirer
Ray Hyman. Ray Hyman is professor emeritus of psychology, University of Oregon. See more articles ...Missing: mediumship | Show results with:mediumship
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The Evidence for Psychic Functioning: Claims vs. Reality
Special Report. The Evidence for Psychic Functioning: Claims vs. Reality. Ray Hyman. From: Volume 20, No. 2 · March / April 1996 · Twitter Facebook.Missing: critique | Show results with:critique
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A meta-analysis with nothing to hide: reply to Hyman (2010) - PubMed
However, Hyman (2010) argues that the overall evidence for psi is, in fact, contradictory and elusive. We present a case for psi research that undermines ...Missing: no | Show results with:no
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Neuroimaging during Trance State: A Contribution to the Study of ...
Nov 16, 2012 · Less expert mediums showed increased activity in specific brain areas during trance, while experienced mediums showed decreased activity ...
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Psychopathological investigation of the personality of “psychic ...
This research confirms the psychopathological nature of the personality profiles of mediums, with a higher prevalence of delusional, dissociative, and ...
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https://www.neuroscigroup.us/articles/APT-7-147.php
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How a Hoax by Two Sisters Helped Spark the Spiritualism Craze
Oct 12, 2022 · Maggie's confession to the New York World in 1888 that her and her sister's communication with the dead had been a hoax—as well as her public ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
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Houdini's Greatest Trick: Debunking Medium Mina Crandon
Oct 31, 2013 · (A Harvard-educated surgeon, Crandon was her greatest promoter, often showing visitors nude photographs of his wife in séance delicté).
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William Roy | Encyclopedia.com
He set up in business as a professional psychic medium. Roy used ingenious technical devices for fraudulent mediumship and also employed confederates. He ...Missing: ventriloquism 1950s
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Inside the Secret Sting Operations to Expose Celebrity Psychics
Feb 26, 2019 · Are some celebrity mediums fooling their audience members by reading social media pages in advance? A group of online vigilantes is out to prove it.Missing: 2010s | Show results with:2010s
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[PDF] Symbolism and Embodiment in Six Haitian Dances
This paper outlines some common characteristics of, and gestures embedded within, indigenous Haitian religion and six of the dances related to the religion.
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https://jashm.press.uillinois.edu/8.3/8-3Symbolism_Martin93-119.pdf
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Myth and Gender in Japanese Shamanism: The "Itako" of Tohoku
They were blind musicians employed by or loosely attached to Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples who were asked to sing in praise of kami or various Buddhist ...
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[PDF] a study of religion, culture, and medicinal plants of three south ...
Terapéutica de Siete Machi Mapuche. Chile: Salesianos S.A. 2007 Shamans of the Foye Tree: Gender, Power, and Healing Among the. Chilean Mapuche. Austin ...
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(PDF) Book Review: Shamans of the Foye Tree: Gender, Power, and ...
This book review discusses Ana Mariella Bacigalupo's "Shamans of the Foye Tree: Gender, Power, and Healing among Chilean Mapuche," which explores the roles of ...
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[PDF] THE AESTHETICS OF MOTION IN MUSICS FOR THE MEVLANA ...
The Whirling Dervishes: Being an Account of the Sufi Order,. Known as the Mevlevis, and Its Founder, the Poet and Mystic, Mevlana. Jalalu'ddin Rumi. New York ...Missing: mediumship | Show results with:mediumship
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(PDF) Gilbert Rouget, Music and Trance. A Theory of the Relations ...
... Mevlevi whirling dervishes in their dancing and trances. We should add, though, that there are many dervish sects and that the Mevlevi one is among the few ...