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Suggestion

Suggestion is a core psychological process whereby ideas, beliefs, or propositions are communicated to an individual, leading to their uncritical acceptance and subsequent influence on thoughts, emotions, perceptions, sensations, and behaviors.^[1] This phenomenon operates through mechanisms such as response expectancies, where anticipated outcomes trigger automatic behavioral or experiential changes, often without conscious intent.^[2] Suggestion manifests in various forms, including direct verbal instructions, indirect implications, and nonverbal cues, and its effects can range from subtle shifts in decision-making to profound alterations in subjective experience.^[3] In clinical and experimental contexts, suggestion is most prominently associated with hypnosis, where high suggestibility enables targeted interventions to modify pain perception, enhance memory recall, or alleviate anxiety.^[4] Hypnotic suggestions, delivered during an induced trance-like state, have been empirically shown to reduce conflict in brain regions like the anterior cingulate cortex, facilitating smoother cognitive and motor responses.^[5] Beyond hypnosis, suggestion underpins placebo effects in medical treatments, where expectations of improvement—fostered by verbal cues or conditioning—can produce measurable physiological changes, such as analgesia comparable to pharmacological interventions.^[1] Meta-analyses confirm hypnosis's efficacy across mental and somatic outcomes, including pain management and sleep enhancement, highlighting suggestion's therapeutic potential.^[6] Individual differences in suggestibility, a stable trait reflecting one's propensity to respond to suggestions, predict vulnerability to social influence, false memories, and compliance in interpersonal dynamics.^[7] Scholarly reviews indicate that suggestion permeates everyday cognition, affecting learning, product preferences, and reactions to stimuli through subtle expectancies, sometimes yielding beneficial adaptations but also risks like misinformation acceptance.^[8] Historically rooted in 19th-century studies of mesmerism and formalized by figures like James Braid, the study of suggestion has evolved through cognitive neuroscience, revealing its interplay with prefrontal cortex activity and broader implications for understanding human susceptibility to influence.^[9]

Definition and Fundamentals

Core Definition

Suggestion is the psychological process by which one individual, or oneself, influences the thoughts, feelings, or behaviors of another through implicit or explicit cues, typically evading rigorous conscious scrutiny. This process relies on the recipient's heightened receptivity to ideas, allowing them to be accepted and enacted without deliberate analysis. Suggestions may be direct, involving explicit verbal commands, or indirect, conveyed through subtle implications or environmental hints. At its core, suggestion operates on the ideodynamic principle, wherein entertained ideas naturally generate corresponding physical, emotional, or mental effects, often automatically.^[10] This theory posits that the mind's focus on a dominant idea amplifies its influence, leading to physiological responses or behavioral changes without intermediary reasoning.^[11] Such dynamics underscore suggestion's potency in contexts like self-influence or interpersonal guidance, where ideas function as active forces shaping experience.^[10] The term "suggestion" in psychology evolved from the philosophical concept of the association of ideas, articulated by empiricists like John Locke in the late 17th century, which described how mental representations link and trigger one another.^[12] By the 19th century, it transitioned into a more structured psychological usage, notably through James Braid's 1843 work on hypnotism, where he introduced suggestion as the mechanism driving hypnotic phenomena, independent of mystical forces. Unlike imitation, which involves unconscious mimicry of observed actions without intentional direction, suggestion entails purposeful guidance toward specific ideas or outcomes, initiating a targeted response rather than mere replication.^[13] This distinction highlights suggestion's role as an active communicative process, distinct from passive behavioral copying.^[14]

Mechanisms of Influence

Suggestion operates through several cognitive processes that facilitate the acceptance and enactment of ideas or behaviors. Expectancy plays a central role, as individuals' anticipated outcomes from a suggestion shape their subjective experiences and responses, often amplifying the perceived effects.^[15] Attention is directed narrowly by suggestions, channeling mental resources toward specific perceptions or actions while diminishing awareness of competing stimuli.^[15] Reduced critical thinking further enhances receptivity, allowing suggestions to bypass analytical scrutiny and integrate more readily into conscious or unconscious processing.^[15] The ideomotor effect exemplifies this, wherein suggestions prompt involuntary motor responses, such as subtle muscle movements leading to phenomena like arm levitation, without deliberate intent.^[15] Neurologically, suggestibility involves coordinated activity across key brain regions that modulate perception and self-regulation. The anterior cingulate cortex contributes to monitoring and conflict resolution during suggestion processing, with higher activity correlating to greater hypnotic responsiveness. Alterations in the default mode network, particularly increased connectivity in areas like the precuneus, support immersive mental imagery and reduced self-referential thought, facilitating suggestion-induced states.^[16] Neuroimaging studies demonstrate that suggestions can inhibit pain perception through prefrontal cortex engagement, where dorsolateral prefrontal activation suppresses sensory signals from the anterior cingulate and insula, effectively altering subjective pain intensity.^[17] Social factors amplify suggestion's impact by leveraging interpersonal dynamics to heighten compliance. Authority figures enhance receptivity, as individuals tend to defer to perceived experts, mirroring obedience patterns observed in compliance studies.^[18] Rapport, built through trust and empathy, fosters openness, making suggestions more persuasive in relational contexts like therapy. Conformity pressures, akin to those in group settings, encourage alignment with suggested behaviors to maintain social harmony.^[19] The efficacy of suggestion varies based on individual and contextual factors. Trait suggestibility, a stable personality characteristic, differs widely among people and is reliably assessed using scales like the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, which measures responsiveness through a series of standardized suggestions. High suggestibility correlates with greater absorption in imaginative tasks and predicts stronger responses across non-hypnotic contexts. Contextual elements, such as relaxation, further boost openness by lowering arousal and critical barriers, thereby increasing the likelihood of suggestion acceptance compared to alert states.

Historical Context

Early Psychological Theories

The philosophical foundations of suggestion in psychology trace back to associationism, a theory articulated by John Locke and David Hume in the late 17th and 18th centuries. Locke, in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), described how ideas arise from sensory experience and become linked through association, often involuntarily, resisting rational correction unless time intervenes.^[20] Hume expanded this in A Treatise of Human Nature (1738), positing three principles of association—resemblance, contiguity in time or space, and cause and effect—that govern how impressions form enduring mental connections, shaping thought and behavior through habitual linkages.^[20] These ideas laid the groundwork for understanding suggestion as the implantation of associative chains, where external influences could plant ideas that propagate automatically, influencing later psychological theories of mental influence without direct awareness.^[20] In the late 18th century, Franz Mesmer's concept of "animal magnetism" emerged as a proto-form of suggestion, blending mysticism with therapeutic practice. Mesmer (1734–1815) theorized an invisible magnetic fluid permeating living beings, which could be manipulated through gestures like passes and the use of rods or tubs to induce a "crisis" state for healing ailments.^[21] This process, practiced in Vienna and Paris, produced trance-like states responsive to the magnetizer's directions, though later investigations, including a 1784 French Royal Commission report, debunked the fluid's existence, attributing effects to psychological factors like imagination and expectation.^[21] Mesmerism thus prefigured suggestion by demonstrating how induced altered states amplified susceptibility to external cues, influencing early explorations of mental influence despite its pseudoscientific basis.^[22] The shift toward physiological explanations in the early 19th century was advanced by James Braid, a Scottish surgeon who coined "neurypnology" in his 1843 book Neurypnology, or the Rationale of Nervous Sleep. Braid rejected Mesmer's fluid theory, arguing instead that hypnotic states resulted from monoideism—the intense fixation on a single idea—induced by visual concentration or verbal cues, leading to nervous sleep and heightened suggestibility.^[23] This framework recast suggestion as a psychological mechanism rooted in idea dominance, separating it from mysticism and establishing it as a subject for empirical psychophysiology.^[23] Early empirical observations of suggestion's power emerged through studies of somnambulism and magnetic sleep, particularly following the Marquis de Puységur's work in the 1780s. Puységur (1751–1825), a disciple of Mesmer, induced "artificial somnambulism" in patients like Victor Race, observing trance states where individuals exhibited heightened suggestibility, rapport with the magnetizer, clairvoyance-like diagnosis of illnesses, and amnesia upon waking, with no evidence of physical magnetism.^[24] Contemporaries such as Tardy de Montravel (1785) and the Abbé Faria (1819) further documented how suggestions shaped perceptions, including hallucinations and self-healing responses, attributing these to psychological expectation rather than fluids.^[24] By the 1820s, Alexandre Bertrand's analyses confirmed that somnambulists' visions stemmed from the magnetizer's influence on imagination, providing foundational evidence for suggestion's role in altered consciousness.^[24]

Development in the 19th and Early 20th Centuries

In the late 19th century, the concept of suggestion was formalized within emerging scientific psychology through the work of the Nancy School in France, led by Hippolyte Bernheim following Ambroise-Auguste Liébault's foundational efforts. Bernheim posited that hypnosis was not a pathological state but a normal psychological phenomenon induced primarily by verbal suggestion, applicable to individuals without neurological disorders.^[25] This view contrasted sharply with Jean-Martin Charcot's Paris School, which framed hypnosis as an artificial neurosis tied to hysteria and inherited neuropathology, observable only in susceptible patients through distinct stages like catalepsy and somnambulism.^[26] The ensuing debate in the 1880s, fueled by Bernheim's publications such as De la suggestion dans l'état hypnotique et dans l'état de veille (1884), shifted emphasis from physiological determinism to psychological mechanisms, establishing suggestion as a versatile tool for therapeutic influence.^[25] This psychological reframing of suggestion profoundly influenced the nascent field of psychoanalysis in the 1890s, particularly through Sigmund Freud's early collaborations. After studying under Bernheim in Nancy in 1889, Freud integrated suggestion into the cathartic method developed with Josef Breuer, using hypnotic suggestion to facilitate the recall and emotional release of repressed memories in treating hysteria, as detailed in Studies on Hysteria (1895).^[27] However, by the mid-1890s, Freud began downplaying suggestion's role, citing its limitations: not all patients were hypnotizable, it risked implanting false memories due to the therapist's directive influence, and it bypassed rather than engaged patients' resistances.^[28] He transitioned to free association around 1897–1900, a less suggestive technique that encouraged spontaneous verbalization to access the unconscious, marking a pivotal divergence from hypnotic methods while retaining suggestion's underlying principle of mental influence.^[29] The late 19th and early 20th centuries also witnessed the emergence of autosuggestion, evolving from hypnotic techniques toward conscious, self-directed applications that laid the foundation for modern self-help practices. Building on the Nancy School's demonstrations that suggestion could operate without deep trance, practitioners began exploring waking-state methods in the 1890s, emphasizing the individual's capacity to influence their own subconscious through repeated affirmations.^[25] This transition gained momentum around 1910, as hypnotic dependency was critiqued in favor of empowering patients via deliberate mental repetition, bridging therapeutic suggestion to broader psychological self-regulation.^[30] By the 1910s, suggestion's legitimacy as a therapeutic tool was increasingly validated through institutional channels in Europe, particularly in Britain, where medical societies and journals facilitated its integration into mainstream practice. The British Medical Association (BMA) established a hypnotism committee in 1890, issuing a 1892 report affirming suggestion's efficacy for conditions like insomnia and neuralgia, based on clinical demonstrations.^[31] Figures like Charles Lloyd Tuckey promoted it via the BMA's annual meetings and publications in the British Medical Journal and The Lancet, countering skepticism from figures like editor Ernest Hart.^[32] The formation of the Psycho-Medical Society in London around 1913 further institutionalized suggestive therapies, hosting discussions that linked them to emerging psychotherapies and influencing medical education by the decade's end.^[31]

Key Contributors

Émile Coué

Émile Coué (1857–1926) was a French pharmacist who transitioned into psychology and psychotherapy, becoming renowned for developing the method of conscious autosuggestion. Born in Troyes, he initially practiced pharmacy but became interested in hypnosis after encountering the work of Ambroise-Auguste Liébault, a pioneer of the Nancy School of hypnosis. Over two decades, Coué refined his approach, establishing a free clinic in Nancy around 1910 as part of the "New Nancy School," where he treated over a hundred patients daily, totaling around 40,000 consultations per year, for various ailments without charge, dedicating his resources to the method's dissemination.^[33]^[30] Coué's core theory posited that conscious autosuggestion operates by harnessing the power of imagination over willpower to influence the unconscious mind, which governs physical and mental functions. He argued that ideas accepted by the unconscious tend to manifest as reality, emphasizing that imagination invariably dominates in any conflict with the will. Central to this was his formulation of the "law of reversed effort," which states that conscious effort to achieve a goal often produces the opposite result because it strengthens opposing imaginative ideas; for instance, striving forcefully to fall asleep heightens wakefulness by amplifying mental resistance.^[33]^[30] The practical method Coué popularized involved repetitive self-talk to implant positive suggestions effortlessly, avoiding willpower's pitfalls. Patients were instructed to repeat the phrase "Every day, in every way, I'm getting better and better" twenty times each morning and evening, often using a knotted string as a counter to ensure focus on imagination rather than strain. This general formula was applied broadly to health issues like asthma and paralysis, as well as habit formation such as overcoming nervousness or improving memory, with Coué reporting high success rates in his clinic through induced sessions and self-practice.^[33] Coué's 1922 book Self-Mastery Through Conscious Autosuggestion outlined these principles and included testimonials from patients treated between 1906 and 1921, demonstrating cures for conditions ranging from ulcers to neurasthenia. His work laid foundational ideas for modern affirmations, influencing positive psychology by promoting optimistic self-talk to enhance well-being and self-esteem, as later integrated into practices emphasizing human strengths and mental reprogramming.^[33]^[34]^[30]

Charles Baudouin

Charles Baudouin (1893–1963) was a French psychologist and psychoanalyst who worked in Switzerland, serving as a professor at the Jean-Jacques Rousseau Institute in Geneva and occasionally at the University of Geneva, where he completed his doctoral dissertation in 1920.^[35] He founded and directed the International Institute of Psychotherapy in Geneva from 1924 until 1947, focusing on integrating psychological theories into therapeutic practice.^[35] As a direct collaborator and the primary theoretical exponent of Émile Coué's methods, Baudouin systematized the principles of conscious autosuggestion derived from the New Nancy School.^[36]^[37] Baudouin's seminal work, Suggestion and Autosuggestion (1920), represents a foundational theoretical contribution by blending Coué's empirical techniques with emerging Freudian psychoanalytic concepts, particularly the role of the unconscious in mental processes.^[35]^[37] He conceptualized suggestion as the subconscious realization and transformation of an idea into action or belief, emphasizing unconscious acceptance without critical interference from the conscious mind (pp. 29–30, 74–90).^[37] This integration highlighted how suggestions operate through subconscious teleology, where emotions and latent ideas drive behavioral outcomes, aligning with Freud's notions of the unconscious while extending them to practical self-influence.^[37] In applying these ideas, Baudouin advocated for suggestion's use in education to facilitate habit formation and character development, particularly by targeting the subconscious to instill positive routines and overcome maladaptive ones.^[37] For instance, he described how repeated autosuggestions could correct habits like excessive drinking or nail-biting by reinforcing alternative behaviors through subconscious reinforcement, drawing on examples of imitation and daily practice (pp. 91–93, 204–223, 219).^[37] He viewed suggestion as a vital bridge between the conscious and unconscious mind, enabling ideas to transfer via affective states and symbols—such as during relaxation or sleep—thus allowing conscious intentions to influence deeper psychic layers for enhanced self-mastery and energy (pp. 29, 58–59, 132, 152–154, 227–233).^[37] Baudouin addressed the limitations of pure autosuggestion, noting its vulnerability to negative spontaneous suggestions, reversal of effort under willful strain, and perpetuation of harmful habits without external direction (pp. 40, 92–93, 144–145).^[37] To refine these shortcomings, he promoted guided therapeutic suggestion, such as structured sessions or collective practices akin to those at the Nancy clinic, which provide necessary oversight to ensure effective subconscious integration and avoid counterproductive outcomes (pp. 182, 196, 222–223, 263, 320–325).^[37] This approach underscored his belief in suggestion's potential as a controlled tool for psychological and pedagogical advancement.^[37]

Suggestion in Hypnosis

Trance and Suggestibility

Trance states in hypnosis are characterized by highly focused attention, often described as a form of absorption that narrows awareness to specific internal or external stimuli while minimizing distractions from competing thoughts or sensations. This focused state is accompanied by dissociation, where elements of experience—such as psychological and somatic components—become separated, allowing for heightened concentration on therapeutic goals without interference from peripheral concerns. Additionally, trance involves increased absorption, enabling individuals to immerse deeply in suggested experiences, which facilitates relaxation and receptivity.^[38] Hypnotic susceptibility, or the ease with which individuals enter and respond in trance, is measured using standardized scales that assess responsiveness to suggestions. The Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS), developed by André Weitzenhoffer and Ernest Hilgard, is a seminal tool that evaluates susceptibility through a series of 12 test suggestions, ranging from simple motor responses to complex cognitive alterations; high suggestibles typically score 9-12 and enter deep trance states readily, while low suggestibles score 0-4 and remain more resistant. These scales demonstrate that about 10-15% of the population are highly susceptible, entering profound trance easily, which correlates with enhanced suggestibility during hypnosis. In trance, suggestibility is markedly enhanced due to reduced reality testing, which diminishes critical evaluation and allows suggestions to bypass habitual skepticism, leading individuals to accept and experience suggested phenomena as veridical. This state enables the temporary suspension of disbelief, where verbal cues can elicit profound perceptual changes; for instance, a suggestion to see a vivid hallucination, such as a colorful butterfly on the hand, may produce a subjectively real visual experience indistinguishable from actual perception in highly susceptible individuals. Such effects highlight how trance fosters a temporary alteration in cognitive processing, prioritizing suggested realities over external verification.^[39] Common induction methods to achieve trance include eye fixation, pioneered by James Braid in the 19th century, where the subject stares at a fixed point—such as a spot on the ceiling or a pendulum—until natural eye fatigue leads to closure and deepening relaxation, promoting focused attention and dissociation. Progressive relaxation techniques, involving systematic tensing and releasing of muscle groups guided by verbal instructions, further induce trance by cultivating physical calm and mental absorption, often progressing from limbs to the entire body. Rapport between hypnotist and subject plays a crucial role in amplifying these effects, as interpersonal trust and perceived compatibility enhance compliance and deepen responsiveness to suggestions.^[40]^[41] Compared to wakefulness, trance amplifies ideodynamic responses, where ideas introduced via suggestion automatically trigger physiological and perceptual changes without deliberate effort, such as in hypnotic anesthesia where a suggestion of numbness in a limb produces subjective insensitivity to pain stimuli despite no underlying physiological alteration in sensory nerves. In wakefulness, similar suggestions elicit minimal or no response due to active reality testing and skepticism, but trance reduces these barriers, allowing ideodynamic effects to manifest more readily and intensely, as evidenced by significant pain reduction in clinical settings without corresponding changes in nociceptive pathways.^[42]

Scientific Hypnotism

Scientific hypnotism emerged in the late 19th century through experimental demonstrations that emphasized the power of suggestion to induce specific psychological and physiological changes. Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault, a physician in Nancy, France, pioneered rapid induction techniques, often achieving deep hypnotic states in seconds by simply waving his hand before a patient's eyes, treating thousands of patients with suggestion-based methods that highlighted hypnosis as a natural process amenable to quick onset.^[43] Similarly, Hippolyte Bernheim, collaborating with Liébeault, conducted demonstrations in the 1880s showing post-hypnotic amnesia, where subjects forgot events or instructions given during hypnosis until a prearranged cue triggered recall, illustrating suggestion's ability to influence memory post-trance.^[44] Key experimental findings from controlled studies have demonstrated that hypnotic suggestion can profoundly alter perception and sensation. For instance, suggestions of color blindness have been induced, leading subjects to report and behaviorally exhibit inability to distinguish colors, as evidenced in early investigations where participants with normal vision showed altered color responses under hypnosis.^[45] In analgesia research, controlled trials indicate that among highly suggestible individuals, hypnotic suggestions produce significant reductions in pain intensity, averaging around 40-50% for acute procedures such as dental work or burns, outperforming placebo in randomized designs and correlating strongly with susceptibility scores.^[46] Recent neuroimaging studies, including fMRI, have further confirmed that hypnotic suggestions modulate activity in pain-processing brain regions like the anterior cingulate cortex.^[6] Theoretical models have sought to explain these effects through distinct frameworks. Ernest Hilgard's neodissociation theory, developed in the 1970s, posits that hypnosis involves a split in consciousness, where executive control dissociates into parallel streams—one following suggestions while another monitors hidden awareness—accounting for phenomena like amnesia without full unconsciousness. In contrast, the socio-cognitive perspective, advanced by Nicholas Spanos, views hypnotic responses as role-playing behaviors amplified by expectations and social context, where participants actively interpret and comply with cues to fulfill the hypnotic role, without requiring altered states.^[47] Methodological advances in the 20th century incorporated neurophysiological measures to validate suggestibility. Electroencephalography (EEG) studies reveal that higher hypnotic suggestibility correlates with increased theta wave activity (4-8 Hz) during induction, reflecting enhanced attentional focus and relaxation, as seen in baseline and trance comparisons where high susceptibles show greater theta power augmentation than low susceptibles.^[48] These findings underscore the empirical basis of scientific hypnotism, linking behavioral changes to measurable brain correlates.

Temporal Dimensions

Immediate effects of hypnotic suggestions manifest during the trance state itself, where they directly influence physiological and perceptual responses. For instance, suggestions of catalepsy—inducing muscular rigidity in limbs or eyelids—can produce immediate immobility and insensibility to pain, often resolving upon counter-suggestion at the session's end.^[49] These effects demonstrate heightened suggestibility, as subjects exhibit compliance with commands to alter sensations, such as perceiving a neutral object as flavorful or experiencing temporary paralysis, all while remaining in the hypnotic state.^[49] Post-hypnotic suggestions, delivered during trance, are designed to activate behaviors, perceptions, or amnesia after the subject awakens, often triggered by a specific cue. Examples include commands to forget trance events until a designated signal or to perform actions like hand movements upon hearing a word, with effects emerging immediately post-trance and lasting from minutes to days depending on trance depth and individual hypnotizability.^[50] Early experimental work showed these suggestions could persist for hours, with response rates declining gradually over time in controlled tests.^[50] Long-term persistence of hypnotic suggestions varies, influenced by factors such as repetition during sessions and emotional salience tied to the content. Studies indicate that suggestions aimed at habit modification, like enhancing food preferences or stress coping, can endure for up to a week or more, with one investigation finding stable effects on subjective stress reduction and negative thought patterns one week post-intervention.^[51] In cases of deeper trance and high hypnotizability, persistence has been observed for weeks, supporting therapeutic applications for sustained behavioral changes.^[52] The decay of hypnotic suggestions occurs naturally through fading over time or via deliberate reversal using counter-suggestions, which can dissolve effects by directly opposing the original command during a subsequent trance. Persistence of uncancelled post-hypnotic suggestions is limited primarily to highly hypnotizable individuals, with most effects waning without reinforcement. Ethical considerations in therapeutic contexts emphasize timing suggestions to align with treatment goals, ensuring reversibility to prevent unintended long-term influences and prioritizing patient autonomy through informed consent on potential durations.^[53]

Non-Hypnotic Forms

Waking Suggestion

Waking suggestion involves the application of verbal or nonverbal cues to influence an individual's thoughts, feelings, or behaviors while they remain in a normal state of consciousness, without the need for hypnotic induction. This form of suggestion leverages everyday interactions, such as casual conversation or subtle environmental prompts, to guide responses by bypassing overt resistance and tapping into natural cognitive processes. Unlike more direct commands, it often operates indirectly, embedding ideas within narratives or habitual patterns to foster acceptance.^[54] Common methods include indirect techniques like storytelling, metaphors, and embedded commands, which allow suggestions to be introduced seamlessly during dialogue. For instance, in therapeutic settings, a clinician might use a metaphor about overcoming obstacles to encourage a client to reframe anxiety, drawing from approaches that emphasize permissive language over authoritarian directives. These methods build on inherent suggestibility, where individuals respond more readily when suggestions align with their existing beliefs or experiences, enhancing efficacy through rapport and contextual relevance. Research indicates that such nonhypnotic imaginative suggestions can be comparably effective to hypnotic ones in reducing pain perception among the general population.^[55]^[56] In practical applications, waking suggestion appears in advertising, where slogans and imagery subtly implant preferences by associating products with positive emotions or social norms, leading to increased consumer inclination without explicit persuasion. Similarly, parental guidance often employs implied expectations to shape child behaviors; for example, expressing confidence in a child's ability to succeed academically can elevate their performance and motivation through internalized self-belief. In therapy, these techniques support phobia desensitization by gradually introducing calming suggestions during exposure exercises, helping clients manage fear responses in conscious states. Efficacy is heightened by factors like repetition and trust, as seen in medical procedures where positive verbal cues, such as reassuring phrases during blood draws, significantly lower reported pain and anxiety levels across multiple randomized controlled trials.^[57]^[58]^[54] Despite its utility, waking suggestion often requires stronger interpersonal rapport and repeated exposure to achieve effects comparable to trance-based methods, though studies show it can be equally effective in contexts like pain management. Studies comparing the two show that while waking suggestions can facilitate suggestibility—such as one prompt enhancing responsiveness to subsequent ones—their impact on pain tolerance or behavioral change is more variable and dependent on instructional context than inherently superior hypnotic alternatives. This makes waking suggestion particularly suitable for everyday interpersonal dynamics but less reliable for profound or rapid transformations without sustained application.^[59]^[60]

Autosuggestion and Self-Influence

Autosuggestion involves the voluntary repetition of positive affirmations or ideas to influence the subconscious mind, thereby fostering personal change and self-regulation. This process empowers individuals to actively shape their cognitive and physiological states through self-directed mental practices, distinct from externally imposed suggestions. Building on early conceptualizations, autosuggestion emphasizes the reiteration of empowering statements, such as "I am capable and resilient," to overwrite habitual thought patterns and promote adaptive behaviors.^[61] Key techniques include visualization, where individuals mentally rehearse desired outcomes to enhance motivation and performance; journaling, which involves writing affirmations to reinforce commitment and track progress; and integration with mindfulness practices, such as combining affirmations with focused breathing to deepen subconscious absorption. These methods are often incorporated into daily routines, like morning recitations for goal achievement or evening reflections for stress reduction, allowing consistent application without external guidance. For instance, starting the day with visualized success scenarios can build momentum toward objectives, while bedtime journaling of grateful affirmations aids in emotional regulation.^[61]^[62] Psychologically, autosuggestion reinforces self-efficacy by strengthening belief in one's ability to effect change, supported by evidence from neuroimaging studies showing activation in brain regions associated with reward and self-processing. It leverages neuroplasticity, the brain's capacity to reorganize neural pathways through repeated mental activity, enabling long-term shifts in perception and behavior. Furthermore, research on placebo effects demonstrates that self-suggestion can mimic pharmacological responses, such as reduced pain perception, by modulating expectation and interoceptive signals in a manner akin to clinical placebos.^[63]^[62]^[61] Modern variations extend these principles through digital tools, including mobile applications that provide scheduled reminders and customizable affirmation tracks to sustain practice amid busy lifestyles. However, risks arise from negative autosuggestion, where repeated pessimistic self-statements can create self-fulfilling prophecies, leading to diminished performance and entrenched negative beliefs through behavioral confirmation of those expectations. To mitigate this, practitioners are advised to monitor thought patterns and prioritize evidence-based positive phrasing.^[64]^[65]

Broader Applications and Research

Therapeutic and Medical Uses

Suggestion plays a significant role in pain management within clinical settings, particularly through hypnotic techniques that induce relaxation and alter pain perception. Systematic reviews of clinical trials indicate that hypnotic suggestions can provide meaningful relief for chronic pain conditions, with effects varying by individual suggestibility and the inclusion of imagery-based suggestions; for instance, meta-analyses of over 80 experimental trials have demonstrated reductions in pain intensity comparable to or exceeding standard care in many cases. In dentistry, hypnosis has been shown to reduce intraoperative and postoperative pain during procedures such as tooth extractions and implantations, often decreasing the need for analgesics by facilitating relaxation and dissociative responses. Similarly, in childbirth, antenatal self-hypnosis training has been associated with lower reported labor pain, reduced fear, and decreased epidural use in randomized controlled trials involving nulliparous women, promoting a more positive birth experience without pharmacological side effects. In mental health applications, suggestion-based interventions, often delivered progressively to build relaxation and reframe anxious thoughts, effectively reduce anxiety symptoms. Clinical studies highlight hypnosis as a standalone or adjunctive therapy for anxiety disorders, yielding significant decreases in physiological arousal and subjective distress, with benefits persisting post-treatment. When integrated as an adjunct to cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), hypnotic suggestions enhance outcomes for phobias and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by facilitating deeper engagement with exposure techniques and reducing avoidance behaviors; randomized trials comparing CBT alone to CBT with hypnosis have reported greater symptom remission in combined approaches, particularly for re-experiencing and hyperarousal in PTSD. Beyond direct symptom relief, suggestion supports broader medical recovery processes by fostering positive expectancy and behavioral compliance. Preoperative hypnotic suggestions have been linked to faster wound healing, lower postoperative pain, and reduced fatigue in surgical patients, as evidenced by controlled studies on breast cancer and gynecologic procedures where hypnosis preserved autonomic balance and improved overall recovery metrics. Integration with biofeedback further amplifies these effects, combining suggestive relaxation with real-time physiological monitoring to manage pain and anxiety in chronic conditions; clinical applications in rehabilitation settings show enhanced self-regulation and sustained symptom reduction when hypnosis guides biofeedback sessions. Ethical considerations are paramount in therapeutic suggestion to ensure patient safety and autonomy. Practitioners must obtain informed consent, clearly explaining procedures, potential benefits, and limitations to avoid undue influence or dependency on hypnotic states. Hypnotic suggestion is contraindicated for individuals with dissociative disorders due to risks of exacerbating symptoms, and guidelines from professional bodies emphasize monitoring for adverse reactions while adhering to scope-of-practice boundaries to prevent harm.

Modern Empirical Studies

Recent advances in neuroimaging, particularly functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), have illuminated the neural mechanisms underlying hypnotic suggestion. Studies in the 2020s demonstrate that suggestions for analgesia activate pathways similar to those involved in genuine sensory experiences, notably by modulating the pain matrix. For instance, fMRI research shows that hypnotic suggestions reduce activity in key pain-processing regions, such as the anterior cingulate cortex and insula, akin to the inhibitory effects observed during actual pain relief.^[66]^[67] A 2024 study further revealed that hypnotic verbal suggestions predict subsequent pain modulation by altering connectivity in the default mode network, underscoring suggestion's role in experiential simulation.^[68] Meta-analyses of 21st-century clinical trials affirm the efficacy of suggestion-based interventions across somatic conditions. A 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis of gut-directed hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) reported a significant improvement in global symptoms, with a standardized mean difference (SMD) of 0.73, indicating a moderate to large effect size compared to controls.^[69] Similarly, a 2024 meta-analysis across mental and somatic disorders found that hypnosis yielded positive outcomes in 99.2% of cases, with over half showing medium or larger effect sizes, supporting its therapeutic value beyond placebo.^[6] Post-hypnotic suggestions have also demonstrated durable benefits; a 2024 randomized controlled trial published in Scientific Reports showed that safety-focused post-hypnotic cues enhanced stress coping for up to one week, with significant reductions in subjective stress ratings during acute stressors.^[70] Emerging applications leverage digital platforms to deliver suggestion-based interventions, expanding accessibility. Clinical trials of hypnosis apps for sleep disturbances, such as those integrating guided audio suggestions, have reported symptom reductions in user cohorts, with systematic reviews noting efficacy in four apps backed by preliminary trials.^[71] A 2025 investigation into self-hypnosis apps like Hypnozio highlighted their potential for habit formation and improved adherence to behavioral changes through repeated suggestion sessions.^[72] Furthermore, research on suggestion's influence on neuroplasticity indicates that targeted hypnotic protocols promote synaptic remodeling, facilitating long-term habit shifts by enhancing prefrontal cortex plasticity.^[73] Despite these advances, modern studies underscore limitations in suggestion research. Hypnotic suggestibility exhibits substantial inter-individual variability, with standardized scales like the Harvard Group Scale showing score distributions that differ markedly across populations, complicating generalizability.^[74] Placebo effects often confound outcomes, as hypnosis shares phenomenological overlaps with expectation-driven responses, with some trials revealing only marginal differences after controlling for suggestibility.^[75] The field calls for larger randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to address these issues, given that many studies involve small samples (n < 100).^[6] Additionally, a 2025 Frontiers in Psychology review warned of risks in memory-related suggestions, linking hypnosis to heightened false memory formation via increased source monitoring errors, particularly in forensic contexts.^[76]

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Founding Phenomenon
Bernheim argued that anyone could be hypnotised, that it is an extension of normal psychological functioning, and that its effects are due to suggestion. After ...
[12]
Associationism in the Philosophy of Mind
Association got its name—“the association of ideas”—in 1700, in John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding. British empiricists following Locke picked up ...
[13]
Essentials of Social Psychology: Chapter 6: Suggestion-Imitation ...
Feb 22, 2010 · Suggestion is the initiating part and imitation is the resulting phase. Suggestion is the process whereby an idea or mode of action is presented ...
[14]
The doctrine of suggestion, prestige and imitation in social psychology
Sep 30, 2025 · The doctrine of suggestion, prestige and imitation in social psychology ... The major differences between the two interpretations are described.
[15]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2024.103730
[16]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.05.021
[17]
Associationist Theories of Thought
Mar 17, 2015 · Associationism, in its original form as in Hume (1738/1975), was put forward as a theory of mental processes. Associationists' attempt to answer ...
[18]
https://www.simplypsychology.org/milgram.html
[19]
Hypnotism and suggestion: A historical perspective
Franz Anton Mesmer's theory of 'animal magnetism' proposed that living organisms possess an invisible magnetic fluid, which can be influenced by a ...Missing: proto- | Show results with:proto-
[20]
James Braid's psychophysiology: a turning point in the history of ...
A sophisticated psychophysiology with emphasis on the psychology of suggestion and the phenomenon of double consciousness.Missing: mono- ideodynamic
[21]
Animal Magnetism | Scholarly Resources - Esalen Institute
Mesmer believed that animal gravitation connected living things to the stars and was the basis for healthy functioning, since it harmonized the body in a ...Missing: proto- | Show results with:proto-
[22]
Hypnotism and Suggestion: A Historical Perspective
### Summary of Suggestion in Psychological Context
[23]
Between Charcot and Bernheim: The debate on hypnotism in fin-de ...
The studies on post-hypnotic suggestion and the circulation of the theories by the Nancy School also revived the debate on the medico-legal implications of ...
[24]
Hypnosis and Catharsis in Freud - The Victorian Web
Freud's early work in psychology and psychoanalysis endeavored to understand and cure the human mind by means of hypnosis.
[25]
Exploring the Role of Conscious and Unconscious Processes in ...
Apr 12, 2024 · Freud [11] eventually abandoned hypnosis, which he said did not work well. Freud argued that although hypnosis bypasses one's resistance, it can ...
[26]
Full article: Freud's Rejection of Hypnosis, Part I: The Genesis of a Rift
Feb 27, 2018 · A close examination of Freud's stated rationales for abandoning hypnosis suggests that both the ideas he developed and the rift between hypnosis ...
[27]
Émile Coué's Method of “Conscious Autosuggestion”
Oct 21, 2024 · By 1901, Coué had started to employ a technique of hypnotic induction by graduated waking suggestions. However, by 1910 Coué had abandoned ...
[28]
None
Summary of each segment:
[29]
Charles Lloyd Tuckey and British medical hypnotism (1888-1914)
The emergence of therapeutic hypnotism or suggestive therapy at the end of the nineteenth century in Britain has been conceived as a primitive, ...Missing: validation | Show results with:validation
[30]
https://www.ukhypnosis.com/2009/06/17/emile-coues-method-of-conscious-autosuggestion/
[31]
Affirmations May Improve Life Satisfaction and Well-Being
Jul 28, 2023 · Émile Coué developed the practice of conscious autosuggestion in the early 1900s. Social psychologists have researched affirmations to improve ...
[32]
Baudouin, Charles (1893-1963) - Encyclopedia.com
He wrote his doctoral dissertation, entitled Suggestion et Autosuggestion, at the University of Geneva in 1920. Baudouin underwent three different analyses: One ...
[33]
Suggestion and autosuggestion - APA PsycNet
Baudouin is the first great theoretical exponent of Coue's teaching. He bears much the same relationship to Coue that Bern- heim bore to Liebault. He and Coue ...
[34]
[PDF] Suggestion and autosuggestion
SUGGESTION AND. AUTOSUGC "STION. A Psychological and Pedagogical Study. Based upon the Investigations Made by the New Nancy School. CHARLES BAUDOUIN. Professor ...
[35]
[PDF] Special Article - TRANCEFORMATIONS: HYPNOSIS IN BRAIN AND ...
Feb 19, 2013 · OF HYPNOSIS. Hypnosis is a state of highly focused attention, cou- pled with dissociation of competing thoughts and sensa- tions toward the ...
[36]
Introduction to Clinical Hypnosis and the Hypnotic Phenomena
These phenomena include the reduction in critical thinking, reduced reality testing, the tolerance of reality distortion, subjective changes in volition ...
[37]
James Braid - historyofhypnosis.org
His first suggestion was neurypnology,(“nervous sleep”), which was the title of his book on the subject. Continuing with the sleep theme, he subsequently ...
[38]
Enhancing hypnotic susceptibility: interpersonal and rapport factors
The importance of rapport was evidenced by the finding that rapport ratings paralleled group differences in hypnotic responding and that rapport correlated ...
[39]
[PDF] Hypnosis and Clinical Pain - bonding and birth
Hypnosis has been demonstrated to reduce analogue pain, and studies on the mechanisms of laboratory pain reduction have provided useful applications to ...
[40]
The History of Hypnosis & Hypnotherapy - Spencer Institute
Nov 9, 2022 · Liébeault became an expert at rapid inductions. At the apex of his career, Liébeault would simply wave his hand over the patient's eyes and ...
[41]
[PDF] SUGGESTIVE THERAPEUTICS
Page 1. SUGGESTIVE THERAPEUTICS. A TREATISE ON. THE NATURE AND USES OF HYPNOTISM. BY. H. BERNHEIM, M.D.. PROFESSOR IN THE FACULTY OF MEDICINE AT NANCY.
[42]
Hypnosis-associated blue-tinted vision: a case report
Dec 1, 2005 · Other visual changes reported to be inducible by hypnotic suggestion include development of color blindness, tunnel vision, and visual ...<|separator|>
[43]
THE EFFICACY OF HYPNOTIC ANALGESIA IN ADULTS - NIH
The studies presented in this review have shown that hypnosis is efficacious in reducing pain in both older and younger adults.Missing: susceptibles | Show results with:susceptibles
[44]
A sociocognitive approach to hypnosis. - APA PsycNet
Spanos, N. P. (1991). A sociocognitive approach to hypnosis. In S. J. Lynn & J. W. Rhue (Eds.), Theories of hypnosis: Current models and perspectives ( ...
[45]
Brain Oscillations, Hypnosis, and Hypnotizability - PMC
In this article, we summarize the state-of-science knowledge regarding the associations between hypnosis and brain oscillations.
[46]
Classics in the History of Psychology -- James (1890) Chapter 27
Certain hysterical patients are immediately thrown into hypnotic catalepsy ... There remain two other topics, vis., post-hypnotic effects of suggestion, and ...
[47]
Duration of the effects of post-hypnotic suggestion. - APA PsycNet
A pioneer study to measure the length of time the effect of post-hypnotic suggestion lasts, and to describe the curve of its decrease with time.
[48]
Post-hypnotic safety suggestion improves stress coping with long ...
Feb 12, 2024 · A very promising effect of our post-hypnotic safety suggestion was the significant reduction in negative thoughts 1 week after participants did ...
[49]
The Nature and Persistence of Posthypnotic Suggestions' Effects on ...
Additionally, in order to address whether the effects persist over time, we re-tested the effects of PHSs after 1 week. Finally, to assess the generalizability ...
[50]
Best Practice Recommendations for Conducting and Reporting ...
Oct 15, 2024 · The present article provides best practice guidelines formulated by the Task Force for Establishing Efficacy Standards for Clinical Hypnosis for ...
[51]
The Efficacy, Safety and Applications of Medical Hypnosis
Five RCTs indicated that waking suggestion is effective in medical procedures. Conclusion. Medical hypnosis is a safe and effective complementary technique ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[52]
Ericksonian hypnosis - Hypnotherapy Directory
Jan 12, 2023 · Ericksonian hypnotherapy uses indirect suggestion, metaphor and storytelling to alter behaviour, rather than direct suggestion.
[53]
(PDF) The effects of hypnotic and nonhypnotic imaginative ...
Aug 7, 2025 · In the general population, nonhypnotic imaginative suggestions may be as effective as hypnotic suggestions in reducing pain. Response ...
[54]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4873672/
[55]
The Influence of Parents' Educational Expectations on Children's ...
Sep 5, 2024 · High parental educational expectations create parental anxiety, which in turn results in a rise in parental involvement and eventually promotes ...
[56]
Instructional set and the relative efficacy of hypnotic and waking ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Tested the hypothesis that hypnotic analgesia is intrinsically more effective than waking analgesia by administering both treatments while ...
[57]
(PDF) Increased Suggestibility May Occur Following a Waking ...
Jul 12, 2016 · The results suggest that the one waking suggestion worked to facilitate responsiveness to another waking suggestion, which is contrary to Hull's ...
[58]
Autosuggestion: a cognitive process that empowers your brain? - PMC
Nov 19, 2021 · We define autosuggestion as the instantiation and reiteration of ideas or concepts by oneself aiming to actively bias one's own perceptual, ...
[59]
Affirmations and Neuroplasticity | Psychology Today
Jan 30, 2020 · In conclusion, there is a fair amount of research supporting the use of self-affirmation for a variety of conditions, mostly psychological ones.
[60]
Self-affirmation activates brain systems associated with self-related ...
In addition, our findings suggest that positive affirmations may have especially strong effects within the reward system in conjunction with future orientation.
[61]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8858297/
[62]
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Psychology (Incl. Examples +PDF)
May 1, 2018 · A self-fulfilling prophecy is a belief or expectation that an individual holds about a future event that manifests because the individual holds it.Missing: autosuggestion | Show results with:autosuggestion
[63]
Mechanisms of Hypnotic Analgesia Explained by Functional ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Studies have shown brain changes in response to painful stimulation during hypnosis, including decreases in areas corresponding to the 'pain ...
[64]
Stanford Hypnosis Integrated with Functional Connectivity-targeted ...
Jan 4, 2024 · Hypnotizability is associated with dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) functions and connectivity with the salience network, yet there is ...Results · Discussion · Neuroimaging For...
[65]
Brain Responses to Hypnotic Verbal Suggestions Predict Pain ...
We hypothesized that brain activity during verbal suggestions would predict the modulation of responses to acute nociceptive stimuli.
[66]
Gut‐Directed Hypnotherapy for Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A ...
Apr 3, 2025 · On meta-analysis, gut-directed hypnotherapy improved global IBS symptoms (SMD 0.73 [−0.09–1.55], I2 93%). Gut-directed hypnotherapy with ...
[67]
Post-hypnotic safety suggestion improves stress coping with long ...
Feb 12, 2024 · Our findings demonstrate that post-hypnotic safety suggestions improve stress coping with long-lasting effects, which makes it a promising intervention.
[68]
(PDF) Hypnosis Apps: A Systematic Review - ResearchGate
Aug 10, 2025 · Thirteen (7.7%) apps included some claim of evidence-based treatment. Only four apps reported inclusion in a clinical efficacy trial.
[69]
Hypnozio Review 2025: Best Self-Hypnosis App for Habit Change
Aug 7, 2025 · Science‑based self‑hypnosis app supports habit change through expert‑driven subconscious reprogramming aligned with 2025 wellness innovation ...
[70]
Hypnotherapy and Neuroplasticity: Rewiring the Brain for Positive ...
Sep 6, 2024 · Through targeted suggestions and guided imagery, hypnotherapy can influence neuroplastic changes that promote healthier, more adaptive responses ...
[71]
HGSHS-5:G—First results with the short version of the test ... - Frontiers
Jul 30, 2024 · Introduction: The HGSHS:A is one of the most commonly used measure of hypnotic suggestibility.However, this test suffers from low ...
[72]
How to put hypnosis into a placebo pill? - ScienceDirect.com
This paper recommends “neutral hypnosis” as a credible placebo control for hypnotherapy trials.Missing: confounding | Show results with:confounding
[73]
Remembering what did not happen: the role of hypnosis in memory ...
In this paper, we review the current literature on the mechanisms behind the creation of false memories and the role played by hypnosis in memory enhancement ...Introduction · Now I remember!”: memory... · Connecting the dots: the role...