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The Da Vinci Code

The Da Vinci Code is a mystery-thriller novel written by American author Dan Brown and published by Doubleday on March 18, 2003.^[1]^[2] The story centers on Harvard symbologist Robert Langdon, who investigates the murder of the Louvre's curator, uncovering a trail of clues pointing to the Priory of Sion—a purported secret society protecting the Holy Grail, reinterpreted as evidence of Jesus Christ's marriage to Mary Magdalene and their descendants.^[2] The novel blends cryptography, art symbolism, and speculative religious history, achieving massive commercial success with over 80 million copies sold worldwide.^[3] It was adapted into a 2006 film starring Tom Hanks as Langdon, directed by Ron Howard.^[2] Despite its popularity, The Da Vinci Code generated substantial controversy for presenting fictional conspiracies as plausibly historical, including dependence on the Priory of Sion, which investigations have confirmed as a hoax fabricated in the mid-20th century by Pierre Plantard.^[4] Critics, including historians and theologians, highlighted numerous inaccuracies regarding early Christianity, the Council of Nicaea, and Leonardo da Vinci's works, arguing that the book's prefatory "FACT" disclaimer misled readers about the veracity of its premises.^[5]

Authorship and Development

Dan Brown's Background

Dan Brown was born on June 22, 1964, in Exeter, New Hampshire.^[6] His father, Richard G. Brown, served as a mathematics professor at Phillips Exeter Academy, while his mother, Connie, was a professional musician specializing as a church organist.^[7] Raised on the academy's campus, Brown developed an early interest in puzzles, codes, and symbols, influenced by his surroundings and family background.^[7] Brown attended Phillips Exeter Academy for high school and spent the 1985 academic year studying art history at the University of Seville in Spain.^[8] He graduated from Amherst College in 1986 with a double major in English and Spanish.^[9] Following graduation, he returned to Phillips Exeter Academy to teach English, an experience that later inspired elements in his writing.^[10] After leaving teaching, Brown pursued a career in music, working as a singer-songwriter and achieving modest success with self-produced albums such as 187 Men to Avoid (1995), co-authored with his wife Blythe Newlon as a humorous self-help book.^[11] He composed and performed music, including jingles for television commercials and a score for the PBS series Solved, before transitioning to full-time writing in the 1990s.^[9] His early novels included Digital Fortress (1998), a techno-thriller about cryptography, followed by Angels & Demons (2000) and Deception Point (2001), which introduced the symbologist Robert Langdon character and established Brown's focus on conspiracy-laden plots blending history, science, and religion.^[11] These works received mixed reviews but built a foundation for his later commercial breakthrough.^[8]

Inspiration and Sources

Dan Brown cited extensive research into Leonardo da Vinci's life, artworks, cryptography, and symbology as foundational to The Da Vinci Code, including a year-long study preceding the novel's composition that incorporated interpretations of da Vinci's The Last Supper—suggesting the figure beside Jesus depicts Mary Magdalene—and symbols in Mona Lisa alluding to divine feminine themes.^[12] This research drew on da Vinci's documented notebooks and historical analyses of his anatomical sketches and inventions, though Brown amplified speculative elements like hidden codes to advance the plot.^[13] The novel's core premise—that Jesus married Mary Magdalene, produced descendants forming a sacred bloodline protected by secret societies—derives principally from The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail (1982) by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln, which asserts Merovingian kings descended from this lineage via the Priory of Sion and Knights Templar.^[14] ^[15] Brown integrated the book's claims about suppressed Gospels, the Holy Grail as a metaphor for the womb, and church conspiracies to conceal Jesus' humanity, elements that mirror the novel's narrative despite the source's reliance on unverified documents later exposed as forgeries by Pierre Plantard.^[16] Brown also referenced works by Margaret Starbird, such as The Woman with the Alabaster Jar (1993), which explore Magdalene as Jesus' consort through allegorical biblical rereadings and sacred geometry, crediting them for blending mysticism with feminist reinterpretations of Christian symbols.^[17] The text alludes to Gnostic writings like the Gospel of Philip (3rd century), portraying intimate relations between Jesus and Magdalene, sourced from Nag Hammadi discoveries but treated fictionally as evidence of doctrinal suppression by the 4th-century Council of Nicaea.^[18] These inspirations blend historical artifacts with pseudohistorical conjecture, prioritizing narrative intrigue over empirical validation.

Narrative Elements

Plot Summary

Harvard symbologist Robert Langdon is summoned to the Louvre Museum in Paris on the night of June 10, where curator Jacques Saunière has been murdered, his body arranged in a Vitruvian Man pose with cryptic symbols and messages scrawled around it.^[19] French cryptologist Sophie Neveu, Saunière's granddaughter and a police agent, contacts Langdon to warn him that he is being framed for the crime due to a message left implicating him.^[20] Together, they decode Saunière's anagrammed message revealing a safe-deposit box number at the Depository Bank of Zurich and flee the museum after evading police captain Bezu Fache.^[19] At the bank, using a Fibonacci sequence-derived code, they access the box and retrieve a cryptex—a cylindrical puzzle device containing a papyrus map—along with instructions from Saunière as Grand Master of the Priory of Sion, a secret society safeguarding the location of the Holy Grail.^[20] Pursued by Silas, an albino Opus Dei numerary acting on orders from the mysterious "Teacher," they escape to the home of historian Sir Leigh Teabing in Versailles.^[19] Teabing explains the Priory's secret: the Grail is not a chalice but proof that Jesus Christ married Mary Magdalene, bore her a daughter whose bloodline persists, suppressed by the early Church to establish patriarchal doctrine.^[19] Clues from Leonardo da Vinci's works, including the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, support this, portraying Magdalene as the true heir to Jesus' teachings.^[20] The group deciphers the cryptex's riddle—"O, Draconian devil! Oh, lame saint!" resolving to "Leonardo Vini, so blood red saint"—leading them to believe it points to the bloodline's origin.^[19] Traveling by private jet to London, they visit Westminster Abbey, decoding a Newton gravestone inscription referencing the Priory's protectors.^[20] Teabing's betrayal as the Teacher is revealed; he orchestrated events to expose the Grail secret publicly, using Silas (who commits suicide after killing Teabing's servant Rémy) and manipulating the Vatican through Opus Dei Bishop Aringarosa, whom Silas had mistaken for the Teacher.^[19] Langdon and Sophie solve the final cryptex password as "apple," revealing not a location but a reminder from Magdalene to seek truth within.^[20] The actual Grail—documents proving the bloodline—is hidden in a knight's tomb at Rosslyn Chapel in Scotland, where Sophie reunites with her living relatives descended from Magdalene.^[19] Langdon realizes the Priory's true mission is to protect the secret's existence, not reveal it, preserving its power as myth, and returns the cryptex to its guardian, symbolizing the balance between faith and knowledge.^[21]

Characters and Symbolism

Robert Langdon serves as the protagonist, depicted as a Harvard professor specializing in symbology and art history, summoned to the Louvre after a curator's murder to interpret cryptic symbols left at the crime scene.^[22] Sophie Neveu, a French cryptologist with the police, aids Langdon in decoding puzzles, revealing her personal connection to the victim through familial ties.^[23] Sir Leigh Teabing, a British historian and Grail enthusiast confined to a wheelchair, provides historical context on religious artifacts and conspiracies, hosting the protagonists at his estate.^[22] Silas, an albino numerary of Opus Dei, acts as an ascetic assassin driven by fanatical devotion, executing killings to protect secrets under orders from a mysterious figure.^[23] Jacques Saunière, the Louvre's chief curator and fictional Grand Master of the Priory of Sion, orchestrates posthumous clues using anagrams and body positioning to convey hidden knowledge before his death.^[23] Supporting figures include Captain Bezu Fache, a determined French investigator suspecting Langdon, and Bishop Manuel Aringarosa, Opus Dei's leader seeking to safeguard the organization's influence amid internal threats.^[23] Symbolism permeates the narrative, with the pentacle representing the sacred feminine and Venus, drawn by Saunière in blood to signify suppressed goddess worship, contrasting patriarchal religious structures.^[24] The Holy Grail symbolizes not a chalice but Mary Magdalene's bloodline as Jesus's consort, embodying divine feminine wisdom and procreative power, reinterpreted through historical revisionism in the plot.^[25] Blood evokes truth and enlightenment, as Saunière's self-inflicted wounds form messages unveiling concealed histories.^[24] The cryptex, a cylindrical puzzle device invented for the story, holds encrypted parchments, mirroring Da Vinci's mechanical ingenuity and the theme of veiled knowledge requiring ingenuity to unlock.^[26] Roses and the fleur-de-lis denote feminine sanctity and royal lineage, linking to Merovingian descendants in the lore.^[25] Leonardo da Vinci's works, such as The Vitruvian Man and The Mona Lisa, integrate mathematical sequences like the Fibonacci spiral and dual-gender ambiguities, advancing the plot's cryptographic layers while allegorizing harmony between masculine and feminine principles.^[26] These elements underscore the novel's motif of reclaiming marginalized feminine divinity against institutional suppression.^[25]

Publication and Commercial Performance

Release and Initial Sales

The Da Vinci Code was released in the United States on March 18, 2003, by Doubleday, an imprint of Random House, with a hardcover list price of $24.95.^[27] Dan Brown's previous novels had achieved only moderate sales, leading to an initial print run that reflected expectations for a mid-tier thriller rather than an immediate blockbuster.^[28] Sales began modestly but accelerated through reader recommendations and bookstore buzz, propelling the novel onto the New York Times bestseller list, where it debuted at number one on April 6, 2003.^[27] The book's upward sales trajectory in 2003 was marked by consistent weekly gains, peaking around mid-year before sustaining strong performance; in the United Kingdom, for instance, first-day sales reached 6,000 copies, escalating to 23,000 by the end of the debut week.^[28] By the close of its first year (2003–2004), approximately 6.8 million copies had been sold worldwide, establishing it as one of the top-selling adult fiction titles of the period, second only to J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.^[29] This initial commercial momentum stemmed from the novel's accessible pacing, puzzle-driven plot, and provocative historical claims, which sparked organic discussion among readers without heavy reliance on pre-release marketing.^[30]

Global Reach and Bestsellers Status

The Da Vinci Code sold over 80 million copies worldwide, establishing it as one of the highest-selling novels of the early 21st century.^[31]^[32] This figure encompasses sales across hardcover, paperback, and international editions, driven by word-of-mouth recommendations and media buzz following its March 2003 U.S. release by Doubleday.^[33] The book's momentum accelerated in 2004, when it became the top-selling adult fiction title globally that year, outperforming other major releases.^[34] Internationally, the novel was translated into 44 languages, enabling distribution in over 100 countries where it frequently topped national bestseller charts.^[35]^[36] In the United Kingdom, it held the number-one spot on charts for extended periods, while similar dominance occurred in markets like Germany, France, and Spain, reflecting broad appeal beyond English-speaking regions.^[37] By late 2005, it had spent over 150 weeks on The New York Times bestseller list in the U.S., underscoring sustained demand.^[38] Its bestseller status extended to audiobook and digital formats, with early adaptations amplifying physical sales; for instance, pre-paperback release figures exceeded 25 million copies in 44 languages by 2004.^[34] Dan Brown's publisher reported cumulative series sales surpassing 200 million by 2012, with The Da Vinci Code comprising the largest share, though independent audits confirm the 80 million benchmark as conservative given unreported international volumes.^[39] This global penetration not only boosted Brown's career but also influenced publishing trends toward thriller genres with speculative historical elements.^[40]

Reception and Analysis

Literary Reviews

Literary critics predominantly faulted The Da Vinci Code for its stylistic shortcomings, including repetitive phrasing, grammatical infelicities, and reliance on tautological exposition, even as they conceded the narrative's relentless pace and commercial allure. Dan Brown's prose was lambasted for clumsiness and overuse of adverbs, with critics citing examples such as redundant descriptions like "repetitive and repetitive" to underscore perceived amateurishness in construction.^[41]^[42] These assessments contrasted sharply with the novel's mass appeal, suggesting a disconnect between popular entertainment and literary standards that prioritize nuanced language over plot momentum. In The New York Times' March 17, 2003, review, the book was portrayed as a breezy thriller that playfully undercuts its own intellectual pretensions, with symbols professor Robert Langdon's erudition serving more as propulsion than profundity.^[43] The same outlet later characterized it as an "exhilaratingly brainy" effort blending historical allusions with suspense, though this enthusiasm waned in broader critical discourse amid complaints of factual liberties masquerading as insight.^[44] The Guardian's July 26, 2003, appraisal dismissed the 454-page novel as "irritatingly gripping tosh," arguing its conspiratorial framework provided illusory order amid global uncertainties, appealing to readers seeking vengeful narratives over substantive inquiry.^[45] Such views echoed in outlets critiquing the work's formulaic dialogue and contrived revelations, which prioritized shock over coherence, positioning The Da Vinci Code as emblematic of airport fiction's triumph over craftsmanship.^[46] Despite these rebukes, a minority of reviews praised the integration of art history and cryptography as intellectually stimulating, though even admirers noted the execution favored velocity over verisimilitude.^[47] Overall, the literary reception underscored a pattern wherein Brown's innovations in genre-blending were overshadowed by prosaic deficits, contributing to debates on whether bestseller status equates to enduring merit.^[48]

Public and Media Response

The publication of The Da Vinci Code in March 2003 generated immense public interest, with over 40 million copies sold worldwide by 2006, reflecting broad appeal as a fast-paced thriller blending mystery, history, and conspiracy.^[16] Readers frequently praised its engaging plot and provocative ideas in online forums and book discussions, often treating it as entertainment rather than historical fact, though some expressed fascination with its alternative interpretations of Christian origins.^[42] A 2009 poll of Catholics who read the novel found that approximately 75% reported no change in their beliefs, indicating limited doctrinal impact despite the book's sensational claims.^[49] Public reaction included vocal opposition from Christian groups, who organized protests and petitions against the book's portrayal of Jesus Christ as married to Mary Magdalene and the Catholic Church as involved in historical cover-ups.^[50] These demonstrations, peaking around the 2006 film adaptation's release, highlighted concerns over the novel's blurring of fiction and fact, with critics arguing it misled audiences on theological matters.^[51] Supporters countered that the work was explicitly fictional, emphasizing its role in sparking interest in early Christianity and suppressed texts like the Gnostic gospels.^[52] Media coverage amplified the divide, with outlets extensively reporting on the ensuing debates and legal challenges, such as plagiarism suits, which inadvertently boosted visibility and sales.^[53] While some journalistic analyses focused on the entertainment value and cultural phenomenon status, others scrutinized the book's historical assertions, noting discrepancies with scholarly consensus on events like the Council of Nicaea.^[54] International media highlighted calls for censorship in regions sensitive to religious depictions, including bans or edits in countries like India and Lebanon, underscoring the novel's global polarizing effect.^[51]

Controversies

Historical and Theological Claims

The novel asserts that Jesus Christ was married to Mary Magdalene, with whom he fathered children whose descendants constitute a sacred royal bloodline, reinterpreting the Holy Grail not as the chalice from the Last Supper but as this lineage symbolized by the sacred feminine.^[55]^[5] This portrayal draws from non-canonical Gnostic texts like the Gospel of Philip, which describe an intimate companionship but provide no verifiable historical evidence of marriage or offspring, as no first-century sources—Christian, Jewish, or Roman—mention such a union.^[55]^[18] Scholars note that the absence of marital references in the New Testament, despite its emphasis on Jesus' teachings and followers, aligns with Jewish rabbinic norms allowing but not requiring marriage, yet the claim remains speculative fiction unsupported by empirical records.^[55]^[13] The book further contends that early Christianity incorporated egalitarian goddess worship centered on Magdalene as a divine figure, which patriarchal church leaders systematically suppressed to elevate a male-only deity.^[56] This narrative inverts historical causality, as archaeological and textual evidence from the first three centuries reveals Christianity's monotheistic roots in Judaism, rejecting polytheistic elements including goddess cults, with no widespread pre-Constantinian veneration of Magdalene as co-divine.^[18]^[57] Gnostic sects promoted alternative views, such as in the Gospel of Mary, but these were marginal and lacked institutional influence, comprising less than 5% of known early Christian writings, and were rejected not for gender reasons but doctrinal incompatibility with apostolic traditions.^[18]^[56] A central theological claim is that the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, convened by Emperor Constantine, fabricated Jesus' divinity through a close vote, transforming him from mortal prophet to God and excluding alternative gospels to consolidate imperial power.^[58] In reality, the council addressed the Arian controversy over Christ's co-eternality with the Father, affirming pre-existing beliefs in his divinity attested in Pauline epistles (e.g., Philippians 2:6-11, circa 50-60 CE) and patristic writings like Ignatius of Antioch's (circa 107 CE), with the vote tallying 316-2 against Arianism, not inventing deification.^[58]^[59] Constantine's role was logistical, not doctrinal imposition, as his conversion predated Nicaea and early creeds show continuity, not rupture, in Christology. The canon was not discussed at Nicaea; New Testament books were circulating widely by the second century, with Muratorian Fragment (circa 170 CE) listing most, based on apostolic origin rather than suppression of "sacred feminine" texts.^[18]^[57] The Priory of Sion is depicted as an ancient secret society safeguarding the bloodline since the Crusades, with ties to the Knights Templar and figures like Leonardo da Vinci.^[60] This entity originated as a 1956 hoax fabricated by French con artist Pierre Plantard, who forged documents claiming Merovingian descent and planted them in the French National Library, later exposed in 1993 investigations revealing no pre-20th-century evidence.^[14] Plantard's group, a minor social club, dissolved amid fraud charges, and Templar connections are anachronistic, as the order ended in 1312 without Grail pursuits documented in trial records.^[60]^[61] Interpretations of da Vinci's artworks, such as The Last Supper showing Magdalene beside Jesus or Mona Lisa concealing androgynous symbols, fuel claims of encoded heresy.^[62] Art historians attribute the figure to the beloved disciple John, depicted youthful per Renaissance convention, with no optical or documentary support for gender substitution, while da Vinci's known views aligned with orthodox Christianity despite unproven speculation of heresy.^[63] These assertions, blending symbology with unverified conjecture, provoked theological backlash for undermining scriptural authority and portraying church history as a millennia-long conspiracy devoid of primary source validation.^[64] Scholarly consensus holds the novel's framework as pseudohistory, reliant on discredited forgeries and selective readings that ignore archaeological, epigraphic, and textual corpora affirming traditional narratives.^[13]^[55]

Religious and Institutional Reactions

The Catholic Church expressed strong opposition to The Da Vinci Code, viewing its portrayal of Christian history and institutions as distortions that undermined core doctrines such as the divinity of Jesus Christ and the apostolic succession. In March 2005, Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone, Archbishop of Genoa, was appointed by the Vatican to publicly rebut the novel's claims, emphasizing their incompatibility with established Church teachings on Vatican Radio with the directive, "Don't read and don't buy 'The Da Vinci Code.'"^[65]^[66] Ahead of the 2006 film adaptation, a Vatican official called for a boycott, labeling its content as containing "slanderous" offenses against the faith.^[67] While some Catholic leaders saw the controversy as an opportunity for evangelization and dialogue, others urged members to avoid both book and film to prevent dissemination of its theological inaccuracies.^[68] Opus Dei, depicted negatively in the novel as a secretive and violent organization involved in suppressing a supposed holy bloodline, issued a formal press statement in February 2006 condemning the work's lack of respect for Christian beliefs and inviting public expression of similar sentiments. Opus Dei spokesman Brian Finnerty criticized author Dan Brown for embellishing unsubstantiated accusations from media reports and ex-members, noting that the group includes no monks and rejects the portrayed extremism. Members further contested the accuracy, asserting that practices like mortification were misrepresented as pathological rather than voluntary spiritual disciplines.^[69]^[68]^[70] Broader Christian responses, including from Protestant scholars, highlighted the book's propagation of revisionist history, such as claims about the Council of Nicaea inventing Jesus's divinity, as a direct challenge to scriptural and historical orthodoxy. Figures like Albert Mohler described it as arguing for a conspiratorial suppression of truth by the early Church, urging rebuttals grounded in primary sources like the New Testament and patristic writings. Evangelical leaders labeled it one of the most serious assaults on Christianity due to its blending of fiction with pseudohistorical assertions, prompting widespread production of counter-literature and seminars.^[71]^[72]^[73] Global protests erupted against the film release in May 2006, with Christian groups in India, Thailand, South Korea, and the Philippines demanding censorship or bans for blasphemous content; in Mumbai, Catholics received support from Muslim allies in demonstrations. In the United States and Europe, rallies featured signs decrying attacks on faith, reflecting institutional fears that the narrative's popularity could erode public trust in ecclesiastical authority despite its fictional status.^[74]^[75]^[76]

Plagiarism and Legal Disputes

In February 2006, authors Michael Baigent and Richard Leigh, co-writers of the 1982 nonfiction book The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail, filed a copyright infringement lawsuit against Dan Brown and his publisher Random House in London's High Court. They alleged that Brown had substantially copied the book's central historical thesis—that Jesus Christ married Mary Magdalene, fathered children whose bloodline was protected by a secret society called the Priory of Sion—without permission, claiming this sequence of ideas constituted protectable expression under copyright law.^[77] Brown testified during the March 2006 trial, acknowledging the book as a source of research but denying any verbatim or substantial copying of its unique expression.^[78] On April 7, 2006, High Court Justice Peter Smith ruled in Brown's favor, determining that while Brown drew on the book's general themes and historical claims, copyright protects only the specific form of expression, not underlying ideas, facts, or historical theories.^[77] The judge noted that The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail presented its arguments as nonfiction history, whereas The Da Vinci Code framed similar concepts as fictional narrative, with differences in plot, characters, and structure precluding infringement.^[79] Baigent and Leigh appealed the decision, but the Court of Appeal upheld the ruling on March 28, 2007, criticizing the originality claim and ordering the plaintiffs to pay substantial legal costs estimated at £3 million.^[80] The case highlighted legal distinctions between protectable literary expression and non-copyrightable historical conjectures, influencing subsequent discussions on idea-expression dichotomy in intellectual property law.^[81] Separately, American author Lewis Perdue, whose novels Daughter of God (2000) and The Da Vinci Legacy (1983) featured Vatican conspiracies involving Jesus' bloodline and suppressed gospels, threatened legal action against Brown in 2004, alleging thematic and plot similarities such as secret societies guarding divine feminine secrets and historical cover-ups by church authorities.^[82] Brown preemptively sought a U.S. federal declaratory judgment in the Southern District of New York, leading to a 2005 ruling by Judge George Daniels that no substantial similarity existed in protectable elements, as Perdue's works lacked the specific combinations of symbols, artifacts, and character dynamics in The Da Vinci Code.^[83] Perdue's appeal reached the U.S. Supreme Court, which denied certiorari on November 13, 2006, effectively ending the case without finding infringement.^[84] Expert analyses in the proceedings, including literary comparisons, underscored that common tropes in conspiracy fiction—such as hidden religious truths—do not constitute copying without direct textual overlap.^[85] Minor additional claims surfaced, such as a 2017 threat from author Jack Dunn alleging parallels between The Da Vinci Code and his unpublished manuscript, but no formal lawsuit advanced, reflecting the challenges in proving substantial similarity amid widespread prior art in Grail mythology and thriller genres.^[86] These disputes did not result in financial awards against Brown or alterations to the novel, affirming courts' reluctance to extend copyright to broad historical or thematic ideas in works blending fact and fiction.^[87]

Factual Scrutiny of Core Assertions

Early Christian History and Councils

In The Da Vinci Code, Dan Brown portrays the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD as the pivotal event where Emperor Constantine and assembled bishops voted to establish Jesus' divinity as official doctrine, allegedly overriding earlier views of him as merely human and suppressing alternative gospels that depicted a non-divine Christ married to Mary Magdalene.^[59] This narrative implies that core Christian beliefs were politically engineered centuries after Jesus' life, with Constantine exerting decisive control over theological outcomes. Historical records, however, indicate that the council addressed the Arian controversy—where Arius argued Jesus was a created being subordinate to God—rather than inventing divinity, affirming instead the pre-existing orthodox view that Christ was eternally begotten of the Father's same substance (homoousios), as stated in the Nicene Creed: "begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father."^[88] ^[89] Belief in Jesus' divinity predates Nicaea by centuries, rooted in New Testament texts composed between approximately 50 and 100 AD, such as Paul's epistles (e.g., Philippians 2:6-11, circa 50-60 AD, describing Christ as equal with God) and the Gospel of John (circa 90-100 AD, opening with "the Word was God").^[90] Early extrabiblical witnesses, including Ignatius of Antioch's letters (circa 107 AD), explicitly affirm Jesus as "our God" incarnate, reflecting apostolic tradition rather than later innovation.^[91] The council, attended by around 300 bishops, rejected Arianism by majority vote after debates led by figures like Athanasius, with only a minority supporting Arius; Constantine convened and presided to promote imperial unity but deferred doctrinal decisions to the bishops, signing the creed post-consensus and later exiling Arius without personally authoring theology.^[92] ^[93] The formation of the New Testament canon unfolded gradually from the late 1st to 4th centuries, not as a top-down decision at Nicaea, which focused on creed and Easter dating without addressing scriptural lists. By the mid-2nd century, core texts like the four Gospels, Acts, and Pauline epistles were widely circulated and deemed apostolic in churches, as evidenced by the Muratorian Fragment (circa 170 AD), which enumerates 22 of the eventual 27 books.^[94] Full consensus emerged later, with Athanasius of Alexandria's 367 AD festal letter listing the precise 27-book canon, ratified informally at councils like Hippo (393 AD) and Carthage (397 AD). Gnostic texts, such as those in the Nag Hammadi library (copies dated to mid-4th century, originals circa 2nd-3rd centuries AD), were excluded due to their late composition—post-apostolic era—and theological divergence, including docetic views denying Jesus' full humanity or promoting esoteric knowledge over historical resurrection; these lacked attestation by early church fathers and were not considered rivals to canonical Gospels written closer to events (circa 60-110 AD).^[95] ^[96] Scholarly consensus holds that the canon's criteria—apostolic origin, orthodoxy, and catholicity—emerged organically from communal use, countering claims of suppression by highlighting Gnostic works' marginal influence even among heterodox groups.^[97]

Secret Societies and Artifacts

In The Da Vinci Code, secret societies such as the Priory of Sion and Opus Dei are central to the plot, purportedly safeguarding ancient secrets including the Holy Grail, reinterpreted as the bloodline of Jesus Christ and Mary Magdalene. The Priory is depicted as an ancient European order founded in 1099 by Godfrey of Bouillon to protect this lineage from the Catholic Church, with Leonardo da Vinci among its grand masters.^[60] Opus Dei appears as a ruthless Vatican enforcer employing violence and self-mortification to suppress these truths, exemplified by the character Silas, an albino monk using a cilice and flagellation.^[70] Artifacts like the cryptex—a cylindrical, combination-locked device containing papyrus that dissolves if forced open—are attributed to da Vinci's invention, symbolizing protected knowledge.^[98] The Priory of Sion lacks historical foundation as an ancient society; it originated as a 1956 French social group founded by Pierre Plantard to advocate for low-income housing in Annemasse, later fabricated with forged documents in the 1960s claiming medieval roots and illustrious members like Isaac Newton and Victor Hugo. These "Dossiers Secrets" were planted in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France and exposed as hoaxes by French courts in 1993, with Plantard admitting under oath to inventing the Priory's grand master list; no empirical evidence supports its role in protecting a Merovingian-descended bloodline.^[99] Scholarly consensus views it as a 20th-century fraud exploited by pseudohistorical works like Holy Blood, Holy Grail (1982), which influenced Brown's narrative without verifiable primary sources.^[100] Opus Dei, founded on October 2, 1928, by Spanish priest Josemaría Escrivá, is a legitimate Catholic institution emphasizing holiness in daily work, with about 90,000 members worldwide, predominantly laypeople rather than monks or cloistered orders.^[101] While some members practice voluntary corporal mortification, such as wearing a cilice for a few hours weekly as penance, the novel's portrayal of systemic violence, including murder and extreme self-harm like eye-gouging, has no basis in the organization's documented practices or history; Opus Dei gained personal prelature status from Pope John Paul II in 1982 to promote lay spirituality, not suppression of secrets.^[102] Members and officials have contested the depiction as defamatory fiction, noting the absence of albinism requirements or monastic vows.^[70] The cryptex is a neologism and concept devised by Dan Brown for the 2003 novel, with no records of da Vinci or Renaissance inventors creating such a self-destructing encryption device; historical locks and ciphers existed, but the cryptex's mechanics—vinegar-dissolving papyrus inside a tumbler-locked cylinder—represent modern invention, with replicas produced post-publication.^[103] The Holy Grail bloodline theory, positing Jesus' descendants via Mary Magdalene hidden by secret societies, derives from unsubstantiated claims in Holy Blood, Holy Grail, reliant on the debunked Priory documents and lacking archaeological, genetic, or textual evidence from early Christian sources; traditional Grail legends from 12th-century literature describe a chalice or dish from the Last Supper, not a womb or lineage.^[104] Historians dismiss the marital or offspring assertions as speculative fiction, with no first-century records indicating Jesus' marriage, and causal analysis reveals the theory's propagation stems from 20th-century esoteric hoaxes rather than empirical data.^[105] Overall, scholarly examination confirms these elements as amalgamations of myth, exaggeration, and fabrication without credible historical corroboration.^[106]

Debunkings and Scholarly Consensus

Scholars in fields including early Christian history, art history, and cryptography have extensively critiqued the historical claims in The Da Vinci Code, concluding that they rely on misinterpretations, fabrications, and selective readings of evidence rather than verifiable data. The novel's assertion of a suppressed bloodline of Jesus descending from a marriage to Mary Magdalene, protected by secret societies, lacks primary source support from the first century; instead, it draws from 20th-century pseudohistorical works like The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail (1982), which themselves amalgamate unproven theories. Historians emphasize that early Christian texts, including the canonical Gospels composed within decades of Jesus' life, contain no references to such a marriage, while later Gnostic writings (e.g., the Gospel of Philip, dated to the 3rd century) offer symbolic or allegorical language open to speculation but not historical attestation.^[16]^[107]^[106] The Priory of Sion, depicted as an ancient guardian of Jesus' lineage, has been definitively exposed as a mid-20th-century forgery orchestrated by Pierre Plantard, a French con artist with ambitions of Merovingian restoration. Documents purportedly proving its medieval origins, including fabricated parchments planted in the Bibliothèque Nationale in 1967, were Plantard's creations, as confirmed by French judicial investigations in the 1990s that led to fraud charges against him. No archival evidence predates Plantard's 1956 registration of the group as a minor social club, undermining the novel's timeline of continuous secrecy from the Crusades.^[60]^[108] Interpretations of Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper (1495–1498) as depicting Mary Magdalene beside Jesus, forming a supposed "V" shape symbolizing the sacred feminine, are rejected by art historians as anachronistic projections ignoring Renaissance conventions. The figure is consistently identified in da Vinci's preparatory sketches and contemporary accounts as the apostle John, portrayed with youthful, beardless features typical of male figures in Italian art to evoke innocence and proximity to Christ; claims of feminine traits overlook the painting's restoration history and da Vinci's own anatomical studies of male models. Similarly, the novel's cryptex device has no basis in da Vinci's documented inventions or cipher techniques, which favored simple substitution codes rather than elaborate mechanical locks.^[63]^[109]^[110] The portrayal of the Council of Nicaea (325 CE) as a pivotal event where Emperor Constantine imposed the biblical canon to suppress "goddess worship" and Gnostic texts is a historical fabrication; council records, including Eusebius' Life of Constantine, show deliberations focused on the Arian controversy and the Nicene Creed, with no mention of scriptural selection. The New Testament canon emerged organically from 2nd-century usage in churches, as evidenced by the Muratorian Fragment (c. 170 CE) and Athanasius' festal letter (367 CE), predating and postdating Nicaea without imperial fiat. Gnostic gospels were excluded not due to patriarchal conspiracy but because they lacked apostolic authorship, contradicted eyewitness accounts, and surfaced too late (2nd–4th centuries) to reflect 1st-century events.^[111]^[112]^[113] Across disciplines, consensus holds that while The Da Vinci Code entertains through thriller elements, its prefatory claim of basing "all descriptions of artwork, documents, and secret rituals" on "real" matter is untenable, as verified facts are distorted to fit a narrative of institutional cover-up without causal mechanisms or empirical backing. Secular and religious scholars alike, from Harold Attridge at Yale to TCU faculty analyses, note the absence of motive or means for a millennia-spanning conspiracy, given the decentralized nature of early Christianity and the public availability of non-canonical texts since antiquity. This scholarly scrutiny underscores the novel's role in popularizing myths over evidence-based history.^[16]^[107]^[106]

Adaptations and Enduring Influence

Film and Stage Versions

The primary film adaptation of The Da Vinci Code was released on May 19, 2006, directed by Ron Howard and produced by Columbia Pictures in association with Imagine Entertainment.^[114] The screenplay, written by Akiva Goldsman, closely followed Dan Brown's novel, featuring symbologist Robert Langdon (played by Tom Hanks) unraveling a conspiracy involving the Holy Grail after a murder at the Louvre.^[115] Key cast included Audrey Tautou as Sophie Neveu, Ian McKellen as Sir Leigh Teabing, Jean Reno as Captain Bezu Fache, and Paul Bettany as Silas.^[116] With a production budget of $125 million, the film grossed $217.5 million domestically and over $760 million worldwide, making it one of the highest-grossing films of 2006.^[117] Filming occurred primarily in France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, with locations including Rosslyn Chapel in Scotland and interiors recreated at Pinewood Studios.^[118] The adaptation faced pre-release controversy from religious groups, prompting a disclaimer stating the story was fictional, but it proceeded to commercial success despite mixed critical reception, evidenced by a 25% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes from 230 reviews.^[119] The film's score was composed by Hans Zimmer, contributing to its atmospheric tension.^[120] The success of the 2006 film led to two sequels in the Robert Langdon series, though based on separate Dan Brown novels: Angels & Demons (2009), also directed by Howard with Hanks reprising Langdon, and Inferno (2016), directed by Ron Howard.^[121] These films maintained similar thriller elements but adapted distinct plots involving Vatican intrigue and a Dante-inspired pandemic threat, respectively, grossing $485 million and $220 million worldwide.^[122] A stage adaptation of The Da Vinci Code, scripted by Rachel Wagstaff and Duncan Abel, premiered in the United Kingdom before its American debut at Ogunquit Playhouse in Maine on September 1, 2023.^[123] The play condenses the novel's narrative into a fast-paced thriller, emphasizing Langdon and Neveu's pursuit of clues across Europe, with productions incorporating projections and sound design to evoke landmarks like the Louvre and Westminster Abbey.^[124] Subsequent U.S. stagings included Alley Theatre in Houston from September 19 to October 12, 2025, directed by Rob Melrose, and Tacoma Little Theatre from October 24 to November 9, 2025.^[125]^[126] This non-musical version, licensed through Dramatists Play Service, focuses on the core mystery without the film's visual spectacle, receiving praise for its tense pacing in regional reviews.^[127]^[128]

Cultural and Tourism Effects

The publication of Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code in 2003 and its 2006 film adaptation generated substantial tourism to real-world locations depicted in the story, including churches, museums, and architectural sites across Europe. Rosslyn Chapel near Edinburgh, Scotland, portrayed as a repository of ancient secrets, saw annual visitor numbers rise from 38,141 in 2002 to nearly 80,000 immediately following the book's release, peaking at over 176,000 by 2006 amid the film's promotion.^[129] ^[130] ^[131] This influx, which more than quadrupled pre-publication attendance in some estimates, enabled the chapel's trust to finance extensive conservation efforts, including roof repairs and structural reinforcements completed by 2012.^[129] The Louvre Museum in Paris, central to the novel's opening scenes involving Leonardo da Vinci's works, reported a record 7.3 million visitors in 2005—up 600,000 or nearly 10% from 6.7 million in 2004—explicitly linking the growth to heightened interest from the book.^[132] ^[133] Comparable surges affected other sites: Temple Church in London experienced a fivefold increase in visitors post-film, while Saint-Sulpice Church in Paris noted 20,000 additional summer visitors in 2005 compared to the prior year.^[134] ^[135] Travel operators responded by offering guided "Da Vinci Code" tours tracing the protagonists' paths through Paris, London, Scotland, and Rome, with specialized itineraries focusing on cryptographic symbols and historical artifacts.^[136] ^[137] These tourism effects extended cultural influence by amplifying public fascination with Renaissance art, cryptography, and speculative interpretations of Christian history, though the narrative's blend of invention and selective facts drew rebuttals from historians emphasizing its divergences from established evidence.^[16] With over 40 million copies sold worldwide by 2006, the phenomenon spurred ancillary media like companion guides and boosted inquiries into da Vinci's symbolism, yet it also entrenched pop-cultural tropes of institutional secrecy, contributing to broader skepticism toward organized religion without altering empirical religious adherence patterns.^[16] ^[138] ^[139] The enduring draw persisted into the 2020s, with Rosslyn Chapel maintaining elevated attendance above 150,000 annually, partly sustained by dedicated exhibits on the book's legacy.^[140]

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[89]
Constantine decided on Jesus' divinity in the council of Nicaea in ...
Oct 8, 2021 · The Council of Nicaea did not decide on Jesus' divinity; the issue was the nature of his divinity, and early Christians already believed he was ...
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Was the Divinity of Jesus a Late Invention of the Council of Nicea ...
Jan 25, 2016 · No one in primitive Christianity believed Jesus was divine, we are told. He was just a man and it was later believers, at the council of Nicea, that declared ...
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What the Early Church Believed: The Divinity of Christ
The Divinity of Christ was believed by Christians from the begining. This is shown again and again in the Bible and the writings of the early Christians.
[92]
What occurred at the Council of Nicea? | GotQuestions.org
Jan 4, 2022 · Constantine prodded the 300 bishops in the council to make a decision by majority vote defining who Jesus Christ is. The statement of doctrine ...
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Constantine – his role at the Council of Nicaea
Constantine's role regarding Nicaea was that of supreme civil leader and authority in the empire. As Emperor, the responsibility for maintaining civil order ...
[94]
The Formation of the New Testament Canon - Theology Matters
During the course of the second century most churches came to possess and acknowledge a canon which included the present four Gospels, the Acts, thirteen ...
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The Canonization of the New Testament | Religious Studies Center
Canonization is the process of naming texts as authoritative scripture. It occurred in three stages, with the first list in 367 AD, and was completed by church ...
[96]
The Story Of The Storytellers - The Gnostic Gospels - PBS
Apr 6, 1998 · The Gnostic Gospels: The 52 texts discovered in Nag Hammadi, Egypt ... gospels of the New Testament, which are dated c. 60-l l0. But ...
[97]
Christian History Timeline: How We Got Our Bible
The Old Testament was written c. 1400-400 BC, the Septuagint c. 250-200 BC, and the Greek New Testament c. 45-85 AD. The Old Testament canon was affirmed in 90 ...
[98]
The Mysterious Cryptex and Codes of The Da Vinci Code
Apr 12, 2020 · In the story, the Cryptex is said to be an invention of Leonardo da Vinci, but this intricate device was actually from the imagination of Dan ...
[99]
The Priory of Sion: The End of the Hoax?, by Massimo Introvigne
After several decades, is this the end of the Priory of Sion hoax? In fact, the hoax should have ended in the late 1980s, when all the parties involved ...
[100]
Priory of Sion - Religion Facts
Mar 18, 2015 · Nearly all scholars, experts and commentators agree that the Priory of Sion is a modern fraud and not an ancient secret society.
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Da Vinci Code - Response: The Seattle Pacific University Magazine
One of these, Holy Blood, Holy Grail, relies on a huge hoax, well-known to students of esoterica: the Priory of Sion. Some critics have exaggerated, in my ...<|separator|>
[102]
Opus Dei, the Da Vinci Code and ODAN
Opus Dei is accused of deceptive practices, manipulative control, and blind obedience, with former members reporting pressure and forced actions. ODAN ...
[103]
Da Vinci Under Lock-and-Key | The Edge of Yesterday
While the Cryptex is central to Brown's story, there is no evidence that Leonardo invented anything like this. But as a case of "life imitating art," since its ...
[104]
Library : The Real History of the Holy Grail | Catholic Culture
Brown maintains that the Grail is the womb of Mary Magdalene who bore the merely human Christ's child, establishing a lineage of holy blood that still continues ...
[105]
The Da Vinci Fraud | Westar Institute
The authors of Holy Blood, Holy Grail concocted a novel much like that of Brown and, like him, they managed to convince themselves that it was really true.
[106]
The Da Vinci Code: Revisiting A Cracked Conspiracy
Apr 10, 2004 · FACT OR FICTION? Though marketed as fiction, The Da Vinci Code is clearly intended to present what Brown believes is factual material about the ...
[107]
Debunking the Da Vinci code - TCU Magazine
Debunking the Da Vinci code. Three TCU professors sort fact from fiction in Dan Brown's popular book.
[108]
The Priory of Sion Hoax - Alpheus
The Priory of Sion Hoax. by Robert Richardson. In recent years, a great deal ... Part of Stein's thesis is that events in the lives of actual historical ...
[109]
Is Mary Magdalene in Da Vinci's 'The Last Supper?' - ThoughtCo
May 4, 2025 · Based on this, it seems clear that Da Vinci painted the apostle John swooning next to Christ, and not Mary Magdalene.Missing: debunk | Show results with:debunk
[110]
The Da Vinci Hoax: THE FACTS - Ignatius Press
The Da Vinci Hoax: Exposing the Errors in The Da Vinci Code examines, in much detail, the lengthy list of claims made in the Code. Here is a brief look at ...
[111]
The Great Myths 4: Constantine, Nicaea and the Bible
May 5, 2017 · This utterly confused meme is referring to the hoary myth that the canon of the Bible was voted on at the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD.
[112]
The Council of Nicaea and Biblical Canon - Phoenix Seminary
Apr 25, 2018 · The idea that the Council of Nicaea (325 AD), under the authority of Roman Emperor Constantine, established the Christian biblical canon.
[113]
Debunking the Myth: The Council of Nicaea and the Formation of the ...
Nov 16, 2023 · Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that the Council of Nicaea discussed or established the Canon of Scripture, leading to the creation of the ...
[114]
The Da Vinci Code (2006) - IMDb
Rating 6.6/10 (478,388) The Da Vinci Code: Directed by Ron Howard. With Tom Hanks, Audrey Tautou, Ian McKellen, Jean Reno. A murder and clues in paintings lead to the discovery of ...Full cast & crew · Dan Brown · Le code Da Vinci · The Da Vinci Code - Sakrileg
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Full cast & crew - The Da Vinci Code (2006) - IMDb
Cast ; Paul Adams · Grail Knight ; Lasco Atkins · Museum Guard ; Didier Dell Benjamin · Student ; Stefana Brancastle · Muse of Hades ; Liliane Briand · Driver.
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The Da Vinci Code | Cast and Crew - Rotten Tomatoes
Cast & Crew · Ron Howard · Tom Hanks · Audrey Tautou · Ian McKellen · Alfred Molina · Jean Reno · Paul Bettany · Jürgen Prochnow.
[117]
The DaVinci Code: Special Edition (2006) - DVD Movie Guide
Nov 17, 2006 · Box Office: Budget $125 million. Opening Weekend $77.073 million on 3735 screens. Domestic Gross $217.536 million. MPAA: Rated PG-13. DVD ...
[118]
The Da Vinci Code (Film) | The Dan Brown Wiki - Fandom
The Da Vinci Code is a 2006 motion picture co-produced (with John Calley and Brian Grazer) and directed by Ron Howard. The screenplay was written by Akiva ...Plot · Cast · Filming · Pre-release reactions
[119]
The Da Vinci Code | Rotten Tomatoes
Rating 25% (230) Discover reviews, ratings, and trailers for The Da Vinci Code on Rotten Tomatoes. Stay updated with critic and audience scores today!
[120]
The Da Vinci Code (2006) summary & plot - Spoiler Town
Aug 24, 2025 · Robert Langdon unravels ancient secrets tied to a murder, racing through Paris to decode a mystery in a sharp, clue-driven quest.
[121]
The Da Vinci Code Series In Chronological Order - Screen Rant
Apr 22, 2024 · The Da Vinci Code. 2006. Angels & Demons. 2009. Inferno. 2016. Angels & Demons is actually the first novel in Dan Brown's book series but was ...
[122]
Why You Should Revisit The Robert Langdon Film Trilogy - SYFY
May 7, 2024 · The five novels in Brown's book lineup go from Angels & Demons (2000) to The Da Vinci Code (2003) to The Lost Symbol (2009) to Inferno (2013) to Origin (2017).
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The Da Vinci Code - 2023 Musical | Ogunquit Playhouse
The Da Vinci Code musical follows Professor Robert Langdon and Sophie Neveu as they race to solve a murder and unlock the Holy Grail's secrets.
[124]
The Da Vinci Code - Alley Theatre
Join the thrilling adventure as symbologist Robert Langdon and cryptologist Sophie Neveu race to solve a deadly puzzle that could change history.
[125]
Alley Theatre Brings The Da Vinci Code to the Stage
Jul 23, 2025 · Adapted by Rachel Wagstaff and Duncan Abel and directed by Artistic Director Rob Melrose, this fast-paced thriller will run September 19 – ...
[126]
THE DA VINCI CODE - Tacoma Little Theatre
Jul 24, 2025 · The play runs Oct 24 - Nov 9, 2025, Thurs-Sat 7:30pm, Sun 2pm. Tickets are $30 for adults, $28 for students/seniors/military, $23 for children. ...<|separator|>
[127]
The Da Vinci Code - Dramatists Play Service, Inc.
In this thrilling play, based on Dan Brown's bestselling international phenomenon, Professor Robert Langdon is called to the Louvre in the dead of night.
[128]
Stunning stage adaptation of 'The Da Vinci Code' brings dazzling ...
Oct 1, 2025 · The production uses cutting-edge scenic design, projections, sound, and lighting to capture iconic locations like the Louvre and cathedrals. The ...
[129]
The Da Vinci Code - The Official Rosslyn Chapel Website
The Da Vinci Code has had a profound impact on visitor numbers at the Chapel which grew to over 176,000 at their peak, allowing the Trust to complete its ...
[130]
New Da Vinci Code Display for Visitor Centre - Rosslyn Chapel
Oct 11, 2024 · The Da Vinci Code significantly increased levels of Rosslyn Chapel's visitor numbers, which rose from around 38,000 to nearly 80,000 after ...
[131]
All Roads Lead To Rosslyn | 1 International Institute for ...
Feb 25, 2025 · The year The Da Vinci Code was released, however, visitor numbers spiked to 176,000—quite alarming for a wee gatekeeper who went from ...
[132]
Da Vinci Code cited in Louvre attendance record | CBC News
Jan 4, 2006 · The Louvre Museum in Paris attracted a record 7.3 million visitors in 2005, partly because of the popularity of the book The Da Vinci Code.
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Da Vinci Code Book and film multiply tourists at key sites
Jan 15, 2006 · In 2005 no less than 7,300,000 tourists visited it, a 600,000 increase in just one year from 2004's 6,700,000. According to the general ...Missing: boost | Show results with:boost
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Available Research and Success Stories - AFCI University
For example, after the film's release, Temple Church in London saw visitor numbers increase fivefold and Rosslyn Chapel's visitor numbers have doubled every ...<|separator|>
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The plot thickened, and so did the crowds of tourists
LAST summer, 20,000 more people visited St. Sulpice Church than the summer before. With its northern tower shrouded in scaffolding, ...Missing: boost | Show results with:boost
[136]
Dan Brown phenomenon creates tourist boom | CABI News
Mar 22, 2005 · Da Vinci Code tourists can book special tours in Paris, or go to London, Scotland or Rome. Even the travel guide Fodor's has published a do-it- ...<|separator|>
[137]
'Da Vinci Code' Tourist Letdowns - CBS News
Nov 1, 2004 · The success of the best-selling thriller "The Da Vinci Code" has inspired people to travel to Europe to see the artwork and architecture ...
[138]
'The Da Vinci Code': A Blessing in Disguise - Beliefnet
That is why the greatest measurable impact of "The Da Vinci Code" has been not on religious practice (more or less unchanged), but rather on tourism (record ...
[139]
The Da Vinci Code and Its Success in Popular Culture
May 1, 2006 · Now published in more than 40 different languages and selling literally millions of copies worldwide, a soon-to-be-released cinema version of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[140]
Visiting Rosslyn Chapel 10 years after The Da Vinci Code - BBC News
May 4, 2016 · Today numbers still stand at more than 150,000. And it's not just the Da Vinci Code effect: around 40% of visitors to the UK say they were ...Missing: impact | Show results with:impact