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Hoax

A hoax is a deliberate fabrication or deception intended to trick or dupe individuals or groups into accepting falsehoods as truth, typically for purposes such as amusement, profit, or manipulation of public perception.^[1] The term emerged in the late 18th century as a verb around 1796 and noun by 1808, likely deriving from "hocus," a shortening of the conjurer's phrase "hocus-pocus," connoting sleight-of-hand trickery.^[2]^[3] Hoaxes exploit cognitive vulnerabilities, including confirmation bias and emotional arousal, which facilitate their spread particularly among those with lower analytical reasoning or preexisting inclinations toward the fabricated narrative.^[4]^[5] Historically, prominent examples include the 1835 Great Moon Hoax, a series of articles in the New York Sun falsely claiming discoveries of lunar civilizations with winged humanoids, which captivated readers and boosted the newspaper's circulation before being revealed as fiction.^[6] Another defining case is the 1912 Piltdown Man, a forged "missing link" fossil that deceived anthropologists for decades by blending human and ape bones, underscoring how hoaxes can infiltrate scientific discourse when rigorous verification is lacking.^[7] In the modern era, hoaxes extend beyond pranks to influence societal views, often amplified by digital platforms where structural features prioritize sensational content over veracity, leading to real-world consequences like eroded trust in institutions or misguided behaviors.^[8] Defining characteristics include initial plausibility crafted through fabricated evidence, rapid dissemination via networks favoring novelty, and eventual exposure through contradictory data or whistleblowers, revealing underlying causal mechanisms of human gullibility rooted in pattern-seeking and authority deference rather than systemic malice alone.^[9] While some hoaxes serve benign satire, others precipitate harm by preying on fears or desires, as seen in persistent frauds like the Cardiff Giant of 1869, a carved stone "petrified man" promoted as an ancient relic to mock biblical literalism but instead fueling commercial exploitation.^[10]

Etymology and Definition

Etymology

The term "hoax" entered English as a verb in 1796, denoting "to ridicule or deceive with a fabrication," with the noun form appearing by 1808 to refer to such a deception.^[11]^[2] Its earliest recorded attestation appears in Francis Grose's A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, where it is defined in the context of slang trickery.^[11] Etymologists generally derive "hoax" from "hocus," a 17th-century English verb and noun meaning to cheat, drug, or trick, itself linked to the conjurer's phrase "hocus-pocus" (first attested around 1620 as a mock-Latin incantation for sleight-of-hand deception).^[2]^[1] This origin reflects slang contraction common in vulgar or theatrical English, evolving from general conjuring fraud to targeted ridicule by the late 18th century.^[2] By the early 19th century, the term had narrowed to emphasize elaborate, intentional fabrications intended to mislead credulous audiences, distinguishing it from mere pranks or simple lies.^[1]

Core Definition and Characteristics

A hoax is a deliberately constructed falsehood or deception presented as factual truth, engineered to mislead an audience into belief.^[1] This fabrication typically involves premeditated creation of deceptive elements, such as forged documents, props, or narratives, to simulate authenticity and achieve temporary credulity among recipients.^[12] Unlike mere errors or unsubstantiated claims, hoaxes hinge on causal intent: the originator's purposeful design to dupe, often succeeding initially due to the illusion of empirical support before scrutiny exposes the artifice.^[13] Central characteristics include the hoax's structured narrative, which mimics verifiable reality through fabricated evidence tailored to exploit credulity, and its inherent temporality—sustained deception until debunking or confession disrupts the ruse.^[12] Perpetrators exhibit forethought in concealing origins, yet hoaxes rarely endure indefinite examination owing to foundational inconsistencies, such as mismatched timelines or unverifiable provenance. Primary motives steer away from immediate pecuniary fraud, favoring deception for intrinsic ends like provocation or satire, though secondary gains may arise.^[14] Empirically, hoaxes manifest through diagnostic markers: absence of independent primary sources confirming the claim, proliferation of anomalies detectable via cross-verification (e.g., physical impossibilities or contradictory records), and frequent perpetrator acknowledgment post-exposure, affirming the contrivance's artificiality.^[12] These traits enable differentiation via rigorous inquiry, underscoring hoaxes' reliance on suspended disbelief rather than enduring causal chains grounding truth.^[15]

Distinctions from Frauds, Misinformation, and Disinformation

A hoax constitutes a deliberate fabrication intended to deceive an audience into believing falsehoods, typically without the pecuniary motives central to fraud. Fraud, defined as intentional deception resulting in injury or loss to another, particularly through acquiring money, property, or services unlawfully, carries legal ramifications under statutes like those in the U.S. Code Title 18, emphasizing material harm and criminal intent for gain. In contrast, hoaxes prioritize non-financial objectives, such as amusement or critique, and seldom result in prosecutable injury, as evidenced by cases where perpetrators reveal the deception post-facto without facing fraud charges.^[1] Distinguishing hoaxes from misinformation hinges on intent: misinformation denotes incorrect or misleading information circulated erroneously, often stemming from honest mistakes, negligence, or unverified sharing, absent any purposeful design to mislead.^[16] Hoaxes, however, involve premeditated construction of false narratives or artifacts presented as authentic, with the creator's knowledge of their falsity verifiable through confessions, internal documentation, or patterns of revelation not typical in unintentional errors.^[1] This intentionality enables hoaxes to exploit psychological susceptibilities, including confirmation bias—where believers selectively accept aligning evidence—facilitating rapid spread beyond mere factual inaccuracies.^[17] Hoaxes differ from disinformation in scale and coordination: disinformation comprises false information deliberately propagated, often covertly by state actors or organized entities, to manipulate perceptions, sow discord, or obscure reality on a systemic level.^[18] While sharing deceptive intent, hoaxes typically arise from individual or small-group initiatives, ad-hoc in execution and frequently self-disclosing for ironic effect, rather than sustained, covert campaigns characteristic of disinformation efforts documented in intelligence analyses.^[1] This structural variance underscores hoaxes' reliance on voluntary belief suspension, verifiable through perpetrator admissions, versus disinformation's engineered persistence via institutional amplification.^[17]

Historical Overview

Ancient and Pre-Modern Instances

In the classical era, literary and historical records describe ruses that functioned as hoaxes through deliberate deception for strategic gain, exemplified by the Trojan Horse recounted in ancient Greek epics and Roman poetry, where a hollow wooden equine structure concealed armed infiltrators to breach Troy's defenses, though archaeological evidence for the event itself is absent and its details are considered legendary embellishments on possible Bronze Age tactics. More verifiably, the 2nd-century AD satirist Lucian of Samosata exposed the prophet Alexander of Abonoteichos for fabricating the snake-god Glycon using a glove puppet to mimic divine utterances and movements, attracting devotees who paid fees for oracles and healing, thereby exploiting credulity in a polytheistic society lacking empirical scrutiny of supernatural claims.^[19]^[20] During the medieval period, the relic trade flourished amid widespread illiteracy, limited travel verification, and doctrinal emphasis on physical intermediaries to divine grace, enabling forgers to produce artifacts like multiplied fragments of the True Cross—enough, according to 16th-century critic John Calvin's calculation based on contemporary inventories, to construct an entire ship—sold or venerated across European churches for indulgences and pilgrim donations.^[21] Similar proliferations included vials of the Virgin Mary's milk held in over 20 sites by the 13th century, often sourced from mundane substances like alabaster dissolved in water, as ecclesiastical audits occasionally revealed through inconsistencies in provenance and material analysis.^[21] Document forgeries also advanced institutional agendas, as seen in the Donation of Constantine, an 8th-century fabrication purporting to record Emperor Constantine I's 4th-century grant of western imperial territories and primacy to Pope Sylvester I, which bolstered papal claims to secular authority over kings until humanist Lorenzo Valla's 1440 philological dissection demonstrated anachronistic Latin usage, non-existent historical references, and stylistic mismatches with authentic imperial edicts.^[22] These instances persisted due to causal factors like oral transmission dominance, absence of carbon dating or forensic tools, and social incentives tying belief to status or revenue, rendering skepticism marginal until Renaissance textual criticism emerged.^[22]^[21]

19th and 20th Century Developments

The advent of mass-circulation newspapers in the 19th century facilitated sensational hoaxes that exploited public fascination with science and discovery. The Great Moon Hoax, published in the New York Sun starting August 25, 1835, consisted of six articles purporting to detail astronomer Sir John Herschel's observations of lunar lifeforms, including humanoid bats and unicorns, via an enormous telescope. Penned by editor Richard Adams Locke to boost sales amid fierce competition from the penny press, the fabrication drew crowds to the newspaper's offices and influenced global reprints before Locke obliquely admitted its fictional nature in September 1835.^[23]^[24] Later hoaxes targeted emerging scientific narratives for profit or notoriety. In 1869, George Hull orchestrated the Cardiff Giant by commissioning a 10-foot-2-inch gypsum statue, burying it on a relative's farm in Cardiff, New York, and staging its "discovery" on October 16 as a petrified prehistoric man. Exhibited to paying crowds and initially endorsed by some clergymen linking it to biblical giants, the ruse unraveled under scrutiny from Yale paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh, who identified tool marks and the statue's gypsum composition matching modern quarries; Hull confessed by December.^[25]^[26] Into the 20th century, hoaxes challenged academic rigor amid evolutionary debates. The Piltdown Man fossils, "discovered" in 1912 near Piltdown, England, by Charles Dawson and promoted as an early human ancestor combining ape-like jaw with human cranium, deceived experts for 41 years until 1953 chemical analyses revealed the jaw as an orangutan specimen stained with iron solution and filed teeth, with mismatched fluorine dating exposing the composite forgery likely perpetrated by Dawson.^[27]^[28] Social pranks and media simulations further illustrated vulnerabilities to deception. The 1910 Dreadnought hoax saw Horace de Vere Cole and accomplices, including Virginia Woolf disguised in blackface and robes, impersonate Abyssinian royals to tour HMS Dreadnought on February 7, using fabricated language to dupe the crew and officers before photographs leaked, humiliating the Royal Navy without legal repercussions.^[29]^[30] By 1938, Orson Welles's War of the Worlds radio adaptation aired on October 30 as faux news bulletins of a Martian invasion, inciting localized evacuations and distress calls in New Jersey despite prior announcements, though national panic claims were later inflated by print media rivalry with radio.^[31]^[32] These events underscored how print, telegraph, and radio amplified hoax dissemination, enabling rapid public credulity while prompting advancements in verification like material analysis and dating techniques that accelerated exposures.^[33]

Digital and Contemporary Era (1980s–Present)

The emergence of the internet in the late 1980s and 1990s transformed hoax dissemination from localized pranks to widespread phenomena via email chains and early online forums. One early example was the 1997 "Bill Gates giveaway" email hoax, which falsely promised Microsoft would pay recipients $1,000 for forwarding messages to numerous contacts, exploiting chain-letter mechanics and spreading rapidly across nascent email networks.^[34] Similar viral email deceptions included bogus virus warnings, such as the 1999 "jdbgmgr.exe" hoax claiming a Windows file harbored a dangerous worm, which prompted unnecessary file deletions among millions of users before antivirus firms debunked it.^[34] These incidents highlighted how digital connectivity enabled self-perpetuating misinformation without traditional gatekeepers, often persisting due to users' reluctance to verify claims. By the 2000s, hoaxes evolved with broadband and web hosting, exemplified by the 2000 "bonsai kitten" website hoax, a satirical project by MIT students claiming jars could shape kittens into spherical forms via molding, which garnered international media coverage and prompted formal investigations by animal rights groups before its creators revealed the fabrication using plastic models.^[35] The site's virality via forums and emails demonstrated early internet amplification, fooling audiences despite anatomical implausibilities. Social media platforms, launching in the mid-2000s, further accelerated spread; algorithms favoring sensational content causally outpaced debunking, as habitual sharing rewarded engagement over accuracy, per a 2023 University of Southern California analysis of platform dynamics.^[8] Post-2010 proliferation intensified with mobile access and algorithmic feeds, yielding empirical spikes in reported hoaxes. Fact-checking outlets documented a surge during election cycles, with platforms like Facebook removing over 100 million pieces of misinformation in 2020 alone, many involving fabricated viral claims.^[36] By 2023-2025, deepfake technology—AI-generated audio and video—emerged as a potent vector, particularly in politics; a Knight First Amendment Institute review of 78 global election deepfakes from 2020-2024 found several deployed to fabricate candidate statements, though most predated widespread AI access.^[37] A prominent U.S. case occurred on January 23, 2024, when a deepfake audio impersonating President Joe Biden circulated via robocalls to New Hampshire primary voters, falsely advising them to "save their vote" for November; Texas-based consultant Steven Kramer admitted creating it using AI software to test deepfake impacts, resulting in FCC fines exceeding $6 million for violating caller ID rules.^[38] Such instances underscore algorithms' role in rapid scaling, often evading initial detection and challenging corrective timelines, as corrections rarely match original virality speeds.^[8]

Motivations for Creating Hoaxes

Entertainment and Pranks

Hoaxes created for entertainment typically involve orchestrated deceptions designed to elicit surprise and laughter among participants and witnesses, with the prankster often disclosing the ruse shortly after to maximize amusement while limiting prolonged confusion. These differ from malicious tricks by prioritizing harmless exaggeration over harm, frequently exploiting everyday credulity through improbable scenarios. Historical instances demonstrate how such pranks reveal social vulnerabilities to suggestion without intending lasting damage.^[39] One prominent early example is the Berners Street Hoax of November 27, 1809, perpetrated by Theodore Hook, who wagered that he could transform the unremarkable residence at 54 Berners Street into London's most discussed address within a year. Hook anonymously ordered thousands of goods and services to the home of Mrs. Sarah Tottenham, including coal deliveries, chimney sweeps, physicians, lawyers, and even a funeral procession, resulting in chaos that drew crowds and halted traffic in central London. The prank concluded with Hook revealing his involvement to Tottenham, underscoring its intent as a wager-driven jest rather than malice, though it strained local resources and led to Hook's temporary avoidance of the area.^[39]^[40] In the 20th century, the Dreadnought Hoax of February 7, 1910, exemplified elite social pranking when Horace de Vere Cole, with accomplices including a disguised Virginia Woolf, posed as Abyssinian royals to board the Royal Navy's flagship HMS Dreadnought under false credentials. The group, speaking fabricated "Swahili" phrases and demanding mock honors, dined and toured the vessel while officers saluted them, until a tip-off prompted exposure; the ensuing embarrassment highlighted naval gullibility but resulted in no formal charges, as the perpetrators framed it as harmless satire. Woolf later recounted the thrill of the deception in her writings, noting the officers' obsequiousness amplified the humor.^[29]^[41] April Fools' Day traditions, observed annually on April 1 since at least the 18th century in Britain, institutionalize such entertainment through widespread pranks like false announcements or staged mishaps, fostering communal laughter via temporary deceptions. These customs trace to European calendar shifts or ancient festivals but emphasize self-revelation, as pranks persisting beyond noon invite counter-tricks, thereby bounding the hoax's scope.^[42] Psychologically, entertainment hoaxes draw on schadenfreude—the pleasure derived from others' mild misfortunes—while also promoting in-group bonding as shared insiders revel in outwitting outsiders. Pranks simulate low-stakes conflict akin to play-fighting, releasing tension and testing social cues without real threat, though excessive forms may signal underlying sadistic tendencies. In modern contexts, viral YouTube pranks, such as staged public reactions to absurd props, replicate this by capturing authentic surprise for viewer amusement, often ending with disclosures to affirm their jest nature and mitigate backlash. These dynamics exploit human predispositions toward narrative suspension of disbelief, revealing credulity's role in social cohesion.^[43]^[44]

Financial or Personal Gain

Hoaxes pursued for financial or personal gain typically involve deliberate fabrications designed to capitalize on public fascination, market demand, or scarcity value, yielding monetary returns or status elevation during the period of deception before inevitable exposure through expert verification. These differ from concealed frauds by leveraging elaborate storytelling or artifacts that invite scrutiny, enabling short-term profits from hype while risking downfall via empirical testing such as material analysis or historical cross-referencing. Greed underlies this motivation, as perpetrators exploit cognitive biases toward novelty and authority, inflating perceived worth until causal inconsistencies— like anachronistic aging techniques or implausible provenances—unravel the scheme.^[7] A prominent 19th-century example is the Cardiff Giant, a 10-foot gypsum statue buried and "discovered" in 1869 on a New York farm by George Hull, who sought to mock biblical literalists while profiting from exhibition fees. Hull invested about $2,500 in its creation, but partners acquired a three-quarters share for $30,000, with daily admissions peaking at $1,000 amid crowds drawn to its purported prehistoric origins, until geologists identified tool marks and fresh gypsum, confirming the hoax after months of revenue generation.^[25]^[45] In the art world, Han van Meegeren's forgeries of Johannes Vermeer paintings during the 1930s and 1940s netted millions by mimicking scarce masterpieces, sold to elite collectors including Hermann Göring for sums equivalent to tens of millions in today's dollars. Van Meegeren aged canvases with bakelite and phenol-formaldehyde to simulate craquelure, deceiving appraisers until his 1945 confession—prompted by treason accusations over a Göring sale—exposed the fakes via chemical tests revealing synthetic resins absent in 17th-century works, highlighting how forgers exploit institutional credulity for personal enrichment.^[46] The 1983 Hitler Diaries forgery by Konrad Kujau further illustrates financial incentives, as he crafted 60 volumes mimicking Adolf Hitler's handwriting and sold them through intermediary Gerd Heidemann to Stern magazine for 9.3 million Deutsche marks (about $3.7 million USD), capitalizing on demand for unpublished historical insights. The diaries briefly boosted Stern's circulation and Kujau's wealth via Nazi memorabilia sales, but ultraviolet spectroscopy and handwriting analysis disclosed modern ink and paper, underscoring the pattern of short-lived gains from fabricated rarity undone by forensic rigor.^[47]^[48] Empirical patterns across such cases reveal that financial hoaxes thrive on transient hype—drawing ticket-buyers, bidders, or subscribers—yet collapse under scrutiny exploiting first-principles like material authenticity and chronological feasibility, often leaving perpetrators with net losses after legal repercussions, though the intent centers on extraction before detection.^[7]

Political, Ideological, or Exposure Purposes

Hoaxes motivated by political or ideological aims seek to shape public perception, sway electoral outcomes, or undermine opposing viewpoints, often by fabricating evidence that aligns with partisan narratives or reveals flaws in entrenched institutions. These deceptions exploit media amplification and institutional trust to manipulate opinion, as seen in historical forgeries designed to incite anti-communist sentiment or contemporary efforts to frame intelligence assessments. Unlike pranks, such hoaxes prioritize agenda advancement over amusement, with creators leveraging credibility gaps in biased outlets—such as mainstream media's tendency to uncritically promote narratives favoring certain ideologies—to evade immediate scrutiny.^[49] A prominent example of ideological exposure is the 1996 Sokal Affair, where physicist Alan Sokal submitted a deliberately nonsensical paper, "Transgressing the Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity," to the postmodern journal Social Text. Packed with fabricated claims blending quantum physics jargon with ideological assertions about social constructivism, the hoax was accepted and published without peer review, prompting Sokal to reveal it as a critique of academic relativism's erosion of empirical standards in humanities fields. The affair ignited the "Science Wars," highlighting how ideological conformity in academia could prioritize narrative over rigor, with Social Text editors later admitting vulnerability to such tests but defending their anti-science skepticism.^[50]^[51] Political hoaxes have historically influenced elections, as in the 1924 Zinoviev Letter, a forged document purportedly from Soviet Comintern leader Grigory Zinoviev urging British communists to incite revolution and military agitation. Published by the Daily Mail four days before the general election, it implicated the Labour government in pro-Bolshevik subversion, contributing to Labour's defeat and the Conservatives' victory by fueling a "Red Scare." Investigations later confirmed its forgery, likely sourced through anti-Labour intelligence channels, demonstrating how fabricated intelligence could exploit ideological fears to alter democratic results.^[52]^[53] In recent decades, debated elements of "Russiagate" illustrate alleged hoaxes blending opposition research with intelligence to delegitimize political rivals. The Steele dossier, compiled by former MI6 operative Christopher Steele and funded by the Clinton campaign via Fusion GPS, alleged Trump-Russia ties including salacious claims later discredited as unverified or fabricated; special counsel John Durham's 2023 report faulted the FBI for relying on it despite doubts, citing procedural biases rather than a full conspiracy, though empirical reviews found no prosecutable collusion while confirming Russian election meddling. Similarly, early COVID-19 origin narratives faced accusations of suppression as a hoax, with scientists like Kristian Andersen privately emailing in January 2020 about virus features suggesting lab engineering, yet co-authoring a March Nature Medicine paper asserting natural zoonosis to counter "conspiracy theories"—private messages later revealed doubts, amid NIH funding of Wuhan lab research, underscoring ideological incentives to protect gain-of-function studies over open inquiry. These cases reflect bidirectional risks, with claims of 2020 U.S. election fraud largely rejected by courts despite documented anomalies like signature mismatches in some states, contrasting slower mainstream questioning of left-leaning narratives amid institutional biases.^[54]^[55]

Classification of Hoaxes

Scientific and Academic Fabrications

Scientific fabrications in academia typically involve the intentional invention or manipulation of empirical data, specimens, or results to support false claims, often exploiting gaps in verification processes like peer review, which prioritize novelty and theoretical fit over exhaustive replication. Such hoaxes undermine the causal foundations of scientific progress by introducing non-reproducible artifacts that mimic genuine evidence, leading to misguided resource allocation and theoretical entrenchment until exposed through independent scrutiny.^[56] The Piltdown Man hoax exemplifies early 20th-century anthropological fabrication, where fragments purportedly discovered in 1912 at Piltdown, England, were presented as Eoanthropus dawsoni, a supposed transitional fossil bridging apes and humans with a brain capacity of about 1,070 cubic centimeters. The skull combined a stained modern human cranium with an orangutan jaw and chimpanzee teeth filed to appear archaic, fooling experts for over four decades due to its alignment with expectations of a British origin for human evolution.^[28] Exposure came in 1953 via fluorine absorption analysis showing the jaw's recent origin compared to the cranium, alongside nitrogen content tests and microscopic evidence of artificial abrasion on the teeth.^[57]^[58] In biomedicine, the Hwang Woo-suk scandal represented a high-profile case of data fabrication in stem cell research, with papers published in Science in May 2005 claiming derivation of 11 patient-specific embryonic stem cell lines through somatic cell nuclear transfer, building on a 2004 report of the first such lines from humans. Investigations by Seoul National University revealed that Hwang and collaborators fabricated photographic and genetic data, with no viable stem cell lines produced; oocyte donors were coerced, and ethical violations compounded the fraud.^[59]^[60] The papers were retracted in January 2006 after whistleblower disclosures and forensic review confirmed systematic falsification across both publications.^[61] These incidents highlight recurring patterns where fabricated evidence gains traction by promising paradigm-altering breakthroughs—Piltdown reinforcing a Eurocentric evolutionary narrative amid competition with African fossil finds, and Hwang fueling global hype for therapeutic cloning despite technical implausibilities—thus bypassing rigorous causal validation in favor of confirmatory bias during initial peer review.^[62] Replication attempts eventually falter, as with Piltdown's inconsistent anatomical metrics or Hwang's unverifiable cell lines, exposing how institutional pressures for rapid publication can prioritize apparent empirical support over first-principles scrutiny of underlying mechanisms.^[56]

Media, News, and Journalistic Hoaxes

Media hoaxes encompass fabricated reports published by news outlets, often exploiting journalistic norms for sensationalism or personal advancement, revealing vulnerabilities in editorial oversight. One early instance, the Great Moon Hoax of 1835, involved the New York Sun serializing six articles claiming British astronomer Sir John Herschel discovered lunar life forms, including bat-like winged humanoids, via a massive new telescope; circulation surged from 8,000 to 19,000 daily copies before the paper quietly dropped the story without retraction, prioritizing profit over verification.^[23]^[63] In the early 20th century, the Cottingley Fairies photographs, taken by cousins Elsie Wright and Frances Griffiths in 1917 near Bradford, England, depicted diminutive fairies and were authenticated by experts before publication in The Strand Magazine in 1920 and 1921; Sir Arthur Conan Doyle championed them as genuine evidence of the supernatural in media endorsements, sustaining the deception until the perpetrators confessed in 1983, underscoring credulity among intellectuals and lax scrutiny in popular outlets.^[64] Modern cases highlight internal journalistic lapses, as in the 2003 Jayson Blair scandal at The New York Times, where the reporter fabricated details and plagiarized at least 36 stories on topics like the Iraq War and Washington-area sniper attacks, despite prior complaints ignored by editors; an internal investigation revealed systemic failures in fact-checking and diversity hiring pressures overriding competence signals, prompting Blair's resignation and executive shakeups.^[65]^[66] Similar fabrications occurred in Stephen Glass's 1990s New Republic pieces, inventing events and sources across 27 articles, exposed only after prolonged internal denial.^[67] Such hoaxes propagate through ideological echo chambers, where outlets amplify aligning narratives; empirical analysis of 2006–2017 Twitter data shows false news diffusing farther and faster than true reports, reaching 1,500 people compared to 100 for facts, due to novelty and emotional arousal rather than veracity.^[68] Retractions face barriers, with studies indicating corrections rarely match original dissemination reach—fact-checks on debunked stories garner under 10% of the views of the initial falsehoods—exacerbating persistence in partisan media ecosystems.^[69] Institutional biases, including reluctance to challenge prevailing narratives, compound detection delays, as seen in delayed retractions for ideologically charged fabrications across left-leaning mainstream and right-leaning alternative outlets.^[70]

Paranormal, Supernatural, or Cultural Hoaxes

Paranormal hoaxes fabricate evidence of supernatural entities or phenomena, such as spirits, fairies, or extraterrestrial visitations, often capitalizing on human predisposition toward wonder and the unfalsifiable nature of such claims, which resist empirical disproof despite eventual exposures through admissions or physical recreations.^[71] These deceptions exploit cultural vulnerabilities in belief systems, persisting via anecdotal reinforcement and selective interpretation of ambiguous data, even after debunking, as believers attribute revelations to cover-ups or spiritual trickery. The Fox sisters' spirit rapping exemplifies an early paranormal fraud that ignited the 19th-century Spiritualism movement. In March 1848, sisters Margaret (age 14) and Kate Fox (age 11) in Hydesville, New York, claimed mysterious knocking sounds in their home were communications from a deceased peddler, using coded raps to spell messages. The phenomenon drew thousands, spawning mediums who mimicked the raps via concealed devices or joint-cracking techniques. In 1888, Margaret publicly confessed the rappings as a hoax, demonstrating the method by producing sounds from her toe joints during a performance at New York City's Academy of Music, though she later recanted amid financial pressures from the movement she had helped build.^[71] Despite the admission, Spiritualism endured, with over 8 million adherents by 1897, illustrating how initial empirical gaps allow hoaxes to embed in cultural narratives resistant to retraction. The Cottingley Fairies photographs represent a visual paranormal deception that deceived intellectuals for decades. In 1917, British cousins Elsie Wright (16) and Frances Griffiths (10) staged five images near Cottingley Beck, Yorkshire, using cardboard cutouts from a 1915 fairy book, hatpins, and their family camera to depict dancing fairies and a gnome.^[64] The photos gained prominence after publication in The Strand Magazine in 1920, endorsed by author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who funded a second series in 1921 and interpreted them as genuine proof of fairy realms amid post-World War I spiritual yearning.^[72] Elsie admitted the fraud in a 1983 interview, confirming the props and staging, while Frances maintained ambiguity until her 1986 death; forensic analysis in 2024 of the original cameras affirmed the era's photographic techniques but highlighted manipulation inconsistencies.^[72] The hoax's longevity stemmed from confirmation bias among proponents, who dismissed skeptics' recreations as insufficiently "spiritual." Modern UFO hoaxes demonstrate the genre's adaptation to contemporary tech while relying on eyewitness credulity. On January 5, 2009, in Morristown, New Jersey, filmmakers Joe Rudy and Chris Russo launched helium balloons tethered with road flares via fishing line, creating five formations of hovering red lights observed by dozens and captured on video, prompting FAA inquiries and media frenzy.^[73] The duo repeated the stunt over four nights, fabricating witness statements and a backstory of extraterrestrial probes. They confessed on April 1, 2009, via a detailed online video, revealing the $50 setup and intent to test media gullibility; authorities charged them with disorderly conduct for endangering airspace.^[74] Physical evidence, including recovered balloon remnants and flare matches, corroborated the mechanics, underscoring how low-cost props mimic anomalous aerial behavior in low-light conditions, yet public discourse often lingers on unresolved "sightings" despite confessions.^[73] These cases reveal a pattern: hoaxes thrive on sensory ambiguity and communal validation, with debunkings via perpetrator admissions or artifact analysis exposing mechanical causation over supernatural agency, yet cultural persistence arises from psychological comfort in mystery over mundane explanations.^[71] Empirical scrutiny, prioritizing replicable tests over testimony, consistently favors fraud hypotheses where motives align with attention-seeking or ideological agendas.^[72]

Digital, Viral, and Technological Hoaxes

Digital hoaxes emerged prominently with the普及 of email in the 1990s, manifesting as chain letters and virus warnings that exploited users' fears of technology. The "Good Times" virus hoax, circulated via email in 1994, falsely asserted that opening messages with the subject "Good Times" would trigger a worm erasing hard drives and stealing data, prompting recipients to delete legitimate files or propagate the alert unnecessarily.^[75] Similar hoaxes, such as those claiming AOL4FREE or SandMan viruses, relied on urgent language to encourage forwarding, amplifying reach without actual malware.^[76] The advent of social media platforms accelerated hoax virality through algorithmic amplification of sensational content. Platforms like Facebook and Twitter (now X) prioritize posts eliciting high engagement—likes, shares, and comments—often favoring novel, emotion-stirring material over factual accuracy, as algorithms track user interactions to curate feeds.^[8] This mechanic creates feedback loops where hoaxes evoking outrage or fear spread faster than corrections, with bots and coordinated sharing exacerbating diffusion; studies show false news diffuses up to six times quicker than true information on these networks due to such dynamics.^[70] By the 2010s, viral hoaxes like fabricated celebrity deaths or health scares routinely amassed millions of shares before debunking. Technological advancements, particularly generative AI, have enabled hyper-realistic hoaxes since the early 2020s, including deepfake images and videos indistinguishable from reality without scrutiny. In March 2023, AI-generated photos depicting Pope Francis in a white Balenciaga-style puffer jacket proliferated across Reddit and Twitter, originating from Midjourney prompts and fooling millions into believing the pontiff had adopted avant-garde fashion, highlighting AI's capacity for visual deception.^[77] ^[78] In political contexts, deepfakes targeted 2024 elections; a January 2024 AI-synthesized robocall impersonating President Joe Biden discouraged Democratic voters from participating in the New Hampshire primary, reaching thousands via automated calls and sparking federal investigations.^[79] Despite alarms, analyses of over 78 election-related deepfakes revealed AI content comprised a minor share of misinformation, with organic falsehoods via text and memes dominating influence, though viral instances like these underscored risks to electoral integrity.^[37] Global surveys reflect heightened exposure concerns, with 85% of respondents worldwide expressing worry over misinformation's spread, correlating with documented surges in AI hoax encounters during high-stakes events.^[80]

Detection and Debunking Methods

Traditional Investigative Approaches

Physical examination of hoax artifacts focused on identifying material inconsistencies and signs of recent human intervention. Investigators scrutinized surfaces for tool marks, composition anomalies, and weathering patterns that contradicted claims of antiquity. In the 1869 Cardiff Giant hoax, where a 10-foot gypsum figure was presented as a petrified prehistoric man unearthed in upstate New York, paleontologist Othniel C. Marsh conducted a close inspection on November 24, 1869, noting fresh chisel marks and the figure's makeup of soluble gypsum, which erodes too quickly to preserve such details over millennia.^[81] ^[82] Geologists and anthropologists corroborated these findings, highlighting unnatural anatomical proportions and the absence of fossilization expected in genuine petrifactions.^[83] Source tracing and archival cross-referencing formed another cornerstone, involving verification of provenance through records, supply chains, and prior claims. For the Cardiff Giant, inquiries revealed that creator George Hull had commissioned a gypsum block from an Iowa quarry months earlier, with workers recalling the unusual order for a life-sized figure.^[83] This manual reconstruction of timelines exposed fabricated narratives by linking disparate documents and transactions, often revealing motive through financial or ideological inconsistencies. Eyewitness interrogation emphasized detecting contradictions in accounts, alibis, and behavioral cues under repeated questioning. Fact-checkers and skeptics interviewed multiple parties, probing for variances in details like discovery circumstances or handling procedures. In the Piltdown Man fraud, fragments purportedly found in 1912 near Piltdown, England, lingered until 1953, when archival review of finder Charles Dawson's prior unsubstantiated claims, combined with witness recollections of suspicious staining processes, supported exposure efforts.^[28] Chemical and microscopic analyses complemented these techniques, predating computational tools but relying on empirical lab work for causal validation. The Piltdown remains were definitively debunked via fluorine absorption tests showing disparate ages among skull and jaw elements—indicating modern assembly—alongside nitrogen assays confirming low collagen degradation inconsistent with Pleistocene antiquity, and binocular microscopy revealing filed tooth surfaces and artificial chromium-iron staining.^[28] ^[84] Such approaches, while labor-intensive and dependent on expert access, yielded robust debunkings by methodically dismantling the hoax's physical and testimonial foundations, prioritizing verifiable discrepancies over superficial plausibility.

Technological and Algorithmic Tools

Technological tools for hoax detection leverage machine learning algorithms to analyze content anomalies and propagation patterns with quantifiable accuracy metrics such as precision, recall, and F1-scores. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) excel in identifying visual artifacts in images and videos, including deepfakes, by detecting inconsistencies in facial landmarks, lighting, or pixel-level manipulations, achieving reported accuracies up to 98% in controlled benchmarks for universal detectors.^[85]^[86] Recurrent neural networks (RNNs), often combined with long short-term memory (LSTM) units, process sequential data like text or video frames to flag temporal irregularities, such as unnatural speech patterns in audio deepfakes.^[87] Transformers, including vision transformers (ViT) and multimodal variants, integrate text, image, and propagation data for hoax verification, fusing features via attention mechanisms to capture cross-modal inconsistencies, as demonstrated in models like SFANet that enhance robustness against evolving generation techniques.^[88]^[89] These architectures have shown improved F1-scores in multimodal fake news tasks by embedding visual and textual cues, such as mismatched semantic alignments between headlines and visuals.^[90] Network analysis employs graph-based methods to trace hoax propagation trails, modeling social media interactions as hierarchical or dynamic graphs to detect anomalous spread via centrality metrics and community structures.^[91] Graph neural networks (GNNs) identify bot-driven amplification or non-organic diffusion patterns, correlating propagation topology with hoax likelihood, as in studies revealing distinct macro-to-micro network signatures for fabricated content.^[92]^[93] Despite empirical gains, these tools face limitations including high false positive rates, where legitimate content triggers alerts due to stylistic variances, overwhelming detection pipelines and eroding reliability.^[94] Adversarial attacks further undermine efficacy, as perpetrators craft inputs—such as perturbed images or text—that evade models by exploiting training gaps, leading to misclassifications in real-time scenarios.^[95]^[96] Ongoing advancements, like robust training on diverse datasets, aim to mitigate these, but no model guarantees universal detection amid rapidly adapting hoax tactics.^[97]

Fact-Checking Organizations and Challenges

Fact-checking organizations emerged as dedicated entities in the late 20th and early 21st centuries to verify claims, particularly in response to urban legends and political misinformation. Snopes, established in 1994, initially focused on debunking internet rumors and hoaxes before expanding to broader fact verification. FactCheck.org, launched in 2003 by the Annenberg Public Policy Center, scrutinizes political advertisements, debates, and statements for factual accuracy. PolitiFact, started in 2007 by the Tampa Bay Times and affiliated with the Poynter Institute, employs a "Truth-O-Meter" scale to rate claims from politicians and public figures. These groups typically investigate claims through source review, expert consultation, and evidence gathering, publishing verdicts that influence public discourse.^[98] Empirical assessments indicate substantial agreement among fact-checkers on claim validity, with studies finding consistency across organizations like Snopes and PolitiFact in evaluating the same statements, suggesting a baseline reliability in methodological application. For instance, analyses of overlapping checks reveal high concordance rates, implying that when multiple entities review identical content, discrepancies are infrequent. However, such agreement does not preclude systemic issues; critiques highlight potential selection biases, where organizations disproportionately target claims from certain ideological perspectives, often those opposing progressive narratives, as evidenced by disproportionate fact-checks on conservative figures in politicized environments. Media Bias/Fact Check evaluations assign PolitiFact a left-center bias rating, attributing this to editorial choices in story selection and framing that align more frequently with left-leaning viewpoints.^[99]^[99]^[100] Challenges in fact-checking include the tension between operational speed and verification rigor in the digital era, where viral claims demand rapid responses to curb spread, yet hasty assessments risk inaccuracies that propagate further misinformation. Automated tools and AI-assisted checks exacerbate this, as rigid binary true/false frameworks overlook contextual nuances in complex claims. Confirmation bias among human fact-checkers poses another hurdle, with reviewers susceptible to favoring evidence that reinforces preexisting worldview alignments, potentially skewing verdicts; systematic reviews identify over 39 such cognitive biases affecting the process, from anchoring on initial impressions to motivated reasoning.^[101]^[102]^[103] Notable failures underscore these vulnerabilities, particularly delayed retractions in cases involving politicized claims, where initial erroneous verdicts persist due to institutional reluctance or oversight, eroding trust even as corrections eventually enhance belief accuracy among informed audiences. Such delays often stem from entrenched narratives within fact-checking ecosystems, which mirror broader left-leaning institutional biases in media and academia, leading to slower acknowledgment of errors that challenge dominant ideologies. These issues highlight the need for transparent methodologies and independent audits to bolster credibility, as over-citation of fact-checker outputs without scrutiny can inadvertently amplify flawed determinations.^[104]^[104]

Societal Impacts and Consequences

Psychological and Cognitive Effects

Hoaxes exploit cognitive biases that facilitate rapid acceptance of false information, such as the availability heuristic, where emotionally charged or novel details dominate judgment over probabilistic reasoning.^[105] This leads individuals to anchor initial beliefs on misleading cues, bypassing deliberate scrutiny, particularly under conditions of uncertainty or stress. Empirical studies on misinformation susceptibility, akin to hoaxes, identify overconfidence and emotional appeals as amplifiers, with participants showing heightened endorsement of fabricated claims when aligned with preexisting motivations.^[106]^[107] The 1938 War of the Worlds radio broadcast exemplifies short-term psychological disruption, triggering panic in an estimated 6% of listeners who mistook the fictional Martian invasion for reality, manifesting in behaviors like evacuating homes or overloading switchboards with calls.^[108] Hadley Cantril's contemporaneous analysis attributed this to individual traits including suggestibility, low critical faculties, and latent anxieties about war or catastrophe, rather than uniform mass hysteria.^[109] Affected individuals reported acute fear, confusion, and disrupted sleep, with physiological responses akin to threat detection in fight-or-flight activation.^[110] Controlled experiments replicate such vulnerability, demonstrating that brief exposure to hoax-like falsehoods—under five minutes—can induce measurable shifts in implicit attitudes and behaviors, as participants unconsciously aligned actions with debunked narratives.^[111] Susceptibility correlates with traits like anxiety proneness and Barnum-effect endorsement, where vague or personalized claims gain undue credibility.^[112] Over time, hoax-induced misinformation persists via the continued influence effect, wherein retracted falsehoods retain sway in reasoning and memory reconstruction, even post-correction.^[113] Repeated encounters may invoke the illusory truth effect, elevating perceived accuracy of repeated lies through familiarity, entrenching cognitive distortions.^[114] While some individuals cultivate adaptive skepticism from debunking experiences, others exhibit reduced discrimination between true and false claims, reflecting cognitive fatigue rather than desensitization per se.^[115]^[105]

Erosion of Public Trust and Media Credibility

Repeated exposure to hoaxes and misinformation has contributed to a measurable decline in public confidence in media institutions, with U.S. trust in mass media reaching a record low of 28% in 2025, down from a peak of 55% in 1998-1999.^[116] This erosion accelerated following high-profile hoax waves around the 2016 and 2020 U.S. elections, where misinformation campaigns proliferated across platforms, fostering widespread skepticism toward journalistic reporting.^[117] Gallup data indicate that 70% of Americans now report little to no confidence in media accuracy and fairness, reflecting a normalization of doubt that diminishes the perceived reliability of news outlets.^[116] Causal mechanisms involve cumulative disillusionment from debunked stories, where initial trust breaches compound over time, leading audiences to question even verified reporting; studies show fake news exposure correlates with a 5% drop in media trust during election periods, independent of partisan alignment.^[117] ^[118] This skepticism affects journalism's operational viability, as evidenced by stagnating digital subscriptions and falling engagement with traditional outlets, with global news trust holding at 40% amid shifts to social media aggregators.^[119] Hoaxes originating from diverse ideological sources—left, right, and non-partisan—equally undermine credibility, as partisan defenses of "own-side" fabrications further polarize perceptions without restoring overall faith.^[118] The resultant trust deficit hampers media's role in public discourse, prompting audiences to favor personalized or algorithmic feeds over institutional journalism, which in turn amplifies hoax propagation cycles.^[120] While some demographics, such as older adults, retain marginally higher trust (43% among those 65+ from 2023-2025), the broader trend signals a systemic challenge to media sustainability absent reforms in verification and transparency.^[116]

Broader Cultural and Political Ramifications

Hoaxes contribute to heightened political polarization by reinforcing partisan echo chambers and amplifying divergent interpretations of events. During the 2020 U.S. presidential election, false narratives of electoral fraud—disseminated through social media and partisan outlets—deepened divisions, with surveys indicating that 75% of Republicans believed the election was stolen despite judicial rejections in over 60 cases. Similarly, disinformation campaigns around international elections, such as those in 2024, have leveraged AI-generated content to fabricate candidate statements, exacerbating ideological rifts across ideological lines.^[121] Empirical analyses show that exposure to such hoaxes triggers asymmetric responses, where conservatives respond to perceived threats by sharing more verifiable falsehoods, while both sides exhibit vulnerability tied to partisanship rather than one-sided culpability.^[122] Culturally, recurrent hoaxes foster widespread cynicism toward democratic processes and institutions, eroding interpersonal and systemic trust. Research links pre-election disinformation exposure to increased political cynicism, with individuals perceiving manipulation becoming less engaged and more skeptical of outcomes. This shift manifests in declining institutional confidence, as documented by longitudinal data showing U.S. trust in government falling to 20% by 2024, partly attributable to hoax-fueled narratives questioning legitimacy. Bidirectional examples illustrate this: left-leaning hoaxes, such as fabricated anti-Trump stories in 2017, mirrored right-leaning election denialism, both sustaining division through selective outrage rather than isolated ideological failure. On policy fronts, hoaxes undermine public adherence to evidence-based measures, as seen in COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy, where misinformation conflating origin debates with conspiracies reduced uptake by 10-20% in affected demographics.^[125] Studies attribute this to hoax propagation eroding faith in health authorities, with false claims about lab origins—initially dismissed by outlets with institutional ties—amplifying broader distrust in scientific consensus.^[126] Mainstream media's role, often critiqued for ideological filtering that sustains rather than uniformly exposes hoaxes, compounds these effects; competitive pressures incentivize sensationalism, prioritizing audience retention over verification.^[127] Consequently, societies experience policy gridlock, as hoax-induced skepticism hampers collective responses to crises like pandemics or security threats.

Legal and Ethical Dimensions

Prosecution and Legal Precedents

In the United States, prosecutions for hoaxes are uncommon unless they involve financial gain, public safety risks, or specific statutory violations, as pure deceptions without tangible harm often fall outside criminal purview.^[128] Fraud statutes, such as those under 18 U.S.C. § 1341 (mail fraud) or § 1343 (wire fraud), have been applied to hoaxes designed for monetary profit, but historical cases like the 1869 Cardiff Giant—where promoters exhibited a carved gypsum statue as a petrified ancient man—resulted primarily in civil disputes rather than criminal fines or imprisonment for the exhibitors.^[129] When hoaxes trigger emergency responses, such as bomb scares or false explosion reports, federal law under 18 U.S.C. § 1038 criminalizes conveying false information about threats to human life or property, with penalties up to five years imprisonment even absent financial motive.^[128] ^[130] For instance, in January 2025, a former Northeastern University employee received a prison sentence for staging a hoax explosion and making false statements to investigators, convicted under statutes prohibiting misleading information about explosives.^[131] Similarly, in October 2024, a New York resident was sentenced to three years for a bomb threat hoax targeting Amtrak, prosecuted for conveying false information concerning explosives.^[132] Internationally, legal responses emphasize civil remedies post-exposure, particularly defamation suits against hoax perpetrators whose fabrications damage reputations. In the United Kingdom, while criminal prosecutions for hoaxes are rare without accompanying offenses like public nuisance, affected parties have pursued libel claims; for example, high-profile figures have initiated actions against individuals spreading fabricated stories that undermine credibility, as seen in ongoing cases involving alleged decades-long online defamation campaigns.^[133] In the U.S., defamation precedents against hoax promoters include massive judgments against media figures promoting unfounded conspiracy hoaxes, such as the over $1 billion in damages awarded to Sandy Hook victims' families against Alex Jones for falsely claiming the 2012 shooting was staged, upheld through multiple trials and appeals as of 2025.^[134] ^[135] Recent trends reflect heightened scrutiny of digital hoaxes, particularly deepfakes, with U.S. states enacting targeted laws amid concerns over electoral interference. As of 2025, Pennsylvania's digital forgery statute classifies AI-generated fake content used for fraud as a third-degree felony, enabling prosecutions for deceptive media mimicking individuals.^[136] Washington State's 2025 deepfake law imposes misdemeanor penalties for non-consensual synthetic media, including fines up to $10,000, while over a dozen states have passed or proposed election-specific deepfake regulations requiring disclosures or prohibiting manipulative content within election periods.^[137] ^[138] Federally, the 2025 TAKE IT DOWN Act provides mechanisms to address harmful deepfakes, signaling a shift toward stricter penalties for technology-enabled hoaxes that could sway public processes like voting, though prosecutions remain focused on demonstrable harm rather than intent alone.^[139]

Ethical Considerations in Hoax Perpetration and Reporting

Perpetrators of hoaxes face ethical scrutiny over the morality of intentional deception, weighed against potential benefits in revealing systemic flaws or credulity. In cases like physicist Alan Sokal's submission of a nonsensical article to Social Text in 1996, the act exposed lax peer-review standards in certain academic fields, serving a public purpose by drawing attention to declining intellectual rigor without causing tangible harm beyond embarrassment to editors.^[50] Proponents argue such hoaxes can justify limited deception when they catalyze self-correction in institutions prone to uncritical acceptance of ideologically aligned but unsubstantiated claims, prioritizing long-term epistemic gains over short-term dishonesty.^[140] However, critics contend that even well-intentioned hoaxes undermine trust in discourse and risk normalizing fabrication, potentially eroding norms of honesty essential for reliable knowledge production.^[141] The ethical tension intensifies when hoaxes inflict broader harm, such as inciting public fear or diverting resources, though intellectual hoaxes like Sokal's typically limit damage to reputational costs for targets, contrasting with pranks causing panic or violence. Causal analysis favors evaluating outcomes: if a hoax demonstrably prompts verifiable improvements in scrutiny without disproportionate fallout, it may align with utilitarian ethics emphasizing net truth advancement over deontological prohibitions on lying. Yet, inherent risks persist, as deception can entrench skepticism toward genuine claims, complicating discernment in polarized environments. In reporting hoaxes, media outlets bear a duty to verify claims prior to publication to prevent amplification of falsehoods, as enshrined in journalistic codes mandating rigorous fact-checking and sourcing transparency. Failure to do so, through sensational coverage without caveats, can prolong misinformation's lifespan, prioritizing audience engagement over accuracy and thereby eroding institutional credibility. Ethical guidelines stress minimizing harm by contextualizing unverified stories and promptly correcting errors, avoiding the temptation to exploit hoaxes for clicks at the expense of public understanding.^[142] Transparency in hoax disclosure remains paramount, particularly when hoaxes challenge entrenched norms, as suppressing or downplaying such revelations to protect sensitivities contravenes truth-seeking imperatives and fosters echo chambers. Institutions exhibiting bias toward narrative conformity may reflexively discredit exposing hoaxes, but ethical reporting demands impartial examination of their implications, recognizing that inconvenient exposures often yield the most robust correctives to flawed paradigms.^[143] Prioritizing causal realism over ideological comfort ensures hoaxes serve as diagnostic tools rather than dismissed anomalies, safeguarding discourse integrity against selective censorship.

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The spreading of misinformation online - PNAS
In 2011 a blogger claimed that global warming was a fraud designed to diminish liberty and weaken democracy (7). ... GR Kelly, Echo chambers online?: Politically ...Missing: retraction hoax
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The Fox Sisters and the Rap on Spiritualism - Smithsonian Magazine
Oct 30, 2012 · ... hoax. The Fox sisters' home, Hydesville, New York. From “Hudson Valley Halloween Magazine.” The idea that one could communicate with spirits ...<|separator|>
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Cottingley Fairies: Cameras behind famous hoax pictures analysed
Jul 26, 2024 · However, in an 1983 interview Elsie confessed the images were a hoax and that the fairies had been created from paper cut-outs and hatpins.
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Remembering the Morristown UFO Hoax of 2009 - NJ 101.5
Jan 6, 2022 · The mystery was solved on April 1, 2009, when the UFOs were revealed to have been a hoax: the "UFOs" were flares tied to helium balloons attached to fishing ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
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The Great UFO Hoax of 2009 - Newsweek
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Computer Virus Hoaxes - rbs2.com
2. Examples of Hoaxes. A typical hoax in the 1990s warned the recipient that reading an e-mail with the specified subject line would infect their computers ...Missing: digital | Show results with:digital
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Virus Hoaxes of the Early Internet | Nostalgia Nerd - YouTube
Sep 13, 2020 · ... Virus AOL4FREE SandMan A.I.D.S. Bill Gates Prize Chain Video Links Support Support my channel, get exclusive videos & perks, as ...Missing: examples 1990s
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Fake photos of Pope Francis in a puffer jacket go viral, highlighting ...
Mar 28, 2023 · Fake photos generated by artificial intelligence software appear to show Pope Francis walking outside the Vatican in a designer coat, which he never did.Missing: hoax | Show results with:hoax
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AI-generated images of Pope Francis in puffer jacket fool the internet
Mar 27, 2023 · But the pictures of him in a white puffer jacket are actually fake. The AI-generated images of Francis appeared to originate on a subreddit ...Missing: hoax | Show results with:hoax
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Deepfakes in the 2024 US Presidential Election - Hany Farid
content: To raise awareness of the potential danger of deepfakes, the Arizona Agenda created a deepfake of Senate candidate Kari Lake. The deepfake Lake is made ...Missing: 2020-2024 | Show results with:2020-2024
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Misinformation really does spread like a virus, suggest mathematical ...
Nov 5, 2024 · Concerns about misinformation are widely held, with a recent UN survey suggesting that 85% of people worldwide are worried about it. These ...
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Cardiff Giant Hoax of 1869 in Cardiff, New York - geriwalton.com
Feb 24, 2020 · There were reports that the giant was fake by geologists, anthropologists, and paleontologists; Hull's confession was plastered in newspapers ...Missing: methods | Show results with:methods
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The Cardiff Giant: Archaeology's biggest hoax - Hektoen International
Jun 5, 2025 · George Hull, a tobacco salesman from New York, confessed to the media on December 10, 1869, that the giant was a hoax.4 He would later say his ...Missing: debunking | Show results with:debunking
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The Cardiff Giant (1869) - The Museum of Hoaxes
... tool marks near worn surfaces. The Iowa rail crew remembered quarrying the gypsum block for Hull. THE END. Hull finally sold his giant to a carnival. He was ...
[84]
The Piltdown Hoax - jstor
(1953) proving that Piltdown is a fake may be briefly summarized as follows. The teeth have been artificially planed down. Under a binocular microscope fine.
[85]
The Deepfake Detector You've Never Heard Of That's 98% Accurate
beating open-source ...
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Deepfake Detection Breakthrough: Universal Detector Achieves 98 ...
Oct 7, 2025 · Deepfake detection hits 98% accuracy with a universal detector. Discover how this breakthrough helps businesses protect trust and security.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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Comprehensive Evaluation of Deepfake Detection Models: Accuracy ...
CNNs excel at learning complex spatial and temporal features, making them highly effective for capturing subtle artifacts introduced by deepfake generation ...<|separator|>
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SFANet: Spatial-Frequency Attention Network for Deepfake Detection
Oct 6, 2025 · The Vision Transformer (ViT) combined with traditional machine learning classifiers enhances the robustness of deepfake detection. ... accuracy ...
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Pretrained transformers for multimodal fake news detection ...
In this study, we propose two enhanced models for fake news detection. First, we present a multimodal framework that leverages Vision Transformer embeddings for ...Missing: hoax | Show results with:hoax
[90]
Multi-modal transformer for fake news detection - PubMed
Jul 6, 2023 · Specifically, we extract text and image features by different transformers and fuse features by attention mechanisms. In addition, we utilize ...Missing: hoax | Show results with:hoax
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Hierarchical Propagation Networks for Fake News Detection
In an attempt to understand the correlations between news propagation networks and fake news, first, we build a hierarchical propagation network from macro- ...Missing: hoax | Show results with:hoax
[92]
Analysis of Fake News Detection using Graph Neural Network (GNN ...
Abstract: The rise of fake news in social networks has become a significant concern, necessitating innovative strategies to combat misinformation.Missing: hoax | Show results with:hoax
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View of Hierarchical Propagation Networks for Fake News Detection
Hierarchical Propagation Networks for Fake News Detection: Investigation and Exploitation ...Missing: hoax | Show results with:hoax
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The Problem with False Positives: AI Detection Unfairly Accuses ...
Dec 12, 2024 · This paper looks into how AI detection tools, which are meant to keep academic integrity intact, may backre by unfairly accusing scholars of AI plagiarism.
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Top 7 AI Security Risks - Sysdig
For instance, AI systems used to detect anomalies may themselves become targets for adversaries seeking to manipulate outputs or introduce false positives.
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[PDF] Risks and Mitigation Strategies for Adversarial Artificial Intelligence ...
Jun 15, 2023 · attackers can craft inputs (text or audio, respectively) that appear benign to humans but are designed to trigger false positives or negatives ...Missing: hoax | Show results with:hoax<|control11|><|separator|>
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“Fact-checking” fact checkers: A data-driven approach
Oct 26, 2023 · This suggests that fact checkers have primarily concentrated on scrutinizing dubious claims, leading to an abundance of fake claims being fact- ...Missing: 2010-2025 | Show results with:2010-2025
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True: Fact checkers tend to agree on validity of news claims ...
Dec 18, 2023 · Fact-checking organizations like Snopes and Politifact have generally agreed on the validity of news claims, according to researchers from ...
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Media Bias and Fact Checking News Sources - Pace University
Jul 28, 2025 · Even typically reliable sources, whether mainstream or alternative, corporate or nonprofit, rely on particular media frames to report ...
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Countering Disinformation Effectively: An Evidence-Based Policy ...
Jan 31, 2024 · There is significant evidence that media literacy training can help people identify false stories and unreliable news sources. However, ...Summary · Overall Findings · Case Study Summaries<|control11|><|separator|>
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Challenges of Automating Fact-Checking: A Technographic Case ...
Sep 17, 2024 · Key obstacles included the elusive nature of truth claims, the rigidity of so-called binary epistemology (ascribing true/false values to ...
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Cognitive Biases in Fact-Checking and Their Countermeasures
We identify 39 cognitive biases that may compromise the fact-checking process. Through a systematic review, we highlight key categories of cognitive biases ...
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Media Retractions Increase Belief Accuracy But Decrease Trust
Effects of Journalistic Fact-Checking on Factual Beliefs and ... In this study, we investigate Swedish citizens' attitudes toward errors and corrections.
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The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance ...
Jan 12, 2022 · Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. ... Lee, N. M. Fake news, phishing, and fraud: a call for research on ...
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Review The Psychology of Fake News - ScienceDirect.com
For example, attributing a false claim to President Trump increased Trump supporters' belief in the claim while reducing Democrats' belief in the claim [57].
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Psychological factors contributing to the creation and dissemination ...
Nov 18, 2024 · Cognitive biases, emotional appeals, and social identity motivations are believed to play a crucial role in shaping user behaviour on social media.
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The invasion from Mars : a study in the psychology of panic
The invasion from Mars : a study in the psychology of panic · H. Cantril · Published 1 February 1941 · Psychology.Missing: impact studies
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“Jitterbugs” and “Crack-pots” | National Archives
Nov 16, 2022 · One week after the broadcast, Hadley Cantril, a Princeton University psychologist, began a study of the panic caused by the broadcast. Over a ...
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Radio and the Intelligent Listener: The War of the Worlds Panic
The “War of the Worlds” panic of 1938 appeared to offer direct evidence of the susceptibility of Americans to irrational behavior under the influence of radio, ...
[111]
Would you notice if fake news changed your behavior? An ...
It was found that even short (under 5-min) exposure to fake news was able to significantly modify the unconscious behavior of individuals.
[112]
Who falls for fake news? Psychological and clinical profiling ...
Specifically, they displayed higher levels of anxiety and committed more cognitive biases based on suggestibility and the Barnum Effect. No significant effects ...
[113]
(PDF) Misinformation and Its Correction Continued Influence and ...
Aug 6, 2025 · We look at people's memory for misinformation and answer the questions of why retractions of misinformation are so ineffective in memory ...
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Prior Exposure Increases Perceived Accuracy of Fake News
The underlying logic is that higher engagement correlates with a greater chance that the attack has succeeded in influencing perceptions, opinions, or behavior.
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Correcting fake news headlines after repeated exposure
Aug 26, 2024 · Repeated exposure to misinformation before corrections can negatively or positively affect memory for true details and the accuracy of beliefs ...Missing: desensitization | Show results with:desensitization
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Trust in Media at New Low of 28% in U.S. - Gallup News
Oct 2, 2025 · In the most recent three-year period, spanning 2023 to 2025, 43% of adults aged 65 and older trust the media, compared with no more than 28% in ...
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Misinformation in action: Fake news exposure is linked to lower trust ...
Jun 2, 2020 · Misinformation exposure during the one-month period around the 2018 election did predict a 5% decrease in media trust among our participants.
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“Fake News” Lowers Trust in Mainstream Media Across Party Lines ...
Jun 18, 2020 · A Rutgers-led study finds that online misinformation, or “fake news,” lowers people's trust in mainstream media across party lines.<|separator|>
[119]
Overview and key findings of the 2025 Digital News Report
Jun 17, 2025 · The World Economic Forum Global Risks Report (2025) identified misinformation and disinformation as the most pressing risks for the next two ...<|separator|>
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Digital News Report 2025 | Reuters Institute for the Study of ...
Jun 17, 2025 · We find traditional news media struggling to connect with much of the public, with declining engagement, low trust, and stagnating digital subscriptions.United States · Interactive · Local news: How publishers... · Country and market data
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Elections and Disinformation Are Colliding Like Never Before in 2024
Jan 11, 2024 · A wave of elections coincides with state influence operations, a surge of extremism, A.I. advances and a pullback in social media ...Missing: cynicism | Show results with:cynicism<|separator|>
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Study: Republicans Respond to Political Polarization by Spreading ...
Sep 12, 2024 · Our team finds that political polarization triggers Republicans, but not Democrats, to spread misinformation that is objectively false.Missing: hoaxes 2020s<|separator|>
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Misinformation May Breed Political Cynics | University of Arizona News
Oct 27, 2020 · The more people believe they are exposed to disinformation prior to an election, the more cynical they feel about politics when it's time to ...Missing: hoaxes division
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The rise of left-wing, anti-Trump fake news - BBC
Apr 15, 2017 · Since the US election presidential race, fact checking websites report what seems like an increase in anti-Trump, 'liberal fake news'.Missing: bidirectional | Show results with:bidirectional
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Misinformation and COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy - PMC
Nov 14, 2022 · Both misinformation and disinformation stem from the communication of false information, yet they differ in intent. Misinformation is false or ...
[126]
An epidemic of uncertainty: rumors, conspiracy theories and vaccine ...
Mar 10, 2022 · The vaccine misinformation landscape. Rumors and conspiracy theories around COVID-19 vaccines have undoubtedly been damaging. Research conducted ...
[127]
How media competition fuels the spread of misinformation - Science
Jun 18, 2025 · Competition among news sources over public opinion can incentivize them to resort to misinformation. Sharing misinformation may lead to a short-term gain in ...
[128]
18 U.S. Code § 1038 - False information and hoaxes
Whoever engages in any conduct with intent to convey false or misleading information under circumstances where such information may reasonably be believed.Missing: prosecuting financial
[129]
The Cardiff Giant, The Massive Stone Man That Fooled America
Feb 11, 2022 · The Hoax Triggered A Lawsuit When P.T. Barnum Created A Replica. When showman P.T. Barnum offered to buy the Cardiff Giant for $50,000 and ...
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Hoax Threats are Crimes — FBI
Oct 5, 2018 · Those who post or send these threats can receive up to five years in federal prison, or they can face state or local charges. With a thoughtless ...
[131]
Former Northeastern University Employee Sentenced for Staging a ...
Jan 14, 2025 · A former Northeastern University employee was sentenced yesterday in federal court in Boston for staging a hoax explosion and making false statements.Missing: alarms | Show results with:alarms
[132]
New York Native Sentenced to Three Years for Bomb Threat Hoax ...
Oct 25, 2024 · Grotez Simpson of New York City, New York, age 25, was sentenced to three years followed by three years of supervised release, for conveying false information.Missing: alarms | Show results with:alarms
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Morrissey launches legal action against alleged online fraudster, as ...
Apr 3, 2025 · Music Business Worldwide obtains letter from Morrissey's lawyers accusing alleged perpetrator of defamation and illegal conduct ... fraud, ...
[134]
Alex Jones told to pay $965m damages to Sandy Hook ... - BBC
Oct 13, 2022 · The families of eight victims, and an FBI agent who responded to the attack, had sought at least $550m in the defamation trial in Connecticut.
[135]
US Supreme Court rejects Alex Jones' appeal over £1bn Sandy ...
Oct 14, 2025 · ... hoax staged by actors. The Infowars host had argued that a judge was wrong to find him liable for defamation ... victims of the shooting ...<|separator|>
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Gov. Shapiro Signs New Digital Forgery Law
Jul 7, 2025 · Under the new law, prosecutors can now charge bad actors with a third-degree felony if they use AI-generated fake content to commit fraud or ...Missing: hoaxes | Show results with:hoaxes
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Forged Faces, Real Liability: Deepfake Laws Take Effect in ...
Aug 19, 2025 · The law, which goes into effect on September 5, 2025, classifies such conduct as a first-degree misdemeanor ($1,500 - $10,000 fine and/or up to ...Missing: hoaxes | Show results with:hoaxes
[138]
Tracker: State Legislation on Deepfakes in Elections - Public Citizen
State legislatures across the country are starting to pass urgently needed legislation to regulate deepfakes in elections, usually with bipartisan backing.Missing: hoaxes | Show results with:hoaxes
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Aug 12, 2025 · However, in May 2025, the TAKE IT DOWN Act was signed into law, marking the first U.S. federal law directly restricting harmful deepfakes.Missing: hoaxes | Show results with:hoaxes
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[PDF] The Ethics of Sokal-style Hoax Papers on Gender Studies
Repeat perpetrators of hegemonic academic bullying should be put on probation, censured, or removed from their academic posts, and departments that support ...Missing: affair | Show results with:affair
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The Sokal Affair in Context - Stephen Hilgartner, 1997 - Sage Journals
If Sokal's parody was favorably cited in future academic work, then the hoax would implicate not only the editorial collective of Social Text but also others.Missing: perpetrating | Show results with:perpetrating<|separator|>
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Journalism Ethics, Explained - NBCU Academy
Apr 16, 2025 · Make sure any mistakes are acknowledged and corrected. Tell the audience where your information came from and how it was verified. Never ...<|separator|>
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How to combat fake news and disinformation - Brookings Institution
Dec 18, 2017 · In the United States, there is a declining public trust in traditional journalism. The Gallup Poll asked a number of Americans over the past two ...