Muratorian fragment

The Muratorian Fragment is the earliest extant list of New Testament canonical books, dating to the late second century CE and preserved in a fragmentary Latin manuscript from the eighth century.^[1] It outlines accepted scriptures including the four Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, thirteen Pauline epistles, the epistles of Jude and John, and the Apocalypse of John, while noting disputes over texts like the Apocalypse of Peter and excluding works such as the Shepherd of Hermas.^[2] Discovered in 1700 (published in 1740) by Italian scholar Ludovico Antonio Muratori in an Ambrosian Library codex from the Bobbio monastery, the fragment consists of 85 lines beginning mid-sentence and likely translated from an original Greek composition.^[1] The fragment's content reflects early Christian efforts to define a scriptural canon amid diverse writings, emphasizing apostolic authorship and ecclesiastical usage as criteria for inclusion.^[1] It accepts the Wisdom of Solomon as suitable for reading in church but rejects forgeries attributed to Paul or heretics like Marcion and Valentinus, highlighting concerns over textual authenticity and orthodoxy.^[2] Notably, it references the Shepherd of Hermas as a recent Roman composition from the time of Bishop Pius I (c. 140–155 CE), underscoring its temporal proximity to the fragment's purported origin.^[3] Scholarly consensus places the fragment's composition around 170–200 CE in a Western, possibly Roman, context, though debates persist regarding its exact date, provenance, and authorship—candidates include figures like Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170–235 CE).^[1] Some researchers, such as Geoffrey Hahneman, propose a fourth-century Eastern origin based on linguistic and historical anomalies, but this view remains minority amid evidence favoring an early date.^[3] As a key witness to canon formation, the fragment illustrates the gradual solidification of New Testament boundaries before the fourth-century consolidations by councils like Hippo (393 CE) and Carthage (397 CE).^[2]

Discovery and Manuscript

Discovery

The Muratorian Fragment was discovered in 1700 by Ludovico Antonio Muratori (1672–1750), an Italian scholar, historian, and librarian serving as archivist at the Duchy of Modena, while examining manuscripts in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan.^[1] The fragment formed part of a larger codex, designated as Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Cod. I 101 sup., a 7th- or 8th-century volume of coarse parchment comprising 76 leaves, originally from the monastery of Bobbio Abbey in the Trebia River valley near Piacenza, Italy.^[1] This codex collects various early Christian theological texts, including works attributed to Ambrose of Milan, Eucherius of Lyons, and John Chrysostom, as well as five early creeds and a treatise on the Holy Trinity; the fragment itself appears on folios 10r–11v, embedded between Eucherius's Formulae (folios 1r–9v) and his Instructiones (folios 12r–19r). Muratori initially transcribed and edited the Latin text of the fragment, recognizing its potential historical value despite its fragmentary state, and included it in his comprehensive historical collection Antiquitates Italicae Medii Aevi (Milan: Typographia Societatis Palavicinae, 1740), volume 3, columns 805–880, under Dissertatio XLIII titled "De codice manuscripto Bibliothecae Ambrosianae, qui de novi foederis canonica scripta continet."^[1] In this publication, he provided the full transcription alongside commentary, interpreting it as an early catalog of scriptural books, though his analysis reflected the limited paleographical and textual scholarship of the era.^[1] The fragment's importance as a key witness to early Christian canonical traditions gained wider scholarly acknowledgment in the early 19th century, particularly through the work of German theologian Johann Leonhard Hug (1765–1846), who analyzed it in his Einleitung in die Schriften des Neuen Testaments (2nd ed., Tübingen: J.G. Cotta, 1819), volumes 1–2, emphasizing its role in tracing the development of New Testament book lists. This recognition marked a shift toward viewing the document not merely as a medieval curiosity but as a vital artifact for understanding second-century ecclesiastical history.^[2]

Physical Characteristics

The Muratorian Fragment survives in a single manuscript, Codex Ambrosianus I 101 sup., housed at the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, which originates from the library of Bobbio Abbey. This codex, composed of 76 leaves of coarse parchment, dates to the seventh or eighth century and contains the fragment on two folios (10r to 11r, up to line 23). The text spans 85 lines of Latin, arranged in a single column per page, and is fragmentary, commencing mid-sentence with a discussion of the Gospel of Luke while lacking both an introduction and a probable conclusion.^[1] The script employed is an uncial hand characteristic of Italian manuscripts from the seventh to eighth centuries, featuring some rubrication in red ink for emphasis, such as on the names of the Gospels of Luke and John (folio 10r, lines 2 and 9). The manuscript exhibits signs of wear, including damaged edges, lacunae from deterioration, and a generally poor condition attributable to age and handling, with the scribe's work described as careless and containing transcription errors, such as duplications. No title or explicit attribution to an author appears in the text itself, and punctuation is minimal, consisting primarily of basic points or spaces.^[1]^[4] Although the original composition was in Greek, the extant version represents a Latin translation exhibiting linguistic features of Vulgar Latin, such as simplified syntax and colloquial elements, which scholars date to the late fourth or early fifth century. This translation quality contributes to the "barbarous" style noted in the manuscript, reflecting a scribe possibly unfamiliar with classical norms.^[1]

Origin and Dating

Authorship Theories

The Muratorian Fragment is an anonymous document, as it contains no explicit indication of its author or compiler within the surviving text.^[1] Scholars have long recognized this anonymity due to the fragmentary condition of the manuscript, which lacks both an introduction and conclusion that might have provided such details.^[2] The absence of a named author has led to a range of hypotheses, but no consensus has emerged, with proposals spanning early church figures without definitive supporting evidence.^[1] Traditionally, the Fragment has been situated within the context of the Roman church, likely composed by a presbyter or bishop familiar with local traditions, as suggested by references to Roman ecclesiastical figures and practices.^[2] For instance, the text alludes to the bishopric of Pius I (c. 140–155 CE) in relation to the dating of the Shepherd of Hermas, implying an author embedded in Rome's Christian community.^[1] This Roman provenance is further evidenced by the document's Latin composition—possibly a translation from an original Greek—and its emphasis on churches addressed "in our times" in the city of Rome, pointing to a liturgical or catechetical intent within a Western ecclesiastical setting.^[2] One prominent theory links the authorship to Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170–235 CE), proposed by scholars such as J.B. Lightfoot, Theodor Zahn, and M.-J. Lagrange, based on stylistic similarities in polemical tone and theological emphases, such as the defense of apostolic origins for canonical books and rejection of works associated with heretics like the Marcionites.^[1] Proponents argued that Hippolytus's known writings, including his anti-heretical tracts, align with the Fragment's internal claims prioritizing texts "handed down" by apostles or their direct associates, while excluding forgeries by "heretics."^[2] However, modern scholarship has largely refuted this attribution, citing chronological inconsistencies—such as the Fragment's apparent ignorance of later developments in Hippolytus's era—and linguistic analyses showing no direct parallels.^[1] Instead, the document is often viewed as an anonymous church manual or homily designed for instructing new converts on acceptable scriptures, reflecting a communal rather than individual authorial voice.^[5] Other early theories have suggested figures like Gaius (a Roman presbyter c. 200 CE), Papias of Hierapolis, or Hegesippus, drawing on the Fragment's focus on apostolic authenticity and its Roman-centric worldview, but these remain speculative without corroborating external evidence.^[1] The text's intent appears instructional, emphasizing the provenance of books like the Gospels as derived from apostles (e.g., Luke as Paul's companion) while dismissing pseudepigrapha from heretical groups, underscoring a purpose tied to safeguarding orthodoxy in a Roman liturgical context.^[2]

Chronological Debates

The traditional dating of the Muratorian Fragment places its composition in the mid- to late 2nd century, approximately 170–200 AD.^[1] This view, supported by scholars such as B. F. Westcott (c. 170 AD) and George Salmon (c. 180 AD), relies on internal references to contemporary events and texts, including the Shepherd of Hermas described as written "very recently in our times" during the episcopate of Pius I, bishop of Rome who died around 155 AD.^[1] The fragment's canonical list also aligns closely with the fourfold Gospel structure and Pauline corpus outlined by Irenaeus of Lyons around 180 AD, suggesting a Roman context shortly after his time.^[1] Alternative proposals shift the date later, with some scholars advocating a 4th-century origin. Albert C. Sundberg and Geoffrey M. Hahneman have argued for a composition around 375 AD in an Eastern (Syrian or Palestinian) setting, citing the fragment's inclusion of the Wisdom of Solomon— a book more prominently accepted in Eastern lists like that of Epiphanius (c. 377 AD)—and interpreting the reference to the 2nd-century writer Miltiades as an anachronistic nod to Eusebius's post-303 AD chronology. More recently, Clare K. Rothschild has proposed a late antique dating, potentially as a 4th-century forgery, based on anachronistic theological emphases and linguistic features that do not align with 2nd-century Latin Christian usage; she expanded this in her 2023 monograph.^[1] Earlier suggestions for a 3rd-century date, such as those around 210 AD by Theodor Zahn, have largely been subsumed into the broader late 2nd-century consensus but highlight transitional debates.^[1] Key evidence supporting the early date includes the fragment's exclusion of texts emerging after the 2nd century, such as certain Montanist writings, and its silence on 3rd-century figures like Origen of Alexandria, whose extensive biblical commentaries would likely have been referenced in a later document.^[1] Linguistic analysis further bolsters this, revealing 2nd-century Greek idioms underlying the surviving Latin translation, including idiomatic expressions for apostolic authorship that predate 3rd-century developments.^[1] The acceptance of pre-Christian Jewish works like the Wisdom of Solomon reflects an early, fluid canonical stage consistent with 2nd-century Western Christianity.^[1] Recent scholarship has largely reaffirmed the 2nd-century dating through paleographic and contextual reevaluations. In a 2014 survey, Eckhard J. Schnabel reviewed the debates and concluded in favor of 170–180 AD, dismissing 4th-century arguments as reliant on speculative reinterpretations of the Pius I reference and Miltiades allusion.^[1] Similarly, critics like Joseph Verheyden and Christoph Markschies have upheld the traditional view, emphasizing the fragment's alignment with Irenaean canon formation over later Eastern influences.^[1] These analyses underscore ongoing tensions but reinforce the mid-2nd-century origin as the prevailing scholarly position.^[1]

Textual Content

Structure and Introduction

The Muratorian Fragment constitutes a fragmentary catalog of scriptural works embedded within a broader narrative framework, functioning as a church rule or ecclesiastical guideline that interweaves enumeration of accepted texts with exegetical and theological commentary. This hybrid form distinguishes it from mere lists, providing rationales for inclusion based on criteria such as apostolic authorship and communal usage. The document's overall architecture reflects a deliberate instructional purpose, akin to catechetical materials used in early Christian teaching settings.^[1] The extant text commences abruptly in medias res with a discussion of the Gospel according to Luke, underscoring a substantial initial lacuna estimated at 20 to 30 lines, which scholars reconstruct as likely encompassing an opening preamble and the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, directed toward a community audience to establish scriptural authority. The conclusion similarly trails off, with a gap of approximately 10 to 15 lines, rendering the full scope incomplete and prompting ongoing scholarly efforts to infer the original boundaries. This fragmentary state, preserved in 85 lines of Latin prose, highlights the document's partial survival while preserving its core intent as a guide to orthodox reading.^[6]^[7] Rhetorically, the Fragment employs a blend of cataloging and exposition, utilizing declarative phrases like "we receive only" to delineate canonical boundaries and underscore exclusivity in affirming texts tied to apostolic origins. Its sermonic tone—evident in exhortative language and symbolic allusions, such as metaphors of spiritual unity—conveys an anti-heretical posture, prioritizing works that align with established church tradition. References to "our" practices and the singular "sovereign Spirit" imply a communal orientation, positioning the document as a tool for collective edification rather than private study.^[1]^[7]

List of Canonical Books

The Muratorian Fragment enumerates a core collection of texts deemed authoritative for Christian communities, primarily focusing on New Testament writings while nodding to select Old Testament books. Due to damage at the beginning, the list commences amid discussion of the Gospel of Luke, with scholars reconstructing the preceding entries as the Gospels of Matthew and Mark based on contextual clues and early canonical patterns.^[7]^[1] The fragment affirms the four Gospels—Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—as foundational, justifying their inclusion through ties to apostolic figures: Matthew and John as direct apostles, Mark as Peter's interpreter, and Luke as Paul's companion, emphasizing their harmonious witness to Christ's life, passion, resurrection, and return.^[7]^[1] Following the Gospels, the fragment includes the Acts of the Apostles, attributed to Luke and valued for its historical account of the early church, though noted for its selectivity in omitting certain events like Peter's martyrdom.^[7] It then lists thirteen epistles ascribed to Paul, organized by recipient: two to the Corinthians, one each to the Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Galatians, Thessalonians (with a second to the same), and Romans for the seven primary churches; plus personal letters to Philemon, Titus, and two to Timothy.^[7]^[1] These are endorsed for their public reading in churches and role in fostering unity, with the fragment rejecting forgeries like the letters to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians as heretical inventions.^[7] Notably, the Epistle to the Hebrews is absent from this Pauline tally, possibly due to its anonymous authorship or regional acceptance variations in the Western church.^[1] Among the general epistles, the fragment accepts Jude and the two epistles of John (likely 1 and 2 John), citing their apostolic origins and communal utility without further elaboration.^[7]^[1] It also incorporates the Apocalypse of John as canonical, valuing its prophetic content, while extending provisional acceptance to the Apocalypse of Peter, though cautioning that not all churches permit its public reading due to debates over its authority.^[7] Regarding the Old Testament, the fragment implicitly endorses the Jewish scriptures as a whole, aligning them with apostolic writings as sources of doctrine, and explicitly includes the Wisdom of Solomon, attributed to the friends of Solomon rather than the king himself, as a text received in some traditions for its ethical guidance.^[7]^[1] This selective affirmation underscores criteria of apostolic provenance and widespread ecclesiastical use, distinguishing accepted works from later or pseudonymous ones.^[1]

Disputed and Rejected Works

The Muratorian Fragment explicitly rejects several texts on the grounds of their recent composition, non-apostolic origins, or associations with heresy, emphasizing the importance of apostolic authority and orthodoxy for inclusion in the church's public readings. Among the rejected works is the Shepherd of Hermas, described as having been written "very recently, in our times, in the city of Rome" during the episcopate of Pius I (c. 140–155 CE), making it post-apostolic and unsuitable for public recitation alongside the prophets or apostles, whose numbers are deemed complete.^[1] The fragment allows it for private reading but firmly excludes it from liturgical use, highlighting temporal recency as a key criterion for rejection.^[3] Heretical writings are categorically dismissed, including forged Pauline epistles to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians composed "to [further] the heresy of Marcion," as well as texts attributed to figures like Arsinous, Valentinus, Miltiades, Basilides, and the Cataphrygians (Montanists).^[1] These are rejected because they were "not wholly in the name of the apostles" and represent corruptions of doctrine, with the fragment warning against mixing "gall with honey" in the church's sacred corpus.^[3] Valentinian texts, in particular, are excluded due to their false claim of apostolic authorship, underscoring the fragment's insistence on genuine prophetic or apostolic provenance to avoid doctrinal contamination.^[1] The Apocalypse of Peter occupies a disputed status, with the fragment stating that it is received alongside John's Apocalypse, "though some of us are not willing that the latter be read in church."^[3] This distinction between private acceptance and public reading reflects a criterion of ecclesiastical consensus, where universal approval for liturgical use is required for full canonicity.^[1] Non-canonical gospels, such as that of Thomas, receive no mention or endorsement, implying their exclusion based on the same standards of apostolic origin and orthodoxy.^[3] Regarding the Wisdom of Solomon, the fragment notes its acceptance in the church but acknowledges dispute over its authorship, attributing it to "the friends of Solomon in his honour" rather than Solomon himself, with some groups rejecting it outright.^[1] This illustrates criteria of doctrinal alignment and communal agreement.^[3] Certain omissions, such as the epistles of 1 and 2 Peter (and James), are likely attributable to lacunae in the surviving manuscript rather than deliberate rejection, though scholarly debate persists given the small size of the ending gap, suggesting possible early fluidity in their acceptance as catholic epistles.^[1] Overall, these exclusions prioritize texts with verifiable apostolic ties, antiquity, and freedom from heresy, distinguishing between edifying private use and authoritative public proclamation in the church.^[3]

Historical Significance

Role in New Testament Canon

The Muratorian Fragment represents the earliest surviving list of New Testament books, traditionally dated to the late second century and thus predating the more comprehensive catalogs of Eusebius in the early fourth century and Athanasius in 367 CE.^[1] It outlines a core collection of approximately 22 books, including the four Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, 13 Pauline epistles, Jude, two Johannine epistles, and the Apocalypse of John, which formed the foundation of what would become the orthodox New Testament canon.^[3]^[2] This list demonstrates an early consensus within the Roman church on these foundational texts, reflecting a widespread acceptance that extended beyond local boundaries by the end of the second century.^[1]^[3] Its influence is evident in its parallels with earlier witnesses, such as Irenaeus around 180 CE, who similarly affirmed the fourfold Gospel structure and the authority of Pauline writings, suggesting a shared orthodox tradition across diverse Christian communities.^[3] The fragment provides the first explicit attestation of the fourfold Gospel canon—Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—as a unified collection, and it uniquely includes the Apocalypse of John among the canonical books, underscoring its role in establishing these elements as normative.^[1]^[3] Furthermore, it actively refutes Marcionite reductions of the canon by rejecting forged epistles, such as those to the Laodiceans, and emphasizing apostolic authenticity to counter heretical exclusions of Old Testament-linked texts.^[2]^[1] However, the fragment's fragmentary nature—surviving in only 85 lines with missing portions at the beginning and end—limits its full interpretive impact and prevents it from serving as a definitive or formal decree.^[1]^[3] Instead, it mirrors local liturgical and doctrinal practices in the Roman church rather than imposing a universal standard, though its criteria of apostolicity, orthodoxy, and catholicity influenced subsequent canon discussions amid second- to fourth-century heresies like Gnosticism and Montanism.^[1]

Scholarly Interpretations

Scholars have interpreted the Muratorian Fragment as serving an anti-heretical purpose, particularly in countering Gnostic influences by excluding writings associated with such groups and affirming a core set of texts aligned with emerging orthodox beliefs.^[8] This exclusion reinforced the perception of Gnostic texts as deviations from mainstream Christian practice, thereby safeguarding doctrinal integrity during a period of theological contestation.^[9] Additionally, the Fragment provides evidence for early catholicity in the canon formation process, illustrating a widespread acceptance of key New Testament books across churches by the late second century, which points to a developing sense of unified scriptural authority beyond local traditions.^[10] Theological analyses highlight the Fragment's emphasis on oral tradition and established church reading practices, as it specifies criteria for texts suitable for public recitation in worship, reflecting how communal liturgy shaped canonical boundaries.^[3] Debates persist on whether the document functions primarily as a bare list of accepted books or as a more interpretive commentary, with its explanatory notes on authorship and reception suggesting the latter, though some view these as secondary elaborations on a foundational catalog.^[1] In the nineteenth century, the Fragment exerted significant influence on scholars such as B. F. Westcott, who cited it as pivotal evidence for an early, fixed New Testament canon around 170 CE, shaping subsequent historical-critical studies of scriptural development.^[11] Recent scholarship has advanced textual criticism through Clare K. Rothschild's 2022 critical edition, which includes new transcriptions of the eighth-century manuscript and contextual analysis, challenging assumptions about its transmission while proposing it may represent a late antique fabrication to retroject second-century canonical norms.^[12] Eckhard J. Schnabel's 2014 review critiques late-dating theories, defending a second-century origin based on linguistic and historical correspondences, though minority views, including those expressed by Lee Martin McDonald in 2024, persist.^[1] Current consensus favors a second-century Greek original translated into fourth-century Latin, underscoring the Fragment's authenticity as the earliest extant canonical witness despite ongoing dissent.^[13]