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Thymidine

Thymidine, also known as deoxythymidine, is a pyrimidine 2'-deoxyribonucleoside composed of the nucleobase thymine glycosidically bonded to a 2'-deoxy-β-D-ribofuranose sugar molecule.^[1] It functions as a fundamental building block of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), where it is incorporated during replication as the triphosphate form (dTTP) and base-pairs with adenine through two hydrogen bonds to maintain the double helix structure.^[1] With the molecular formula C₁₀H₁₄N₂O₅ and a molecular weight of 242.23 g/mol, thymidine is an endogenous metabolite essential for DNA synthesis and cell proliferation.^[1] In biological systems, thymidine plays a critical role in nucleotide metabolism, primarily entering cells via equilibrative (ENT1, ENT2) and concentrative (CNT1, CNT3) nucleoside transporters.^[2] It is phosphorylated by thymidine kinase 1 (TK1) during the S phase of the cell cycle to form dTMP, which is further converted to dTTP for DNA incorporation, serving as a key marker of proliferative activity.^[2] Biosynthesis occurs mainly through the de novo pathway, where thymidylate synthase catalyzes the methylation of deoxyuridine monophosphate (dUMP) to deoxythymidine monophosphate (dTMP) using 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate as a cofactor, or via the salvage pathway that recycles free thymidine.^[3] Beyond its structural role in DNA, thymidine has significant applications in research and medicine; for instance, tritiated thymidine ([³H]thymidine) is widely used to quantify DNA synthesis rates in cell proliferation assays.^[2] Fluorinated analogs like 3'-deoxy-3'-[¹⁸F]fluorothymidine ([¹⁸F]FLT) enable positron emission tomography (PET) imaging to assess tumor proliferation by correlating with thymidine kinase activity and Ki-67 expression.^[2] Additionally, thymidine, often in combination with deoxycytidine, has orphan drug designation for treating mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome due to thymidine kinase 2 (TK2) deficiency, where it rescues nucleotide imbalances by supporting the salvage pathway; on November 3, 2025, the U.S. FDA approved KYGEVVI (doxecitine and doxribtimine), the first therapy for TK2 deficiency.^[4]^[5] High doses can also potentiate the efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents like 5-fluorouracil by enhancing pyrimidine pools.^[2]

Chemical Identity

Molecular Structure

Thymidine, also known as 2'-deoxythymidine, is a nucleoside composed of the pyrimidine base thymine linked to a 2'-deoxyribose sugar moiety via a β-glycosidic bond between the N1 atom of thymine and the C1' atom of the sugar.^[1] The molecular formula of thymidine is C₁₀H₁₄N₂O₅, reflecting its atomic composition of 10 carbon, 14 hydrogen, 2 nitrogen, and 5 oxygen atoms.^[1] Thymine itself is a six-membered pyrimidine ring with carbonyl groups at positions 2 and 4, a methyl substituent at position 5, and the glycosidic attachment at N1.^[1] The sugar component is 2'-deoxy-D-ribose in its furanose form, a five-membered ring (tetrahydrofuran) with the oxygen between C1' and C4', lacking a hydroxyl group at C2' but bearing free hydroxyl groups at C3' and C5' (the latter as part of a hydroxymethyl group).^[1] This deoxyribose adopts the β-D configuration at the anomeric C1', with defined stereochemistry at the chiral centers C1', C3', and C4': (2R,4S,5R) in the standard IUPAC numbering of the sugar ring, ensuring the standard orientation found in DNA nucleosides.^[6] In contrast to the RNA nucleoside uridine, which features uracil (lacking the C5 methyl group) attached to ribose (with a 2'-OH), thymidine's structure incorporates the 5-methyl modification on the base and the 2'-deoxygenation, adapting it specifically for DNA.^[7]^[1]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Thymidine is a white crystalline powder at room temperature, appearing as a solid, odorless substance.^[1]^[8] Its molecular weight is 242.23 g/mol, reflecting the combined mass of the thymine base and deoxyribose sugar moieties.^[1] Thymidine exhibits moderate solubility in polar solvents, dissolving at approximately 50 mg/mL in water at ambient conditions, with higher solubility in hot water (up to 1 g/10 mL); it is also soluble in ethanol (particularly when hot), methanol, and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), but insoluble in non-polar solvents such as ether and chloroform.^[8]^[9] The compound melts at 186–188 °C, indicating thermal stability up to this range under standard conditions.^[8]^[1] Thymidine demonstrates optical activity due to its chiral centers in the deoxyribose ring, with a specific rotation of [α]²⁵_D = +18 ± 0.5° (c = 1 in water), characteristic of the natural β-D configuration.^[1]^[10] It remains stable in neutral aqueous solutions, where a 1% solution maintains integrity for at least 24 hours at room temperature as assessed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).^[1] However, under acidic or basic extremes, thymidine undergoes hydrolysis, cleaving the glycosidic bond to yield thymine and 2-deoxyribose, with uncatalyzed rates increasing at low pH or high pH.^[11] The pKa of the thymine base in thymidine is approximately 9.8, corresponding to deprotonation at the N3 position, which influences its ionization behavior in physiological contexts.^[12]^[13]

Biological Synthesis and Metabolism

Biosynthetic Pathway

Thymidine nucleotides are primarily synthesized through two main pathways in cells: the de novo pathway and the salvage pathway. The de novo synthesis begins with the formation of deoxythymidine monophosphate (dTMP) from deoxyuridine monophosphate (dUMP), catalyzed by the enzyme thymidylate synthase (TYMS). This reaction utilizes 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate (CH₂-THF) as the methyl donor, transferring a methylene group to dUMP and reducing it to form dTMP, while producing dihydrofolate (DHF) as a byproduct.^[14] The key enzymatic step can be represented as:

\ce{dUMP + CH2-THF -> dTMP + DHF}

This process is essential for generating thymidine nucleotides independently of exogenous sources, ensuring dTMP availability for subsequent phosphorylation to deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP), a critical DNA precursor. The DHF produced is recycled back to tetrahydrofolate (THF) by dihydrofolate reductase, maintaining the folate cycle.^[14] In the salvage pathway, free thymidine is recycled and phosphorylated to dTMP by thymidine kinases, specifically TK1 in the cytosol and TK2 in the mitochondria, using ATP as the phosphate donor. This pathway allows cells to reutilize exogenous or degraded thymidine, providing an efficient alternative to de novo synthesis, particularly under conditions of high nucleotide demand. TK1 predominates in rapidly dividing cells, where its expression is upregulated during the S phase of the cell cycle to support increased DNA synthesis.^[15]^[16] Regulation of these pathways maintains balanced dTTP pools. TK1 activity is feedback-inhibited by dTTP, preventing overproduction of thymidine nucleotides when levels are sufficient. Conversely, the salvage pathway via TK1 is induced in proliferating cells to rapidly replenish dTMP. Thymidine itself is primarily produced intracellularly, but dietary sources can contribute via absorption across cell membranes mediated by equilibrative and concentrative nucleoside transporters, such as ENT1 and CNT family members in intestinal epithelia.^[17]^[16]

Metabolic Degradation

Thymidine is released during the degradation of DNA in cellular turnover processes, where endonucleases and phosphodiesterases cleave the phosphodiester backbone of DNA, followed by the action of nucleotidases that convert deoxythymidine monophosphate to free thymidine.^[18] Once released, thymidine undergoes catabolism primarily through the action of thymidine phosphorylase (TP, also known as TYMP), a cytosolic enzyme that catalyzes the reversible phosphorolytic cleavage of thymidine into thymine and 2-deoxy-D-ribose-1-phosphate.^[19] This step represents the rate-limiting initiation of thymidine degradation in mammalian cells and is crucial for regulating intracellular nucleoside pools. The resulting thymine is further metabolized via the reductive pyrimidine catabolic pathway, which is shared with uracil degradation. The first step involves reduction by dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPD) to form 5,6-dihydrothymine, followed by hydrolysis by dihydropyrimidinase to N-carbamoyl-β-aminoisobutyrate, and finally deamination by β-ureidopropionase to yield β-aminoisobutyrate (β-AIB), carbon dioxide, and ammonia.^[20] β-AIB serves as a key end product and is excreted primarily in the urine as a non-proteinogenic amino acid metabolite.^[21] Urinary β-AIB levels are elevated in conditions associated with increased DNA turnover, such as malignancies, or in genetic disorders affecting the pyrimidine degradation pathway, like dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase deficiency.^[22] In plasma, thymidine exhibits a short half-life of approximately 1 to 2 hours, attributable to its rapid cellular uptake via nucleoside transporters and subsequent phosphorylation by thymidine kinase or degradation by TP.^[23] This quick clearance prevents accumulation and maintains nucleotide balance.

Role in Nucleic Acids

Incorporation into DNA

Thymidine, a deoxyribonucleoside, is incorporated into DNA through a series of enzymatic phosphorylations that activate it for polymerization. In the salvage pathway, thymidine is first phosphorylated to deoxythymidine monophosphate (dTMP) by thymidine kinase, primarily TK1 in proliferating cells.^[15] Subsequent phosphorylation of dTMP to deoxythymidine diphosphate (dTDP) is catalyzed by thymidylate kinase, followed by conversion of dTDP to deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP) by nucleoside diphosphate kinase.^[15] This triphosphate form, dTTP, serves as the substrate for DNA synthesis, with the process regulated to maintain balanced nucleotide pools essential for accurate replication.^[24] During DNA polymerization, DNA polymerases, such as those in the B-family (e.g., Pol δ and Pol ε in eukaryotes), catalyze the addition of dTTP to the 3' end of a growing DNA strand. The reaction involves the nucleophilic attack by the 3'-hydroxyl group of the terminal nucleotide on the α-phosphate of dTTP, forming a 3'-5' phosphodiester bond and releasing pyrophosphate (PPi).^[25] This template-directed process ensures that dTTP is incorporated opposite adenine (A) residues in the complementary strand, as the thymine base pairs with adenine through two hydrogen bonds in the DNA double helix.^[26] In most eukaryotic genomes, such as the human genome, thymine constitutes approximately 25-30% of the total bases, reflecting the average AT content of around 59%.^[27] This proportion varies across organisms; for instance, in GC-poor bacteria like those in the genus Clostridium with GC contents as low as 30%, thymine levels can approach 35% due to elevated AT richness.^[28] To study DNA synthesis, radiolabeled thymidine, specifically [³H]-thymidine, is widely used as a tracer that is incorporated into newly synthesized DNA strands during the S phase of the cell cycle. Detection via autoradiography allows visualization and quantification of proliferating cells, providing insights into replication dynamics.^[29]

Function in Replication and Repair

Thymidine, in its triphosphate form as deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP), plays a critical role in the S-phase of the cell cycle by providing a balanced supply of deoxyribonucleotides essential for semi-conservative DNA replication. During this phase, DNA polymerases incorporate dTTP opposite adenine bases on the template strand to synthesize new DNA strands, ensuring accurate duplication of the genome. The intracellular dTTP pool is tightly regulated to match the demands of replication forks, with imbalances potentially leading to stalled replication and genomic instability. For instance, the enzyme thymidylate synthase catalyzes the conversion of dUMP to dTMP, which is then phosphorylated to dTTP, maintaining pool levels that support continuous synthesis without excessive mutagenesis.^[24]^[30] In DNA repair, dTTP is required for the resynthesis step following the excision of UV-induced thymine dimers, which are cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers formed between adjacent thymine bases. These lesions distort the DNA helix and are primarily repaired via the nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway, where endonucleases remove a short oligonucleotide segment containing the damage, creating a single-strand gap of 20-30 nucleotides. DNA polymerase then fills this gap using the intact complementary strand as a template, incorporating dTTP where thymine is specified, followed by ligation to restore the phosphodiester backbone. NER factors, such as those in yeast, directly regulate dNTP synthesis, including dTTP, to facilitate efficient repair and prevent persistent damage that could lead to mutations.^[31]^[32]^[33] Similarly, in base excision repair (BER), dTTP supports the repair of oxidative lesions like thymine glycol (Tg), a common product of thymine oxidation by reactive oxygen species that blocks replicative polymerases. BER initiates with a DNA glycosylase, such as human NTH1, removing the damaged base to create an apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) site, which is then incised by an AP endonuclease, generating a one-nucleotide gap in the short-patch subpathway predominant for Tg repair. DNA polymerase β fills this gap, inserting dTTP if the template requires a thymine residue opposite adenine, ensuring faithful restoration of the original sequence. This process is the major pathway for Tg removal in human cell extracts, highlighting dTTP's necessity for precise lesion correction.^[34]^[35]^[36] dTTP levels also contribute to checkpoint regulation during replication stress, where depletion signals activation of the ATR kinase to halt cell cycle progression and allow recovery. Low dTTP pools, often from imbalances in deoxyribonucleotide synthesis, slow replication forks and generate single-stranded DNA regions coated by RPA, recruiting ATR-ATRIP complexes that phosphorylate downstream targets like CHK1 to suppress origin firing and promote fork restart. This ATR-mediated response maintains genome stability by coordinating dNTP homeostasis with DNA synthesis demands.^[30]^[37]^[38] Evolutionarily, the use of thymine in DNA, derived from thymidine, enhances replication fidelity by distinguishing it from uracil, preventing misincorporation of dUMP that could arise from dUTP contamination during synthesis. The additional methyl group on thymine allows uracil-DNA glycosylase to specifically excise uracil as an aberrant base without affecting legitimate thymines, thereby reducing C-to-T transition mutations from cytosine deamination. This distinction likely evolved to minimize error accumulation in the stable DNA genome, contrasting with RNA's use of uracil.^[39]^[40]

Analogs and Derivatives

Synthetic Modified Analogs

Synthetic modified analogs of thymidine are chemically altered nucleosides designed to mimic the parent compound while introducing specific functional groups to alter properties such as reactivity or metabolic fate. These modifications typically occur at the 5-position of the pyrimidine base or the 3'-position of the deoxyribose sugar, enabling distinct chemical behaviors compared to natural thymidine, which features a methyl group at C5 of the thymine base. Synthesis of these analogs generally involves either direct chemical modification of thymidine, such as halogenation or substitution reactions, or de novo assembly starting from uridine derivatives through glycosylation and selective deoxygenation steps.^[29]^[41] One prominent analog is 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU), where a bromine atom replaces the methyl group at the C5 position of the thymine base, increasing the molecular weight and density of incorporated DNA. BrdU was originally synthesized in the late 1950s by selective bromination of 2'-deoxyuridine using N-bromosuccinimide in aqueous solution, followed by purification. This halogen substitution confers greater stability against certain enzymatic degradations compared to thymidine.^[29] Another key analog is 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU), featuring a terminal alkyne group (-C≡CH) at the C5 position instead of the methyl group, which allows for bioorthogonal reactions. EdU's synthesis involves coupling 5-iodo-2'-deoxyuridine with ethynyltrimethylsilane via a Sonogashira reaction, followed by deprotection of the silyl group. This alkyne modification enhances resistance to thymidine phosphorylase, as the enzyme's active site accommodates the natural substrate less effectively with the extended group.^[42]^[29] Azidothymidine (AZT), also known as zidovudine, differs from thymidine by replacement of the 3'-hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose with an azide (-N₃), creating a chain terminator upon phosphorylation. AZT was first synthesized in 1964 from a monomesylate derivative of 1-(2'-deoxy-β-D-lyxofuranosyl)thymine by displacement of the 3'-mesylate with sodium azide, often involving protection of the 5'-hydroxyl.^[43] The azide substitution renders AZT more resistant to cleavage by thymidine phosphorylase than the parent nucleoside. Another important analog is 3'-deoxy-3'-[¹⁸F]fluorothymidine ([¹⁸F]FLT), featuring a fluorine-18 atom replacing the 3'-hydroxyl group. Its synthesis involves nucleophilic displacement of a 3'-leaving group, such as nosylate or mesylate, in a protected thymidine precursor with cyclotron-produced [¹⁸F]fluoride ion, enabling no-carrier-added radiolabeling suitable for positron emission tomography (PET).^[44] Trifluridine, or 5-trifluoro-2'-deoxyuridine, incorporates three fluorine atoms in a trifluoromethyl group (-CF₃) at the C5 position of the uracil base, altering electronic properties and hydrophobicity. Its synthesis proceeds from 5-trifluoromethyluracil, which is glycosylated with 2-deoxy-D-ribose under Vorbrüggen conditions using silylated base and Lewis acid catalysis. The fluorinated substitution provides enhanced stability against phosphorylase-mediated degradation relative to thymidine.^[41]^[45] Overall, these analogs exhibit improved resistance to thymidine phosphorylase—a key enzyme in nucleoside catabolism—due to steric or electronic effects from the modifications, allowing prolonged cellular availability compared to unmodified thymidine.^[46]^[47]

Applications in Research and Medicine

Thymidine plays a key role in cell synchronization techniques, particularly through the double thymidine block method, which arrests cells at the G1/S boundary by inhibiting DNA synthesis during the S phase.^[48] This approach allows researchers to study cell cycle progression by releasing cells into normal medium, where they synchronously enter the S phase, facilitating applications in flow cytometry to analyze phase-specific events.^[49] Thymidine analogs such as bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) are widely used for DNA labeling in proliferation assays, incorporating into newly synthesized DNA during replication to mark dividing cells.^[29] BrdU detection typically involves immunohistochemistry after DNA denaturation, while EdU enables sensitive visualization via copper-catalyzed click chemistry with fluorescent azides, offering advantages in tissue sections and live-cell imaging without harsh conditions.^[50]^[51] In antiviral therapy, the thymidine analog zidovudine (AZT) serves as a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor for HIV treatment, where its triphosphate form incorporates into viral DNA, causing chain termination due to the absence of a 3'-hydroxyl group.^[52] This mechanism halts reverse transcription, reducing viral replication and forming the basis of early antiretroviral regimens approved since 1987.^[53] For cancer treatment, the thymidine analog trifluridine (FTD), combined with tipiracil in TAS-102, is approved for refractory metastatic colorectal cancer, exerting cytotoxicity through incorporation into tumor cell DNA, which induces DNA breaks and apoptosis.^[54] Clinical trials demonstrated improved overall survival with TAS-102, attributing efficacy to sustained FTD levels and enhanced DNA incorporation in proliferating cancer cells.^[55] Tritiated thymidine (3H-thymidine) uptake assays provide a diagnostic measure of tumor proliferation rates by quantifying DNA synthesis in biopsy samples, correlating incorporation levels with growth fraction and prognosis in cancers like breast carcinoma.^[56] This radiolabeled method remains a gold standard for assessing cellular kinetics in preclinical and clinical oncology research.^[57] Recent advances since 2020 have integrated EdU labeling with CRISPR-Cas9 screens to dissect gene functions in proliferation and DNA metabolism. These high-throughput approaches enable temporal tracking of edited cell populations, revealing regulators of telomere maintenance and replicative stress responses.^[58]

Imbalance and Cellular Effects

Induction of Mutations and Recombination

Disruptions in thymidine metabolism leading to dTTP depletion promote the misincorporation of dUTP into DNA during replication, as dUTP serves as a substrate for DNA polymerases when dTTP levels are insufficient.^[59] This uracil incorporation triggers base excision repair (BER) by uracil-DNA glycosylases, which excise the uracil base and create abasic sites; subsequent attempts at repair can result in futile cycles of single-strand breaks (SSBs) that overwhelm repair machinery, ultimately generating double-strand breaks (DSBs) and genomic instability.^[60] In thymidylate stress conditions, such as those induced by thymidylate synthase inhibition, elevated dUTP/dTTP ratios exacerbate this process, leading to increased DSB formation and cell death in various models.^[61] Conversely, excess thymidine elevates dTTP levels, which exert feedback inhibition on ribonucleotide reductase (RNR), the enzyme responsible for converting ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides, thereby depleting other dNTP pools—particularly dCTP—to as low as 2% of normal levels.^[62] This imbalance increases DNA polymerase misincorporation errors, with dTTP preferentially pairing with guanine instead of adenine, resulting in elevated C→T transition mutations during replication.^[63] Sequence analyses in mammalian cells exposed to excess thymidine confirm a predominance of C→T transitions at the aprt locus, driven by reduced proofreading efficiency and next-nucleotide effects in the replication complex.^[63] dNTP pool imbalances from thymidine perturbations also stall replication forks by limiting nucleotide availability for fork progression, activating DNA damage checkpoints and triggering homologous recombination (HR) as a primary repair mechanism.^[64] In scenarios of dNTP depletion, stalled forks expose single-stranded DNA, recruiting RAD51 and other HR factors to facilitate fork restart and prevent collapse into DSBs; defects in HR proteins like XRCC2 exacerbate fork instability under these conditions. Studies in yeast and mammalian cells demonstrate that nucleotide deficiency promotes gross chromosomal rearrangements via error-prone HR, underscoring its role in maintaining genome stability during replication stress.^[65] In Escherichia coli, nucleotide pool perturbations, such as those caused by ndk mutations affecting dNTP levels and thymidine metabolism, induce a mutator phenotype through increased dUTP misincorporation, elevating spontaneous mutation rates 6- to 15-fold compared to wild-type strains, as observed in models of nucleotide pool perturbations.^[66] This hypermutability arises from increased polymerase infidelity and replication errors, contributing to adaptive evolution under stress but risking genomic instability. In humans, mutations in thymidine kinase 2 (TK2), which phosphorylates thymidine to dTMP for dTTP synthesis, cause mitochondrial dTTP depletion and mtDNA maintenance defects, leading to TK2 deficiency—a rare mitochondrial disorder characterized by myopathy and progressive genetic instability in mitochondrial genomes.^[67] Numerous pathogenic TK2 variants (over 50 reported as of 2025) disrupt the salvage pathway, resulting in imbalanced dNTPs and mtDNA depletion that manifest clinically as muscle weakness and respiratory failure.^[67]

Impacts on Cell Cycle and Health

Elevated levels of thymidine in cells lead to S-phase arrest by depleting deoxycytidine triphosphate (dCTP) pools, which slows DNA replication fork progression and activates the S-phase checkpoint to prevent further genomic instability.^[68] This depletion occurs because excess thymidine is phosphorylated to dTTP, inhibiting ribonucleotide reductase and reducing dCTP availability, thereby stalling DNA synthesis without complete halt.^[69] The resulting accumulation of single-stranded DNA recruits ATM kinase, triggering a DNA damage response that enforces cell cycle pause.^[68] Prolonged thymidine imbalance, particularly deprivation, can induce apoptosis through p53-mediated pathways in cancer cells, where insufficient dTTP impairs DNA synthesis and activates tumor suppressor responses.^[70] In wild-type p53-expressing cells, this stress leads to caspase activation and programmed cell death, whereas p53-deficient cells show reduced apoptotic susceptibility, highlighting p53's role in eliminating damaged cells.^[71] Conversely, excess thymidine-induced replication stress, if unchecked by checkpoints like Chk1 and p21, can also progress to apoptosis by overwhelming repair mechanisms.^[69] Thymidine kinase 2 (TK2) deficiency, an autosomal recessive disorder, causes mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome, primarily manifesting as progressive myopathy with muscle weakness due to impaired dTTP supply for mtDNA maintenance. In November 2025, the U.S. FDA approved Kygevvi (doxecitine and doxribtimine), the first therapy for TK2 deficiency, consisting of deoxycytidine and deoxythymidine to restore nucleotide pools and improve survival and motor function.^[72] Affected individuals typically present in infancy or early childhood with limb weakness, followed by respiratory muscle involvement leading to failure, and in some cases, dysarthria or dysphagia.^[73] The depletion of mtDNA reduces oxidative phosphorylation capacity, exacerbating muscle fatigue and atrophy.^[74] Therapeutically, thymidine supplementation serves as a rescue agent against methotrexate toxicity by bypassing the drug's inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase, thereby restoring deoxymonophosphate (dTMP) synthesis and preventing severe myelosuppression or renal damage.^[75] Intravenous thymidine infusions, often combined with leucovorin, have been administered to patients with acute methotrexate overdose, mitigating life-threatening effects while allowing antitumor activity to persist in non-rescued tissues.^[76] Chronic thymidine imbalance contributes to somatic mutations in aging tissues, as seen in conditions like mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy (MNGIE) where thymidine phosphorylase deficiency elevates deoxythymidine levels, promoting mtDNA point mutations and deletions that mimic age-related genomic instability.^[77] These accumulated mutations impair cellular energy production and repair, fostering tissue dysfunction over time and linking nucleotide pool dysregulation to broader aging processes.^[78]

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Processing of thymine glycol in a clustered DNA damage site - NIH
To date, Tg is a known substrate for the glycosylases, endonuclease III (Nth) and endonuclease VIII (Nei) (39–42) and is repaired through the base excision ...
[35]
Base Excision Repair of Oxidative DNA Damage Activated by XPG ...
Oxidized pyrimidines in DNA are removed by a distinct base excision repair pathway initiated by the DNA glycosylase—AP lyase hNth1 in human cells.
[36]
ATR kinase supports normal proliferation in the early S phase by ...
Jun 19, 2023 · The ATR kinase, which coordinates cellular responses to DNA replication stress, is also essential for the proliferation of normal unstressed ...
[37]
ATR kinase supports normal proliferation in the early S phase by ...
The ATR kinase, which coordinates cellular responses to DNA replication stress, is also essential for the proliferation of normal unstressed cells.
[38]
Keeping Uracil Out of DNA: Physiological Role, Structure and ...
However, mere availability of dTTP is not enough to prevent uracil incorporation into DNA. Most DNA polymerases cannot distinguish between thymine and uracil.
[39]
Uracil in DNA—Its biological significance - ScienceDirect.com
Uracil may arise in DNA as a result of spontaneous cytosine deamination and/or misincorporation of dUMP during DNA replication.
[40]
Syntheses of 5-Trifluoromethyluracil and 5-Trifluoromethyl-2
Evaluating trifluridine + tipiracil hydrochloride in a fixed combination ... Synthesis and Structure Activity Relationship. Antiviral Chemistry and ...
[41]
A chemical method for fast and sensitive detection of DNA synthesis ...
Cells incorporate 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine (BrdU) and 5-iodo-2′-deoxyuridine (IdU) into their DNA in the place of 5-methyl-2′-deoxyuridine (thymidine). We ...
[42]
Trifluridine - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Trifluridine, 5-trifluoromethyl-1-(2-deoxyribofuranosyl)pyrimidin-2, 4-(1H. 3H)-dione (36.1. 22), is synthesized from 5-trifluoromethyluracil.
[43]
A Thymidine Phosphorylase-Stable Analogue of BVDU with ...
Unlike BVDU, BVisoDDU is completely resistant to cleavage by thymidine phosphorylase. BVisoDDU is also the first nucleoside analogue lacking OH groups at both ...Missing: analogs | Show results with:analogs
[44]
Ethynyl 2′,3′-Dihydro-3′-Deoxythymidine with That of Other Anti ...
Thymidine phosphorylase is the major cellular enzyme responsible for the catabolism of thymidine and thymidine analogs. Using a partially purified preparation ...
[45]
Cell Synchronization by Double Thymidine Block - PMC - NIH
Sep 5, 2018 · Here, we present the protocol to synchronize cells at G1/S boundary by using double thymidine block. After release into normal medium, cell population at ...
[46]
Synchronization of cell populations in G1/S and G2/M phases of the ...
Treatment with double thymidine results in a G1/S-phase arrested cell population, and the use of flow cytometry allows progression of the cells through the cell ...
[47]
EdU, a new thymidine analogue for labelling proliferating cells in the ...
EdU is a thymidine analogue used to label dividing cells, detected with a fluorescent azide, and is fast and easy to process, without harsh conditions.
[48]
Evaluation of 5-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine staining as a sensitive and ...
EdU, also a thymidine analogue, is incorporated into cellular DNA during DNA replication. The incorporated EdU can be detected through a reaction between ...
[49]
PharmGKB summary: zidovudine pathway - PMC - NIH
Once incorporated, it leads to DNA chain termination and stops further DNA synthesis. The efficacy of ZDV treatment in HIV infection can be attributed to its ...
[50]
Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors: A Thorough Review ...
May 13, 2020 · ... reverse transcriptase inhibitor (vRTI) known as zidovudine (AZT). In 1987, AZT was approved for the treatment of HIV-1 infections [10]. Over ...
[51]
A novel antimetabolite: TAS-102 for metastatic colorectal cancer - PMC
TAS-102 exerts antitumor activity primarily via FTD incorporation into DNA. Thymidine phosphorylase inhibitor (TPI) inhibits the degradation of FTD. FTD ...
[52]
TAS-102, a novel antitumor agent: a review of the mechanism of action
TAS-102 treatment results in high trifluridine incorporation into DNA with pyrimidine metabolic pathway markedly up-regulated in cancer. Eur J Cancer. 2014 ...
[53]
Measuring proliferation in breast cancer: practicalities and applications
The initial method of measuring SPF was by measuring the tritiated thymidine (3HTdR) labelling index (LI) [7]. This method required the use of fresh material ...Introduction · Mitotic Index · Cyclins And Cyclin-Dependent...
[54]
The Role of DNA synthesis imaging in cancer in the era of targeted ...
FLT is phosphorylated by cytosolic thymidine kinase (TK1) (Figure 2). FLT uptake correlates well with tumor cell proliferation and S-phase fraction [43–45].2. C. Thymidine... · 3. Imaging Agents · 3. B. Flt
[55]
Targeted CRISPR screens reveal genes essential for ... - Nature
Aug 20, 2025 · Thymidine kinase is required for EdU phosphorylation and incorporation, and it has been shown before that loss of the TK gene in ...
[56]
Thymidine nucleotide metabolism controls human telomere length
Mar 23, 2023 · CRISPR screening links thymidine flux and telomere length. Fluorescence in situ hybridization using a peptide nucleic acid (PNA) telomere ...
[57]
Uracil in DNA: consequences for carcinogenesis and chemotherapy
Thymidylate stress is associated with increased incorporation of uracil into DNA. Genomic uracil is removed by uracil DNA glycosylases of base excision repair ...1. Introduction · 2. Base Excision Repair And... · Genomic Uracil And...
[58]
Targeting Nuclear Thymidylate Biosynthesis - PMC - NIH
Thymidylate (dTMP) biosynthesis plays an essential and exclusive function in DNA synthesis and proper cell division, and therefore has been an attractive ...
[59]
Uracil DNA glycosylase (UNG) loss enhances DNA double strand ...
Feb 6, 2014 · Misincorporation of genomic uracil and formation of DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) are known consequences of exposure to TS inhibitors such ...Results · Dna Dsb Repair Assays · γ-H2ax Chip Sequencing<|separator|>
[60]
DNA precursor metabolism and genomic stability - The FASEB Journal
Jul 1, 2006 · In thymidine-treated cells, dCTP represents just 2% of the total dNTP pool, and its estimated concentration is in the low micromolar range, ...
[61]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3944228/
[62]
A Critical Balance: dNTPs and the Maintenance of Genome Stability
Jan 31, 2017 · A crucial factor in maintaining genome stability is establishing deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) levels within a range that is optimal for chromosomal ...
[63]
https://doi.org/10.1016/0027-5107(89)90164-4
[64]
The relationship between dNTP pool levels and mutagenesis in an ...
Jul 22, 2008 · It is presumed that the imbalance in dNTP pool levels is responsible for the mutator phenotype of an E. coli ndk mutant. A human homologue ...
[65]
Advances in Thymidine Kinase 2 Deficiency: Clinical Aspects ...
Jan 28, 2022 · Autosomal recessive TK2 mutations cause TK2 deficiency (TK2d), a rare mitochondrial disease that manifests primarily as a myopathy. Because of ...
[66]
ATM is required for the cellular response to thymidine induced ...
We show that thymidine, which slows the progression of replication forks by depleting cellular pools of dCTP, induces a novel DNA damage response.
[67]
Chk1 and p21 Cooperate to Prevent Apoptosis during DNA ...
Nov 9, 2005 · As a result of this inhibition thymidine starves cells of dCTP and slows DNA replication but does not arrest it, leading to an accumulation of ...
[68]
The Role of Thymidylate Synthase Induction in Modulating p53 ...
The extent of apoptosis induced by TDX was significantly reduced in the p53 null cell line compared with the p53 wild-type cell line and correlated with a lack ...
[69]
Downstream molecular determinants of response to 5-fluorouracil ...
Thymidylate synthase (TS) inhibition leads to dTTP depletion and dUTP increase, causing DNA damage and thymine-less death, resulting in apoptosis.<|separator|>
[70]
TK2-related mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome, myopathic form
Sep 1, 2013 · TK2-related mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome, myopathic form (TK2-MDS) is an inherited condition that causes progressive muscle weakness (myopathy).Missing: dTTP | Show results with:dTTP
[71]
TK2-Related Mitochondrial DNA Maintenance Defect, Myopathic Form
Dec 6, 2012 · Affected individuals experience progressive muscle weakness leading to respiratory failure. Some individuals develop dysarthria, dysphagia, and/ ...Diagnosis · Clinical Characteristics · Differential Diagnosis · Management
[72]
Thymidine Kinase 2 Deficiency - Symptoms, Causes, Treatment
Mar 4, 2025 · A rare genetic disorder that mainly affects the muscles. The signs and symptoms may include muscle weakness of some degree.<|control11|><|separator|>
[73]
Clinical use of thymidine as a rescue agent from methotrexate toxicity
Thymidine has been used in conjunction with leucovorin and alkaline hydration to protect patients with acute renal dysfunction from life-threatening ...
[74]
The prevention of methotrexate toxicity by thymidine infusions in ...
Continuous iv thymidine (TdR) was given to 12 patients with metastatic cancer in an attempt to prevent methotrexate (MTX) toxicity.Missing: dTMP synthesis
[75]
Site-specific somatic mitochondrial DNA point mutations in patients ...
This deficiency of TP leads to increased circulating levels of thymidine (deoxythymidine, dThd) and deoxyuridine (dUrd) and has been associated with multiple ...
[76]
Thymidine and deoxyuridine accumulate in tissues of patients with ...
Jun 27, 2007 · One of the hallmarks of MNGIE is somatic alteration of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), namely, depletion, multiple deletions, and site-specific point ...2 Methods And Materials · 2.3 Thymidine Phosphorylase... · 3 Results