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Tomahawk chop

The Tomahawk chop is a sports fan gesture involving a repetitive horizontal chopping motion of the extended arm, accompanied by a chanted vocalization such as "oh-way" or "war chant," primarily performed to energize crowds at games of teams like the Atlanta Braves and Kansas City Chiefs.^[1]^[2] Originating in the 1980s at Florida State University (FSU) Seminoles football games as an impromptu crowd response during a 1984 matchup against Auburn, it evolved into a formalized "war chant" with the arm motion, drawing loose inspiration from the Seminole Tribe but lacking authentic roots in Native American rituals.^[3] The gesture spread to professional sports via FSU alumni influences: the Kansas City Chiefs adopted it in November 1990 through a performance by Northwest Missouri State's marching band, led by an FSU graduate, while the Atlanta Braves incorporated it in late 1991 amid a divisional race, possibly amplified by FSU alum Deion Sanders joining the team.^[2]^[4] Despite its role in fostering fan unity and stadium atmosphere—often paired with foam tomahawks or team-specific adaptations—the practice remains contentious, with critics, including some Native American advocates, decrying it as a reductive stereotype evoking Hollywood depictions of indigenous warfare, though empirical surveys reveal divided sentiments among Native Americans, with one 2020 study of over 1,000 self-identified individuals finding 49 percent bothered by the chop versus 35 percent unbothered.^[5] Notably, the Seminole Tribe of Florida maintains a longstanding partnership with FSU, endorsing the university's Seminoles branding and traditions as honors rather than appropriations, highlighting contextual variances in reception across tribes and usages.^[6]^[7]

Description and Mechanics

Gesture and Chant Components

The tomahawk chop gesture involves spectators extending one arm forward from the elbow and rhythmically swinging the forearm back and forth in a chopping motion, typically with an open palm to simulate wielding a tomahawk.^[8]^[1] This action is performed collectively by crowds during key moments in games, such as after scores or team introductions, creating a synchronized wave-like effect across stadium sections.^[9] Variations exist, including use of a closed fist, as recommended by the Kansas City Chiefs organization in early 2025 to modify the traditional open-hand form.^[10] The chant component accompanies the gesture with repetitive vocalizations, often rendered as "woo-oh-oh" or similar rhythmic syllables lacking distinct lyrics, derived from university war chants adapted for sports cheering.^[11] These sounds are intoned in unison, building intensity through volume and repetition to energize the crowd and team.^[12] The vocalization mimics percussive beats, aligning with the arm motion's cadence, and has been documented in fan practices since the gesture's adoption in collegiate and professional venues in the late 1980s.^[2]

Musical Accompaniment

The Tomahawk Chop gesture is synchronized with a rhythmic vocal chant featuring a repetitive, percussive melody typically rendered as "wa-hoo-wa" or similar syllabic exclamations, emphasizing downbeats that align with the arm motion. This chant, known as the War Chant, was musically arranged for performance by the Florida State University Marching Chiefs in the mid-1980s, following student-led development of the vocal and gestural elements.^[13] The arrangement incorporates brass, percussion, and woodwinds to create an escalating intensity, often building from a low ostinato to a full ensemble crescendo that encourages crowd synchronization.^[14] In professional sports contexts, such as Atlanta Braves games, the War Chant melody is broadcast over stadium speakers or performed live by organists and sound systems during pivotal moments like pitching changes or home runs, amplifying fan participation without altering the core tune.^[15] Kansas City Chiefs games similarly feature the chant led vocally by spectators, occasionally reinforced by drum lines or pre-recorded tracks mimicking tribal percussion to heighten the auditory impact.^[16] Instrumental sheet music adaptations exist for marching bands and solo instruments like glockenspiel or violin with piano backing, preserving the chant's binary rhythmic structure (e.g., quarter-note pulses at around 120-140 beats per minute).^[17] The melody's origins trace to mid-20th-century sources, including melodic similarities to the 1950s children's tune "Pow Wow the Indian Boy," a novelty song evoking stereotypical Native American motifs through simple, repetitive phrasing.^[18] This connection, first publicly noted by local journalist Tom Kacich in 2017, underscores how the War Chant's fan-derived evolution layered modern sports orchestration onto earlier cultural appropriations, though no direct compositional lineage has been definitively established beyond superficial resemblances in interval patterns and cadence.^[18]

Origins and Early History

Development at Florida State University

Florida State University officially adopted the Seminoles as its athletic nickname and mascot in 1947, drawing from the historical Seminole Tribe of Florida to symbolize resilience and fighting spirit.^[19] By the 1960s, the university's marching band, known as the Marching Chiefs, incorporated Native American-themed elements into performances, including chants and rhythms, which laid groundwork for later fan traditions.^[1] The specific War Chant—consisting of rhythmic vocalizations like "oh-oh-oh" accompanied by a chopping arm motion simulating a tomahawk swing—emerged in 1983 during a football game at Doak Campbell Stadium. Theta Chi fraternity member Rob Hill improvised the chant, combining moaning sounds with a drum beat from the band and adding the arm gesture, initially as a spontaneous response to energize the crowd.^[20] By the end of the 1983 season, the fraternity had formalized it, performing it consistently to build Seminole identity and intimidate opponents.^[21] In 1984, the chant spread beyond the fraternity when members of the Scalphunters booster group and cheerleaders adopted and refined it, teaching it at pep rallies; a pivotal moment occurred on October 13 during a game against Auburn, where fans synchronized the vocal and motion elements across sections of the stadium.^[21] The student body fully embraced it by season's end, with the Marching Chiefs integrating musical accompaniment—including drum beats and trumpet flourishes—by October 12, 1985, during another Auburn matchup, solidifying its role as a core FSU tradition.^[20] A former FSU president later attributed the invention to the Marching Chiefs in the 1980s, aligning with this timeline of band involvement.^[22] This development transformed the chop into a unified fan ritual, distinct from earlier band performances, emphasizing rhythmic synchronization to amplify game atmosphere; by the late 1980s, it was audible on televised broadcasts, marking its establishment as an enduring element of Seminoles athletics.^[18]

Initial Spread to Professional Sports

The Tomahawk chop first appeared in professional sports during a Kansas City Chiefs home game against the San Diego Chargers on November 11, 1990.^[23] The gesture was introduced by the marching band from Northwest Missouri State University, which performed the chant and chopping motion as the team warmed up on the field, leading fans in the stands to imitate it spontaneously.^[2]^[23] This marked the initial crossover from collegiate traditions, as the band had adapted elements of the Florida State Seminoles' version into their routine.^[2] The practice quickly gained traction among Chiefs fans at Arrowhead Stadium, becoming a staple by the 1990 postseason, where it contributed to the electric atmosphere during playoff games.^[2] Its visibility increased through national television broadcasts, exposing the synchronized fan ritual to wider audiences.^[23] The gesture spread to Major League Baseball with the Atlanta Braves in 1991, coinciding with the team's improbable rise from last place in 1990 to National League West champions.^[4]^[24] The earliest reported instance in Atlanta media occurred on July 17, 1991, as documented in the Atlanta Constitution, with fans adopting the chop amid surging attendance and excitement during the regular season.^[24] It proliferated during the National League Championship Series against the Pittsburgh Pirates in October, where CBS Sports aired a pregame segment highlighting the fan participation, further embedding it in Braves culture.^[4] This adoption paralleled the Chiefs' usage, likely influenced by televised exposure of similar rituals in football.^[25] No verified accounts exist of the Tomahawk chop in other professional leagues prior to 1990, distinguishing these NFL and MLB instances as the pioneering professional applications.^[2]^[4]

Usage by Sports Teams

Florida State Seminoles

The tomahawk chop gesture and accompanying Seminole War Chant originated at Florida State University (FSU) in the early 1980s as part of fan traditions supporting the Seminoles athletic teams, which adopted the Seminole name in 1947. The arm motion derived from the Marching Chiefs band's "chief step" during performances, which cheerleaders and fans elevated and synchronized into a collective chop while emitting a moaning chant to energize crowds at football games. This evolved into a staple by 1984, following refinements by student booster groups like the Scalphunters and Theta Chi fraternity, who introduced moaning sounds and arm swings to mimic war cries during pre-game rituals.^[18]^[20]^[26] The chop integrates with FSU's signature entrance featuring Chief Osceola and Renegade, established in 1978 with permission from the Seminole Tribe of Florida; Osceola rides the Appaloosa horse Renegade to midfield, plants a burning spear, and exits as the War Chant plays, prompting over 80,000 fans to perform the chop in unison. This sequence, performed before every home football game at Doak Campbell Stadium since its inception, amplifies the ritual's intensity and has been credited with contributing to FSU's home-field advantage during national championship seasons in 1993, 1999, and 2013. The university distributes foam tomahawks to fans, further embedding the gesture in game-day culture.^[27]^[28] Unlike usages by professional teams, FSU's traditions receive explicit endorsement from the Seminole Tribe of Florida, which has granted written permission for the university to use Seminole symbols, name, and associated rituals, viewing them as tributes to the tribe's historical resilience rather than mockery. This relationship, formalized through consultations and licensing agreements, led the NCAA to exempt FSU from a 2005 policy banning potentially hostile Native American imagery after tribal leaders affirmed support, distinguishing FSU from institutions lacking such backing. Tribal council members have attended games and publicly defended the practices, emphasizing pride in the portrayal over external criticisms.^[29]^[6]^[30] Protests against the chop at FSU have been minimal and largely unsuccessful, with the Seminole Tribe of Florida refusing to join broader Native American advocacy efforts targeting similar symbols elsewhere, citing the collaborative development and positive representation. Isolated objections from members of other Seminole factions, such as those in Oklahoma, have surfaced, attributing tribal support to financial incentives rather than cultural alignment, but these lack representation from Florida's federally recognized tribe. FSU maintains the tradition without alteration, supported by empirical absence of harm claims from endorsed groups and fan surveys indicating heightened game atmosphere without reported offense among tribal stakeholders.^[31]^[32]^[6]

Atlanta Braves

The Atlanta Braves adopted the Tomahawk chop as a fan tradition in the early 1990s, with widespread popularity emerging during the 1991 postseason. Fans perform the gesture by extending an arm forward and pumping it repeatedly in a chopping motion, often synchronized to the team's "Tomahawk Chop" chant and accompanying music played over stadium speakers. This practice draws from earlier uses at Florida State University and was amplified by the Braves' success, including National League Championship Series appearances in 1991 and 1992. By late 1991, approximately 200,000 foam tomahawk replicas had been sold to supporters, enhancing the visual spectacle at Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium.^[33]^[4] The tradition persisted through multiple World Series runs, notably in 1995 and 1996, where it became a hallmark of home games at Turner Field after the team's relocation from Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium in 1997. Braves management has historically defended the practice, citing support from some local Native American communities in the region, though this stance faced challenges from national advocacy groups. In response to complaints, including from Cherokee Nation member and Braves pitcher Ryan Helsley during the 2019 National League Division Series, the organization ceased distributing foam tomahawks at Truist Park (formerly SunTrust Park) and made unspecified adjustments to in-game programming.^[4]^[34] As of 2024, fans continue to execute the chop gesture during games, particularly in high-energy moments like playoffs, despite intermittent protests and calls for discontinuation from various Native American tribes. The Braves hosted a "Georgia Tribe Night" event in July 2024, which drew criticism from five Oklahoma-based tribes demanding an apology, underscoring ongoing tensions. No formal ban on the fan-led action has been imposed, and it remains a voluntary expression among attendees at Truist Park.^[35]^[36]

Kansas City Chiefs

Kansas City Chiefs fans adopted the tomahawk chop on November 11, 1990, during a home game against the San Diego Chargers at Arrowhead Stadium, where the Northwest Missouri State University marching band performed the war chant and gesture, prompting fans to join in.^[23] The practice rapidly integrated into game rituals, with supporters performing the arm-chopping motion synchronized to a drumbeat and chanting "Chiefs" repeatedly, amplifying the stadium's noise level to record decibels during subsequent seasons.^[2] The team embraced the tradition by selling foam tomahawk replicas as souvenirs, further embedding it in fan culture.^[10] Criticism emerged prominently in the 2010s, with Native American advocacy groups labeling the chop as a caricature of indigenous rituals that reinforces harmful stereotypes.^[37] The Kansas City Indian Center formally requested discontinuation in 2016, arguing it disrespects tribal sovereignty and history.^[37] Protests intensified around high-profile events, including demonstrations by groups like Not In Our Honor outside Super Bowl LVII in February 2023, where activists demanded retirement of the chop alongside the team's name and arrowhead logo.^[38] Such objections, often amplified in mainstream outlets, portray the gesture as racially insensitive, though empirical surveys of Native Americans indicate varied opinions, with not all viewing it as offensive.^[5] The Chiefs organization responded to pressures by prohibiting headdresses, war paint, and Native-inspired costumes at games starting in 2020, aiming to curb perceived cultural appropriation while preserving the chop as a core fan expression.^[39] Efforts to rebrand it as the "Arrowhead Chop" failed to gain traction among fans, who continued the traditional form.^[23] Chiefs chairman Clark Hunt affirmed in 2020 that the team respects concerns but would not eliminate longstanding traditions like the chop, citing its role in fostering community spirit without intent to demean.^[40] Despite ongoing advocacy, the practice persisted through the 2024 season, including at Super Bowl LIX preparations, underscoring its entrenched status amid polarized views.^[41]

Exeter Chiefs and Other Instances

The Exeter Chiefs, an English professional rugby union club based in Exeter, Devon, adopted the tomahawk chop as a fan chant in 2010, incorporating the chopping gesture alongside a war cry modeled on the Florida State Seminoles' version, with lyrics consisting of repeated "Woooooh oh oh" phrases played over stadium speakers during matches at Sandy Park.^[42]^[43] The practice, which drew from Native American stereotypes in its visual and auditory elements, became a staple of the club's matchday atmosphere, with supporters performing the motion en masse to build energy, particularly during the team's rise to prominence, including winning the Premiership Rugby title in 2017 and 2020.^[44] In August 2022, amid broader cultural sensitivities and pressure from anti-racism campaigns, the club announced it would discontinue the chant as part of a rebranding effort to distance itself from Native American imagery, while retaining the "Chiefs" moniker after a legal challenge upheld its use.^[42]^[43] However, by January 2023, the tomahawk chop was reinstated following vocal fan support and club acknowledgment of its role in fostering community spirit, with reports of it resuming during home games despite initial commitments to phase it out.^[45] Beyond the primary adopters, the tomahawk chop has appeared sporadically in other sports contexts, such as minor league baseball teams influenced by the Atlanta Braves' usage in the 1990s or college programs loosely emulating Florida State, though without the sustained institutional backing seen in major leagues.^[9] No other professional franchises have embedded it as prominently as the core examples, with instances often limited to informal fan adaptations or one-off events rather than official team-sanctioned traditions.

Arguments Supporting the Practice

Role in Fan Tradition and Atmosphere

The Tomahawk chop functions as a participatory fan ritual that synchronizes crowd movements and chants, fostering collective energy and unity during games. Fans across teams like the Atlanta Braves, Kansas City Chiefs, and Florida State Seminoles engage in the arm-chopping motion to the rhythm of accompanying music, creating a rhythmic wave that amplifies stadium noise levels and immerses participants in shared excitement.^[12]^[46] For the Atlanta Braves, the chop—performed to the team's fight song—serves dual purposes: inspiring home team morale while intimidating opponents through sustained auditory and visual pressure from tens of thousands of spectators. This tradition, in place since the early 1990s, contributes to home-field advantage by generating crowd participation that disrupts visiting players' focus and elevates the overall game intensity.^[15]^[47] At Kansas City Chiefs games, the chop integrates with pre-game and in-game chants at Arrowhead Stadium, renowned for its decibel peaks, including a 2014 Guinness World Record for loudest crowd roar exceeding 142 decibels, often coinciding with fan rituals like the chop to build pre-kickoff tension. Chiefs players and supporters describe the resulting atmosphere as "chilling" and "awesome," enhancing team spirit through fan-driven momentum that sustains high-energy plays.^[16]^[48]^[2] Florida State University's War Chant, paired with the chop since the mid-1980s, elevates football game-day traditions via the Marching Chiefs band's drumbeat orchestration, uniting students, alumni, and visitors in a vocal and gestural display that underscores Seminole identity and intensifies Doak Campbell Stadium's vibrancy. This ritual, student-initiated and band-adapted, promotes enduring fan loyalty and communal spirit without reliance on external validation.^[46]

Endorsements from Native American Groups

The Seminole Tribe of Florida, a federally recognized sovereign nation, has provided formal endorsement for Florida State University's adoption and continued use of Seminole-themed traditions, including the tomahawk chop gesture integrated into the "War Chant" performed by fans and the marching band. This approval stems from a longstanding partnership established in the 1970s, wherein the tribe views the university's representations—such as the Osceola spear-throwing entrance and chop—as respectful tributes to Seminole heritage rather than caricatures, emphasizing educational and cultural collaboration over generic stereotypes.^[6]^[29] In 2005, this tribal support enabled FSU to secure a waiver from the NCAA's policy against the use of Native American imagery deemed "hostile or abusive," distinguishing the Seminoles program from others facing restrictions.^[30] Tribal leaders, including former Chairman James E. Billie, have publicly affirmed the arrangement as mutually beneficial, with the tribe participating in university events and deriving no objection to the chop as part of authentic Seminole-inspired pageantry tied to Florida's historical resistance against U.S. forces in the 19th century.^[29] This endorsement contrasts with broader national Native organizations like the National Congress of American Indians, which oppose similar practices elsewhere but have not challenged FSU's specific tribal-sanctioned implementation.^[49] While endorsements from Native groups for the Atlanta Braves' or Kansas City Chiefs' versions of the chop are not documented from sovereign tribes, MLB Commissioner Rob Manfred asserted in October 2021 that the "Native American community in [the Atlanta] region is wholly supportive" of the Braves' program, including the gesture; this claim drew rebuttals from national advocacy groups asserting it misrepresents wider Indigenous sentiments without specifying endorsing entities.^[50] For the Chiefs, the team maintains an American Indian Community Working Group comprising intertribal representatives to advise on cultural matters, but this body focuses on promoting awareness rather than explicitly ratifying the chop.^[51]

Lack of Demonstrable Harm

No peer-reviewed longitudinal studies have demonstrated a causal relationship between the Tomahawk chop and measurable psychological or social harms to Native Americans, such as increased rates of depression, lower academic performance, or heightened discrimination in communities where the practice occurs.^[52] Experimental research purporting subtle effects, like temporary reductions in self-esteem among Native youth exposed to mascot imagery in controlled settings, relies on small samples and artificial scenarios that fail to replicate real-world contexts or establish enduring impacts.^[52] These findings, often from academic sources with documented ideological biases toward identifying cultural grievances, do not correlate with broader indicators of harm, including FBI-reported hate crimes against Native Americans, which show no spikes attributable to sports events featuring the chop.^[52] Surveys of Native American attitudes reveal divided opinions rather than uniform offense, undermining claims of widespread injury. A 2016 Washington Post poll found 90% of Native respondents not offended by the Washington Redskins name—a proxy for mascot-related imagery—with similar patterns in earlier Annenberg surveys showing only 9% offense rates for comparable terms.^[53] For the chop specifically, a 2020 UC Berkeley study reported 49% of Native respondents indicating it "bothers" them, implying at least half do not perceive it as harmful, with opposition higher among those strongly culturally engaged but not translating to evidence of tangible detriment.^[7] Local Native communities near Atlanta have voiced support for the Braves' traditions, including the chop, contrasting national advocacy groups' positions and highlighting that subjective discomfort does not equate to demonstrable injury.^[50] From a causal standpoint, the chop functions as a collective fan ritual enhancing game atmosphere without targeting individuals or promoting violence, akin to other sports cheers lacking proven negative externalities. Decades of use by teams like the Atlanta Braves since 1991 and Kansas City Chiefs since 1969 have coincided with no verifiable uptick in anti-Native incidents tied to these displays, per available crime data.^[52] Assertions of harm often conflate vocal minority objections with population-level effects, overlooking that many Native-led groups, such as those partnering with the Braves, endorse the practice as non-malicious homage rather than mockery.^[50] Absent rigorous, falsifiable metrics linking the gesture to adverse outcomes, claims of harm remain unsubstantiated by empirical standards.

Criticisms and Objections

Allegations of Cultural Mockery

Critics, including leaders from Native American advocacy groups, have characterized the tomahawk chop as a racist caricature that mocks historical Native American practices such as wielding tomahawks and emitting war cries, thereby reducing indigenous peoples to primitive stereotypes. The National Congress of American Indians (NCAI), a prominent organization representing tribal governments, has long opposed the ritual, asserting in October 2021 that it "caricature Native people, [is] harmful, and dehumanizing," perpetuating the "warrior savage" myth that reinforces racist views of Native Americans as aggressive relics unfit for contemporary society.^[54] Proponents of this view argue the chop's repetitive arm motion and chant imitate scalping or chopping motions in a performative manner that trivializes and distorts sacred or martial elements of Native cultures, equating them with savagery rather than honoring resilience or heritage. Crystal EchoHawk, founder and executive director of IllumiNative—a nonprofit focused on Native visibility—described the practice in October 2021 as "racist" and "dehumanizing" for Native people, emphasizing its role in sustaining derogatory imagery during high-profile events like the World Series.^[55] Similarly, Fawn Sharp, then-president of NCAI and chairwoman of the Quinault Indian Nation, criticized Major League Baseball Commissioner Rob Manfred's defense of the chop, stating it ignores Native perspectives on how such rituals inflict psychological and cultural harm.^[56] These allegations extend to claims that the chop, when paired with team branding, fosters a broader environment of cultural insensitivity, where fans' enthusiasm inadvertently—or deliberately—perpetuates narratives of Native inferiority, akin to historical cartoons and films that depicted indigenous peoples as bloodthirsty foes. Some analyses, including legal scholarship, contend that such displays mock "sacred Indian culture" and portray Native Americans as inherently violent or subhuman, contributing to real-world discrimination despite lacking direct causal studies linking the ritual to specific incidents of harm.^[57]^[58]

Advocacy Campaigns and Protests

Advocacy campaigns against the Tomahawk chop have centered on organized protests by Native American groups, primarily targeting its use by Atlanta Braves and Kansas City Chiefs fans as a derogatory caricature. During Game 1 of the 1991 World Series on October 19 between the Atlanta Braves and Minnesota Twins, approximately 150 Native Americans gathered outside the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis, displaying "Stop the Chop" placards, performing traditional songs, and chanting to denounce the gesture and associated fan behaviors like dressing in faux Native regalia as cultural mockery.^[59] Similar demonstrations followed in 1992, with Native leaders protesting Braves fans' chop and attire at games, framing it within broader objections to sports team appropriations of Indigenous imagery.^[60] For the Kansas City Chiefs, the Not In Our Honor coalition—comprising Native activists including founder Sequoia LeValdo—has led sustained efforts since at least the early 2010s to eliminate the chop alongside the team's name and chants, organizing protests outside Arrowhead Stadium at virtually every home game, playoff events, and Super Bowls.^[61]^[62] The group erected billboards in the Kansas City metro area decrying the practice and collaborated with entities like the Kansas City Indian Center for actions such as the November 20, 2023, demonstration prior to the Chiefs-Eagles game, where protesters labeled the team's American Indian Heritage Month initiatives as superficial amid continued fan traditions.^[63]^[64] Additional rallies occurred ahead of Super Bowl LVIII on February 11, 2024, in Las Vegas, coordinated with local Native communities to highlight perceived stereotypes in the chop's drumming and arm motion.^[65] The National Congress of American Indians (NCAI), a federation of tribal governments, has issued formal statements reinforcing these campaigns, such as its October 27, 2021, resolution opposing the Braves' chop during their World Series run, arguing it perpetuates harmful tropes despite the organization's representation of over 500 member tribes not unanimously endorsing the stance.^[54] These efforts, often involving dozens to low hundreds of participants, have persisted into the 2020s but have not achieved widespread cessation, with advocates citing the gesture's resemblance to outdated media depictions of scalping and war cries as central grievances.^[5]

Perceived Psychological Impact

Critics of the Tomahawk chop maintain that it contributes to psychological distress among Native Americans by evoking and perpetuating reductive stereotypes of indigenous peoples as savage or primitive, thereby undermining personal and communal identity. Experimental studies have purportedly demonstrated this effect through controlled exposure to Native-themed sports imagery, including gestures akin to the chop; for example, Fryberg et al. (2008) reported that Native American high school students shown such mascots, specifically referencing the Atlanta Braves' Tomahawk chop, exhibited lowered self-esteem and diminished beliefs in the value of their communities compared to control groups.^[66] Similar findings from LaRocque et al. (2011) linked mascot exposure to increased negative emotions such as depression, hostility, and stress in Native participants.^[66] A 2020 comprehensive review of empirical research by Davis, Delano, Gone, and Fryberg analyzed nine experimental studies and additional surveys, concluding that Native American mascots consistently produce adverse psychosocial outcomes for Native students, including reduced achievement aspirations and reinforced negative stereotyping, without any offsetting positive effects.^[66] The review explicitly incorporates the Tomahawk chop as an element of mascot-related stimuli in key studies like Fryberg et al. (2008), positing that such practices foster a hostile cultural environment. Proponents of this view, including some tribal leaders, extend these findings to argue that fan rituals like the chop exacerbate mental health disparities, such as elevated anxiety and suicidal ideation, particularly among Native youth exposed repeatedly in sports contexts.^[50]^[67] Further supporting perceptions of harm, a scoping review by Watt (2022) of 26 studies from 1999 to 2019 identified Native mascots as determinants of negative health outcomes, including stereotype activation that correlates with poorer self-esteem; it cited a Fryberg et al. (2020) survey of 1,021 self-identified Native Americans where 65% deemed the Tomahawk chop offensive, implying emotional toll through cultural insensitivity.^[68] These claims rest on laboratory and survey methodologies, though critics of the research note limitations such as small, non-representative samples (often college-aged rather than broader youth populations) and a focus on acute exposure rather than longitudinal real-world impacts from fan traditions.^[66]^[68] Despite these constraints, the perceived psychological burden is invoked by advocacy groups to frame the chop as a form of microaggression with cumulative effects on Native mental well-being.^[50]

Institutional Responses

Team and League Policies

The Atlanta Braves organization has adjusted its practices to limit official endorsement of the Tomahawk chop while permitting fan participation. In July 2020, the team removed the "Chop On" sign from Truist Park and shifted its slogan to "For The A" amid broader cultural reviews.^[69] During the 2021 National League Championship Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers, following objections from St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Ryan Helsley, a member of the Cherokee Nation, the Braves halted distribution of foam tomahawks, ceased playing associated music, and avoided displaying chop graphics on stadium screens.^[70] MLB Commissioner Rob Manfred affirmed in October 2021 that the league would not mandate elimination of the practice, citing consultations with Native American groups that did not uniformly oppose it, though this stance drew rebuttals from tribal leaders asserting misrepresentation.^[71]^[50] The Kansas City Chiefs have enacted policies restricting related fan attire and modifying official elements of the tradition but have retained the core fan-led chop. In August 2020, the team banned headdresses and face paint mimicking Native American stereotypes at Arrowhead Stadium, escalating from prior discouragement, and introduced a ceremonial drum blessing to contextualize the practice culturally.^[72] Cheerleaders were directed to lead a subtler version of the chop without exaggerated motions.^[40] The NFL has not imposed a league-wide prohibition, allowing the Chiefs to continue the fan tradition despite ongoing protests from Native American coalitions.^[37] Florida State University's Seminoles athletics program maintains the Tomahawk chop as part of its War Chant tradition, with tacit approval from the Seminole Tribe of Florida, which has licensed Seminole imagery since a 2005 agreement.^[41] In September 2024, during a game against Notre Dame, FSU briefly omitted the chop on defensive third downs to reduce noise interference for on-field signals but continued its use elsewhere, reflecting no formal policy against the gesture.^[73] Exeter Chiefs, an English Premiership Rugby club, announced in August 2022 that it would discontinue playing the Tomahawk chop chant audio during matches as part of a rebranding effort to distance from Native American-themed elements, prompted by fan petitions and external criticism.^[42] However, by January 2023, the club reinstated the chant following supporter feedback emphasizing its role in match atmosphere, without additional restrictions from the Rugby Football Union.^[45]

Adjustments and Retentions Over Time

In October 2019, following complaints from St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Ryan Helsley, who is of Cherokee descent, the Atlanta Braves ceased official elements of the Tomahawk chop during playoff games, including distribution of foam tomahawks to fans, organ performances of the chant, and video board prompts encouraging the gesture.^[74] The team extended these reductions to regular season games but explicitly avoided banning the fan-led practice, preserving it as an independent tradition amid ongoing consultations with Native American representatives.^[75] By 2021, Major League Baseball Commissioner Rob Manfred affirmed support for the Braves' retention of the chop, describing it as a decision for the local community rather than league intervention.^[71] The Kansas City Chiefs adjusted policies in August 2020 by prohibiting fans at Arrowhead Stadium from wearing Native American headdresses, face paint intended to mimic war paint, or related attire, as part of a review prompted by cultural sensitivity concerns.^[76] The organization also attempted to reframe the chant as the "Arrowhead Chop" and directed cheerleaders to use foam props without the full gesture, yet these measures did not eliminate fan participation, which persisted in its original form during games and playoffs.^[23] The National Football League deferred to the team's discretion, allowing retention despite external advocacy for discontinuation. Florida State University's War Chant, incorporating the arm-chopping motion, has undergone no substantive adjustments since its emergence in the 1980s, remaining a fixture led by the marching band and echoed by crowds.^[3] The practice aligns with the university's longstanding partnership with the Seminole Tribe of Florida, which has endorsed the Seminoles nickname and associated traditions since 1947, including authentic regalia and rituals at games.^[6] This tribal approval distinguishes FSU's retention from broader institutional trends, emphasizing cultural collaboration over alteration.

Recent Developments Post-2020

In October 2021, during the World Series against the Houston Astros, the Atlanta Braves' tomahawk chop tradition faced heightened scrutiny after St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Ryan Helsley, a member of the Cherokee Nation, described it as "disrespectful" and a "poor representation of Native Americans" on national television.^[24] In response, the Braves halted distribution of foam tomahawks to fans at Truist Park for the series and covered related in-stadium displays, though fans continued the gesture independently.^[77] MLB Commissioner Rob Manfred supported the practice, citing endorsements from groups like the Seminole Tribe of Florida, while organizations such as the National Congress of American Indians labeled it "dehumanizing" and demanded its elimination.^[50]^[78] The Braves adopted a policy encouraging fans to refrain from the chop at home games in Truist Park, emphasizing respectful celebration, but stopped short of a ban, allowing it to persist at away games and among traveling supporters.^[79] This approach aligned with MLB's stance, which deferred to the team's traditions without mandating changes.^[80] For the Kansas City Chiefs, the chop remained a staple through their Super Bowl LVII appearance in February 2023 and Super Bowl LVIII in February 2024, drawing protests from Native American advocates outside Arrowhead Stadium who argued it perpetuated stereotypes.^[5]^[9] The team and NFL have not altered policies, with Chiefs owner Clark Hunt stating in 2023 that while reviewing imagery, the fan tradition would continue absent evidence of widespread offense.^[81] As of 2025, no major institutional bans or cessations have occurred across teams employing the chop, including Florida State University, where it endures as part of game-day rituals despite periodic campus debates.^[41] Criticisms from activist groups and media outlets, often aligned with progressive viewpoints, contrast with surveys indicating varied Native American opinions, including support from some tribal leaders.^[37]

Cultural References and Legacy

In Media and Entertainment

The Tomahawk chop has been referenced in media discussions as emblematic of stereotypical Native American portrayals originating from mid-20th-century Hollywood Westerns and television shows, where exaggerated gestures and chants depicted indigenous peoples as warlike savages. Native American commentators, including those responding to Kansas City Chiefs games, have described the fan gesture as directly "derived from television and film portrayals," arguing it perpetuates dehumanizing caricatures rather than authentic cultural practices.^[82] In contemporary film-related commentary, the chop drew attention during the 2024 awards season for Killers of the Flower Moon, when Siksikaitsitapi actress Lily Gladstone criticized the Chiefs' version as "a stark reminder of what Hollywood has done" to Native Americans, equating it to historical cinematic distortions that reduced complex cultures to props for dramatic effect.^[83] This linkage highlights ongoing debates in entertainment media about the gesture's roots in visual tropes from films like those produced by studios in the 1940s–1960s, which often employed non-Native actors and simplified narratives of conflict. Direct incorporations into entertainment content remain limited, with occasional satirical or parodic nods; for instance, the comedy group Smosh referenced a "tomahawk chop" in their 2012 Assassin's Creed III parody music video lyrics as a hyperbolic combat move, reflecting gaming culture's blend of historical simulation and exaggeration. Musical adaptations include rock performances adopting the associated war chant, such as by Bubba and the Band during live sets inspired by Florida State Seminoles traditions, energizing audiences with the rhythmic "chop" motif.^[84] These instances underscore the gesture's permeation into niche pop culture as a shorthand for tribal fervor, though without broader mainstream adoption in scripted television or film narratives.

Broader Societal Debates

The Tomahawk chop has sparked debates over cultural appropriation, with critics arguing it caricatures Native American traditions by mimicking war cries and gestures in a reductive manner, thereby perpetuating stereotypes of indigenous peoples as primitive or aggressive. Native American leaders, such as Muscogee Creek Nation Principal Chief David W. Payne, have described the practice as dehumanizing and not an authentic acknowledgment of tribal heritage, emphasizing that it mocks rather than honors ancestral ways of life.^[78] A 2020 University of Michigan study found that 67% of Native Americans surveyed opposed the use of such chants and gestures in sports, viewing them as offensive caricatures that contribute to broader societal marginalization.^[85] Proponents counter that the chop represents a benign fan tradition rooted in team identity and historical sports rituals, lacking intent to demean and fostering communal excitement without empirical evidence of widespread harm. Public opinion remains divided, as evidenced by a 2021 Seton Hall Sports Poll where 47% of avid baseball fans supported the Atlanta Braves discouraging the chop, while 40% opposed any restriction, highlighting a split between perceived sensitivity and preservation of longstanding customs.^[86] MLB Commissioner Rob Manfred has framed the issue as one for local Native communities to resolve, deferring to Atlanta-area perspectives rather than imposing league-wide bans, which underscores tensions between centralized cultural mandates and regional autonomy.^[87] These discussions extend to free expression in public spectacles, where advocates for retention invoke first-amendment principles, arguing that voluntary fan participation does not equate to institutional endorsement of racism and that suppressing it risks eroding organic traditions in favor of subjective offense claims. Conversely, opponents contend it normalizes insensitivity in mass media, potentially reinforcing subtle biases against Native Americans, who comprise less than 2% of the U.S. population and face ongoing underrepresentation in positive cultural narratives.^[9] The persistence of the chop despite protests—such as those during the 2021 World Series—illustrates a societal fault line: empirical data on direct causal harm remains limited, yet amplified media coverage, often from outlets with progressive leanings, has intensified calls for elimination, raising questions about whether such traditions warrant discontinuation based primarily on vocal minority objections versus majority fan endorsement.^[78]

References

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