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Tonga Trench

The Tonga Trench is an oceanic trench in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, situated east of the Tonga Islands between approximately 15°S and 24°S latitude, where the Pacific Plate subducts westward beneath the northeastern margin of the Indo-Australian Plate at convergence rates reaching up to 24 cm per year.^[1] It forms the northern segment of the extensive Tonga-Kermadec subduction system and extends over roughly 1,300 km along its axis, with typical depths ranging from 6,000 to 9,000 meters, though it shallows near 25°30'S as of 2025 due to the subduction of seamounts from the Louisville Ridge.^[2] The trench's maximum depth is 10,823 meters (±10 m) at Horizon Deep (22°57'S), establishing it as the second deepest point on Earth after the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench.^[3] Geologically, the Tonga Trench exemplifies a non-accretionary convergent margin dominated by extension and tectonic erosion, where the overriding plate undergoes significant material loss rather than accretion. This dynamic is influenced by the rapid subduction and the oblique convergence angle, leading to prominent normal faulting, submarine canyons, and forearc basins along its landward slope. The region is seismically hyperactive, hosting over 65% of the world's deepest earthquakes, many exceeding 500 km in depth, due to the slab's descent into the mantle.^[4] Notably, it features a double seismic zone extending to about 300 km depth—deeper than in any other subduction system—attributable to the subducting slab's relatively low temperatures, which delay the onset of aseismic deformation.^[5] The subduction processes also drive volcanic activity in the Tonga arc, exemplified by the massive 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption.^[6] Scientific interest in the Tonga Trench has grown with advancements in deep-sea exploration, including manned submersible dives to Horizon Deep in 2019 and 2024, which confirmed its extreme depths and revealed a hadal ecosystem with specialized fauna adapted to pressures over 1,000 atmospheres.^[3] These expeditions, supported by multibeam bathymetry and seismic surveys, have provided detailed maps essential for understanding subduction processes, volcanic arc formation, and the potential for nascent continental crust development in the overriding plate. The trench's position also makes it vulnerable to tsunamigenic earthquakes, underscoring its role in regional hazard assessment.^[7]

Geography

Location and dimensions

The Tonga Trench is situated in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, extending approximately from 14°S to 27°S latitude and between approximately 173°W and 176°W longitude, marking the northern segment of the extensive Tonga-Kermadec Trench system.^[8] This positioning places it within a highly dynamic tectonic environment, where the trench serves as a key boundary in the region's plate interactions. The trench measures roughly 1,300 km in length along its axis, with an average width of about 80 km, contributing to its role as one of the prominent features of the circum-Pacific Ring of Fire—a vast belt of seismic and volcanic activity encircling the Pacific basin.^[9]^[10] To the west, the Tonga Trench borders the Tonga Islands and the active Tofua volcanic arc, while it connects seamlessly to the Kermadec Trench at its southern end near 25°S; the structure also lies adjacent to the Lau Basin to the southwest and is influenced by its proximity to the Fiji and Samoa island groups, approximately 300–500 km to the northwest.^[8]^[11]^[12] The trench overlies the convergent boundary where the Pacific Plate subducts westward beneath the Indo-Australian Plate at rates exceeding 20 cm per year, driving ongoing tectonic deformation in the surrounding region.^[13]^[7]

Depth profile and bathymetry

The Tonga Trench features a steep V-shaped cross-section typical of mature subduction zones, with the inner (landward) slope often exceeding 10° and the outer slope around 3-5°, narrowing to a base width of less than 10 km in its deepest sections. This profile is interrupted by prominent scarps, small intra-trench basins, and linear fault lineaments that create a rugged floor topography, particularly along the southern portions where depths intensify. Variations in the cross-sectional gradient reflect subtle shifts in subduction dynamics, with the steepest gradients near the Horizon Deep. The trench shallows near 26°S due to the subduction of seamounts from the Louisville Ridge.^[14]^[8] The trench maintains an average depth of around 6,000 m across much of its length, though it shallows to less than 6,000 m north of the Louisville Ridge collision zone and plunges to hadal extremes southward. The maximum depth occurs at the Horizon Deep, the southern terminus of the trench's deepest segment, situated at approximately 23°16′S 174°44′W and measured at 10,806 m during a submersible dive in 2024. This positions the Horizon Deep as the second deepest known point on Earth, after the Challenger Deep.^[15]^[7] Initial bathymetric profiling in the 1950s relied on single-beam echo soundings, which first documented depths exceeding 10,800 m at the Horizon Deep site. Subsequent surveys in the 1980s and 1990s using early multibeam systems began revealing finer-scale features like the Tonga Platform escarpment. Comprehensive mapping accelerated in the 2000s with full-coverage multibeam sonar datasets from expeditions like Boomerang Leg 8 (1996) and later integrations, providing detailed grids that highlight the trench's axial re-entrants and along-strike depth undulations.^[8]^[16]

Geology

Subduction zone formation

The Tonga Trench formed as a result of the westward subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Indo-Australian Plate, a process that began approximately 45-52 million years ago during the Eocene epoch. This subduction initiation coincided with a major reorganization of Pacific plate motions, leading to the development of the Tonga-Kermadec subduction system as one of the primary convergent boundaries in the southwestern Pacific. The trench itself represents the surface expression of this ongoing convergence, where the descending oceanic lithosphere creates a deep topographic depression through flexural bending and sediment loading.^[17]^[18]^[19] The subduction mechanics at the Tonga Trench are characterized by oblique convergence, with the Pacific Plate moving westward at the fastest global rate of approximately 24 cm per year relative to the overriding plate. This rapid motion drives intense deformation, including the deepening of the trench to over 10,000 meters and the formation of an associated volcanic arc through partial melting of the subducting slab. The slab dips steeply at angles of 45-60 degrees, facilitating efficient rollback and contributing to the trench's extreme depth profile; this steep geometry is influenced by the young age of the subducting lithosphere (around 80-100 million years old) and minimal sediment infill, which allows for pronounced flexural subsidence. Oblique subduction also promotes lateral slab tearing and asymmetric stress distribution, enhancing arc volcanism along the Tonga Ridge.^[20]^[13]^[21] Over its evolutionary history, the Tonga Trench has been integral to the Tonga-Kermadec system, with subduction persisting since the Eocene and marked by episodic slab rollback that triggered back-arc spreading in the adjacent Lau Basin starting around 6 million years ago. This rollback, driven by the slab's negative buoyancy and rapid convergence, has extended the trench northward by over 1,200 km since its initiation, while also influencing regional plate fragmentation, including the formation of the Tonga Plate. The system's dynamics reflect a transition from initial compressional phases in the Eocene to ongoing extension in the back-arc region, underscoring the trench's role in southwest Pacific tectonics.^[19]^[22]^[23] Seismicity in the Tonga subduction zone is exceptionally high due to the rapid plate convergence and steep slab geometry, producing thousands of earthquakes annually, including intermediate-depth events forming a double seismic zone extending to about 300 km. Deep-focus earthquakes occur up to 700 km depth, among the deepest globally, as the cold slab penetrates into the lower mantle while resisting significant thermal weakening; these events highlight the zone's role in global seismic hazard and mantle circulation. The prevalence of such seismicity underscores the trench's active maintenance as a subduction feature, with stress accumulation along the plate interface driving both intraslab and interplate ruptures.^[24]^[25]^[21]

Tectonic features and interactions

The Tonga-Kermadec arc system forms a prominent volcanic arc parallel to the Tonga Trench, situated approximately 100-200 km to the west, resulting from the partial melting of the subducting Pacific plate beneath the Indo-Australian plate.^[7] This arc extends over 2,500 km from the Kermadec Islands northward through Tonga, featuring a chain of active and submarine volcanoes that define the western margin of the subduction zone.^[26] Notable active volcanoes include Tofua, a stratovolcano on Tofua Island with a 5-km-wide summit caldera that has produced explosive eruptions, and Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai, a submarine caldera volcano known for its 2022 explosive eruption that generated global atmospheric and tsunami effects.^[27]^[28] These volcanic features are segmented by interactions with subducting structures, influencing magma composition and eruption styles along the arc.^[13] Seismic tomography reveals evidence of a Pacific slab avalanche in the Tonga subduction zone, characterized by rapid sinking of the subducted slab into the lower mantle, particularly around the 660 km depth discontinuity.^[29] This process involves episodic instability where accumulated slab material avalanches downward, depressing the 660 km discontinuity by up to 30-40 km beneath the slab and broadening the mantle transition zone.^[30]^[31] Such dynamics drive fast mantle flow and contribute to the region's extreme trench retreat velocity of about 9-16 cm/year, facilitating deep penetration of slab remnants to depths exceeding 1,700 km. Recent 2025 seismic studies have identified hidden mantle superhighways beneath the Tonga region, facilitating rapid material transport due to the fast subduction and slab sinking.^[32]^[33]^[34] The subduction of the Louisville Seamount Chain, a 4,000-km-long hotspot-generated chain of basaltic seamounts, collides with the Tonga Trench at an oblique angle of approximately 36°, causing significant segmentation and localized uplift along the trench margin.^[35] This interaction, particularly evident around 26°S latitude, disrupts the continuity of the subduction zone, leading to variations in trench depth, forearc deformation, and seismic activity as the buoyant seamounts impede smooth plate descent.^[36] The collision has induced Pliocene-Pleistocene uplift of the Tonga Arc platform and altered subduction erosion patterns, with geophysical profiles showing thickened crust and anomalous velocity structures at collision points.^[37] Northward, the Tonga Trench transitions into the Lau Basin through a shift from subduction-dominated tectonics to back-arc rifting, where the trench progressively shallows as the Indo-Australian plate's rollback accelerates basin opening.^[38] This evolution, initiated around 5-6 million years ago, involves the splitting of the remnant Lau Ridge and the formation of spreading centers like the Eastern Lau Spreading Center, marking a boundary between convergent and divergent regimes.^[39] The transition reflects dynamic mantle flow and slab retreat, resulting in extreme extension rates up to 16 cm/year in the basin.^[11]

Associated geological structures

The Osbourn Trough is an extinct mid-ocean ridge located east of the Tonga Trench in the southwest Pacific Basin, extending approximately 900 km between the Manihiki and Hikurangi Plateaus.^[40] It represents an ancient plate boundary that rifted these large igneous provinces apart during the Cretaceous period, with initial spreading occurring at an oblique angle of 15°–20° before rotating to near-orthogonal directions of 2°–5°.^[40] Spreading along the trough ceased around 84–90 million years ago during magnetic Chron C34, likely due to the collision of the Hikurangi Plateau with a paleosubduction zone, decoupling it from ongoing Pacific-Phoenix ridge activity.^[40] In the northern segment of the Tonga Trench, the Capricorn Seamount—a flat-topped guyot from the Louisville Seamount Chain—is actively subducting near 18°38'S, 172°47'W, leading to localized tectonic deformation.^[8] This subduction causes trench shallowing by up to 4 km to the west of the seamount and promotes the transfer of small crustal blocks from the subducting Pacific Plate to the overriding Indo-Australian Plate.^[8] Sediment disruption is evident in the formation of en echelon basins and grabens that trap incoming material, inhibiting longitudinal sediment transport along the trench axis and forming a minor accretionary prism adjacent to the feature.^[8] Forearc structures along the Tonga margin include the Tonga Platform, a tectonically extended region characterized by large-scale normal faults generated by bending of the subducting Pacific Plate.^[41] These faults exhibit seabed offsets up to 2 km, reducing seismic velocities in the upper crust by ~1.0 km/s and in the upper mantle by ~0.5 km/s due to associated hydration and fracturing.^[41] An accretionary prism is notably absent in the trench, attributed to the thin sediment cover of less than 0.2 km on the incoming plate and the rapid subduction rate of 200–250 mm/year, which favors tectonic erosion over frontal accretion.^[7] Seismic studies reveal evidence of slab tears in the northern Tonga subduction zone, particularly through swarms of intermediate-depth earthquakes (40–88 km) with strike-slip and subvertical focal mechanisms, indicating propagation of tear faults across the slab thickness.^[42] These tears, driven by the slab's rollback at rates up to 158 mm/year and mantle flow around the slab edge, facilitate asthenospheric upwelling that influences regional volcanism by enabling decompression melting and enhanced magma production in adjacent arc and intraplate settings.^[42]^[43] Such dynamics contribute to elevated volcanic output, including boninites and adakites at the northern trench termination, where slab-edge tearing interacts with the mantle wedge.^[44]

Exploration

Historical surveys

The earliest scientific investigations of the Tonga Trench began during the HMS Challenger expedition of 1872–1876, which conducted numerous deep-sea soundings across the South Pacific, including in the vicinity of Tonga, revealing exceptionally deep waters indicative of significant bathymetric features.^[45] These soundings, using weighted lines to measure depths, marked the first systematic recognition of profound oceanic depressions in the region, though the full extent of the trench was not yet delineated.^[46] The trench was confirmed as a distinct geological feature in the 1950s through bathymetric surveys by U.S. research vessels under the auspices of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. The Capricorn Expedition of 1952–1953, aboard the R/V Horizon and R/V Spencer F. Baird, provided the first detailed profiling of the Tonga Trench, mapping its depth and structure over two weeks in the area.^[47] Complementing this, the Danish Galathea expedition in 1952 achieved the first dredging of the trench floor at Station 686, recovering sediments at a depth of 9,820 meters.^[48] In the 1950s, Scripps researchers advanced understanding through seismic profiling, employing refraction and reflection techniques to reveal the subduction zone dynamics underlying the trench. These studies demonstrated the Pacific Plate's descent beneath the Indo-Australian Plate, establishing the Tonga Trench as a key site for plate tectonics research.^[49] Pre-2000 efforts primarily focused on seismicity monitoring and basic bathymetric mapping, with multi-beam echo sounders improving contour accuracy by the 1990s. From the 1970s to 1990s, collaborative studies by New Zealand and Japanese teams emphasized arc volcanism associated with the trench. New Zealand geologists from the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences documented volcanic activity along the Tonga-Kermadec arc, linking it to subduction processes through field mapping and geochemical analysis.^[50] Japanese expeditions, including those from the University of Tokyo, conducted seismic and petrologic surveys of volcanic islands like Tofua and Ata, elucidating magma evolution and back-arc spreading influenced by the trench.^[51] A key milestone in the late 1990s was the identification of the Osbourn Trough, an extinct spreading center east of the Tonga Trench, through analysis of magnetic anomalies that traced its Cretaceous origin and interaction with the subduction system.^[52]

Modern expeditions and dives

In the 21st century, exploration of the Tonga Trench has benefited from advancements in submersible technology and remote sensing, enabling deeper and more detailed investigations than earlier acoustic surveys.^[53] These efforts have focused on manned and unmanned descents to refine bathymetric models and deploy specialized instruments under extreme hadal conditions.^[54] The 2012 Scripps Institution of Oceanography expedition, conducted aboard the RV Roger Revelle from August 31 to September 6, marked an early modern push into the trench's depths, led by graduate students under chief scientist Rosa Leon.^[53] The team deployed landers equipped to withstand hadal pressures exceeding 1,000 atmospheres, allowing for the first comprehensive sampling operations at depths around 10,000 meters in the Horizon Deep area.^[55] These landers captured environmental data over several days, providing baseline measurements of pressure and temperature gradients essential for subsequent technological designs.^[53] Building on these foundations, the 2019 Five Deeps Expedition achieved the first manned descent to the Tonga Trench's Horizon Deep using the DSV Limiting Factor, a titanium-hulled submersible rated for full-ocean depth.^[3] On June 5, explorer Victor Vescovo piloted the submersible to a measured depth of 10,823 meters (±10 meters), confirming Horizon Deep as the world's second-deepest point, only 105 meters shallower than the Mariana Trench's Challenger Deep.^[54] During the mission, high-resolution multibeam sonar mapped approximately 13,100 square kilometers of the surrounding seafloor, revealing previously uncharted topographic features and updating global bathymetric charts with centimeter-scale precision.^[56] The 2024 Minderoo-UWA Deep-Sea Research Centre expedition, operating from the research vessel Dagon out of Nuku'alofa, Tonga, consisted of four legs spanning July 1 to October 3 and represented the most extensive recent survey of the trench.^[57] Submersible dives reached depths up to 10,806 meters in Horizon Deep, including a manned dive on October 13 piloted by Jérémie Morizet and Tim Macdonald, while remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and landers conducted operations across a full depth gradient from abyssal to hadal zones.^[58] Multibeam echosounders generated high-resolution bathymetric data over vast areas, and ROV deployments captured the first extensive video footage from these depths, including rare deep-water observations.^[59] This effort built on post-2019 mapping by integrating real-time data processing to refine seafloor models and identify potential sites for future instrument deployments.^[57] Key technological innovations across these expeditions include hybrid ROVs capable of transitioning between surface-tethered and autonomous modes for extended operations at 10,000+ meters, as demonstrated in the 2024 survey's use of advanced untethered systems.^[60] Baited traps and landers, evolved from 2012 designs, incorporated pressure-resistant cameras and samplers to collect time-lapse data over 1,000+ hours, enhancing understanding of hadal dynamics without manned risk.^[57] Microbial samplers on these platforms, pressure-retaining bottles that preserve deep-sea conditions during ascent, enabled post-2019 updates to bathymetry by correlating biological indicators with topographic variations, though focused primarily on environmental profiling.^[53]

Biology and Ecology

Hadal zone communities

The hadal zone of the Tonga Trench, extending from approximately 6,000 to 10,800 meters, hosts specialized communities of macroscopic organisms adapted to extreme hydrostatic pressures, low temperatures, and limited organic inputs. These communities are characterized by low taxonomic diversity but high abundances of certain taxa, primarily scavengers that exploit episodic food falls from shallower depths. Dominant groups include lysianassoid amphipods, which form the core of the scavenging guild, alongside polychaetes, isopods, holothurians, and infaunal nematodes.^[61]^[62] Scavenging amphipods such as Hirondellea dubia and Alicella gigantea are particularly prominent, with A. gigantea exhibiting notable gigantism, reaching lengths of up to 34 cm, which may enhance competitive access to rare food resources in this oligotrophic environment.^[61] Other key amphipod species include Eurythenes gryllus, Scopelocheirus schellenbergi, and Uristes sp. nov., alongside polychaetes (e.g., Eteone sp.), isopods (e.g., Janthura sp.), and holothurians (e.g., Enypniastes eximia). Infaunal nematodes, such as Monhystrella spp. and Manganonema kitasatoi, dominate sediment communities, contributing significantly to benthic biomass. Adaptations among these taxa include pressure-resistant exoskeletons in amphipods, enabling survival under pressures exceeding 1,000 atmospheres, and gigantism linked to genetic enhancements in growth regulation pathways, as seen in A. gigantea. Vertical migration patterns, inferred from bait trap deployments, allow juveniles of species like H. dubia to occupy shallower zones before descending as adults, facilitating ontogenetic niche partitioning.^[61]^[63]^[64] Community structure reflects the trench's isolation and resource scarcity, with low diversity (e.g., effective species number ES(20) of 7.8 at 10,800 m) but elevated abundances, such as 3,175 amphipods per trap at the deepest sites compared to 449 at 6,250 m. Nematodes exhibit higher densities (387 individuals per 10 cm²) and biomass (15 µg dry weight per 10 cm²) in hadal sediments than at trench edges, underscoring their role in organic matter processing. Depth stratification is evident, with shallower hadal edges (around 6,000–6,250 m) supporting more mobile scavengers like E. gryllus and early-life stages of other amphipods, while deeper zones (9,000–10,800 m) are dominated by H. dubia and S. schellenbergi, reflecting pressure tolerances and reproductive strategies that limit overlap.^[61]^[63]

Microbial and scavenger ecosystems

In the hadal depths of the Tonga Trench, microbial communities include chemosynthetic bacteria that harness chemical energy from reduced compounds to fix carbon in the absence of sunlight. Piezophilic archaea and bacteria, adapted to extreme hydrostatic pressures, exhibit vertical stratification from 400 m to the trench floor. Scavenging amphipods, key consumers in the trench's detrital food web, display depth-stratified populations, with juveniles of species like Hirondellea dubia predominating at around 6,250 m and larger adults aggregating at 10,800 m, suggesting ontogenetic migration downslope.^[61] Bait-attending traps reveal opportunistic scavenging behaviors, where amphipod abundance increases sevenfold with depth due to concentrated organic falls.^[61] The 2024 expedition in the Tonga Trench captured the supergiant amphipod Alicella gigantea at 7,500 m using baited landers, uncovering novel predator-prey interactions among hadal scavengers and expanding known distributions of this species across over half the global ocean.^[65] Ecological processes in these communities are primarily driven by particulate organic carbon flux from surface productivity, which accumulates in the trench as a depocenter, supplemented by hydrothermal inputs from the adjacent Tonga volcanic arc that introduce reduced chemicals and nutrients.^[66] These inputs sustain low-energy regimes, where microbial and scavenger activities rely on sporadic carrion falls and refractory organic matter, fostering opportunistic feeding strategies amid limited primary production.^[67] Hydrothermal plumes enhance redox gradients, supporting chemosynthetic metabolisms that recycle carbon and sulfur. Metagenomic analyses of hadal sediments reveal diverse pathways for organic matter degradation under oligotrophic conditions, emphasizing prokaryotic contributions to carbon cycling. Such dynamics underscore the trench's significance as a hotspot for deep-sea biogeochemical transformations.^[68]

Human Connections

Apollo 13 re-entry

During the Apollo 13 mission, launched on April 11, 1970, an explosion in an oxygen tank aboard the service module two days later forced the crew to abort their lunar landing and use the Lunar Module Aquarius as a lifeboat to survive the return journey.^[69] On April 17, 1970, after the command module splashed down safely, the Lunar Module, including its attached SNAP-27 Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG), re-entered Earth's atmosphere separately.^[70] The SNAP-27 RTG, intended to power lunar surface experiments and containing approximately 3.8 kg of plutonium-238 dioxide fuel, was designed to separate during re-entry and did so, impacting the seafloor of the Tonga Trench at a depth of 6-9 km near coordinates 21°38'S, 165°22'W.^[69]^[71] Post-re-entry reconnaissance of the impact area detected no release of radioactive material, confirming the RTG's fuel cask remained intact as engineered.^[70] Surveys conducted in the 1980s by the U.S. Department of Energy found no traces of plutonium, indicating successful containment and burial in the trench sediments.^[72] Further assessments in the 1990s, as part of environmental impact statements for subsequent missions, reaffirmed the cask's integrity with no evidence of leakage, though long-term concerns persist regarding potential corrosion of the graphite and iridium components over centuries in the deep-sea environment.^[71] Attempts to recover the RTG have been unsuccessful due to the extreme depth and precise location challenges in the Tonga Trench.^[69] The incident is documented in the International Atomic Energy Agency's (IAEA) inventory of maritime radioactive material losses, with ongoing monitoring through global nuclear safety frameworks to assess any potential leaching risks from the buried cask.^[69]

Environmental and scientific significance

The Tonga Trench serves as a critical model for subduction zone dynamics due to its extreme rates of trench retreat, reaching up to 16 cm per year, which provides insights into rapid plate convergence and mantle processes.^[39] High-resolution seismic tomography studies have revealed detailed structures of the subducting Pacific Plate, including hydration and erosion mechanisms that influence arc magmatism.^[13] As one of the most seismically active regions globally, with frequent deep earthquakes, it exemplifies intraslab seismicity controlled by slab temperature variations, aiding predictions of intermediate-depth events.^[5]^[73] Subduction processes along the Tonga Trench generate significant seismic hazards, including large earthquakes capable of producing destructive tsunamis; for instance, the 2009 magnitude 8.1 event triggered waves up to 22.4 meters high, causing 189 deaths across Samoa, American Samoa, and Tonga.^[74]^[75] The adjacent Tonga volcanic arc amplifies risks through frequent eruptions, as seen in the 2022 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai event, which produced tsunami waves reaching 20 meters and global atmospheric effects linked to subduction-driven volcanism.^[76]^[28] Conservation efforts face threats from proposed deep-sea mining in Tongan waters, including the nearby Lau Basin, where polymetallic sulfide deposits attract exploration interest, potentially disrupting deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems through sediment plumes and habitat loss.^[77] Data from the 2024 Tonga Trench expedition, led by the Minderoo-UWA Deep-Sea Research Centre, documented rare species such as the bigfin squid and Pacific sleeper shark along with other biodiversity and geological features, bolstering calls for marine protected areas to safeguard the region amid mining pressures.^[57]^[59] The trench contributes to global climate regulation through enhanced carbon sequestration in its sediments, where hadal conditions facilitate the burial of organic matter via subduction.^[78] Additionally, ongoing monitoring of plutonium from the Apollo 13 mission's radioisotope thermoelectric generator, which impacted the trench in 1970, serves as a case study in nuclear legacy assessment, with post-reentry surveys confirming containment and no detectable environmental release.^[70]

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Episodic instability of the accumulated slab results in a flux of slab material into the lower mantle, or 'slab avalanche'. ... Tonga slab and the recent ...
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Subduction-transition zone interaction: A review - GeoScienceWorld
Jun 1, 2017 · Lower-mantle anomalies below Tonga and Kermadec extend from ∼700 km down to at least 1700 km, but it is not clear whether they are connected to ...
[31]
Seismic velocity structure and deformation due to the collision of the ...
Predominately of basaltic composition, the ∼4000-km-long Louisville Ridge seamount chain intersects the Tonga-Kermadec Trench at an angle of ∼36°. The ridge is ...
[32]
Construction and subduction of the Louisville Ridge, SW Pacific ...
The Louisville Ridge is a ca. 4000 km-long chain of seamounts in the SW Pacific that is currently being subducted at the Tonga-Kermadec trench.
[33]
[PDF] Effect of subduction of the Louisville ridge on the ... - Horizon IRD
Uplift of the Tonga Arc occurred in the early Pliocene-Pleistocene in response, probably, to (1) thermal expansion prior to rifting of the Lau Basin and (2) ...Missing: segmentation | Show results with:segmentation
[34]
From rifting to active spreading in the Lau Basin – Havre Trough ...
May 30, 2003 · Major tectonic changes occur at the transition between Havre Trough rifting and full oceanic spreading of the Eastern Lau Spreading Center (ELSC) ...
[35]
Geodynamic Evolution of the Lau Basin - Peng - 2024 - AGU Journals
Aug 3, 2024 · The formation of Lau Basin records an extreme event of plate tectonics, with the associated Tonga trench exhibiting the fastest retreat in the world (16 cm/yr).
[36]
History of the Cretaceous Osbourn spreading center - AGU Journals
Apr 6, 2007 · Spreading at the Osbourn ridge presumably ceased when the Hikurangi plateau collided with the Chatham Rise paleosubduction zone [Lonsdale, 1997] ...Missing: ago | Show results with:ago
[37]
Structural variability of the Tonga-Kermadec forearc characterized ...
Summary. Subducting bathymetric anomalies enhance erosion of the overriding forearc crust. The deformation associated with this process is superimposed on.
[38]
Slab tears and intermediate‐depth seismicity - AGU Journals - Wiley
Aug 12, 2013 · ... Tonga trench regions show clearly defined downgoing slabs and evidence for active tearing. The fourth region has been the focus of our ...
[39]
Volcanism in slab tear faults is larger than in island-arcs and back-arcs
Nov 13, 2017 · Such large volume of magma is associated to an upwelling of the isotherms due to mantle melts upraising from the rear of the slab along the tear ...Missing: influence | Show results with:influence
[40]
Boninites and Adakites from the Northern Termination of the Tonga ...
The trench–transform fault transition forms a slab-edge, the geometric consequences of which are the continuing rupture and rifting of oceanic lithosphere ( ...Boninites And Adakites From... · Discussion · Tongan Adakite Petrogenesis
[41]
The CHALLENGER EXPEDITION - Falklands Biography
During 1874 the ship visited New Zealand, Tonga, Fiji, Hong Kong, Indonesia, New Guinea, the Philippines, Japan, and Hawaii. On 23 March 1875, in the southwest ...
[42]
Exploring the Deep Pacific - UC Press E-Books Collection
The Tonga Trench is deeper than Mt. Everest is high. [Full Size]. This Trench, like the other great trenches of the ocean, is rimmed on one side by a series ...Missing: extent | Show results with:extent
[43]
Scripps in the 1950s | San Diego, CA | Our City, Our Story
Oct 1, 1983 · Also in 1952 began Capricorn Expedition across the Pacific to the Tonga Islands that included a survey of one of the ocean's trenches, for which ...
[44]
[PDF] Papers in marine biology and oceanography
Galathea Station nr. 686 was taken in the Tonga Trench. 8 degrees of latitude north of the full series of observations of St. 677 in the Kermadcc Trench.
[45]
https://www.falklandsbiographies.org/biographies/expedtion_challenger
[46]
The Tonga–Kermadec arc and Havre–Lau back-arc system
The convergent plate boundary marked by the Tonga–Kermadec arc system is one of the clearest examples of an intra-oceanic arc on the modern Earth.
[47]
Petrology and Geochemistry of Igneous Rocks from the Tonga Trench
Nov 26, 1986 · -An interpretive section of the trench slope based on rock distribution, seismic surveys, Seabeam data, and Raitt et al. (1955) thicknesses of ...
[48]
Morphology and origin of the Osbourn Trough - AGU Journals - Wiley
10 Jun 2000 · The Osbourn Trough could be part of the fossil spreading center between the Pacific Plate and a fragment of the Phoenix Plate, the ...
[49]
From the Field: Follow the Tonga Trench Expedition
Aug 29, 2012 · The research cruise, funded by the UC Ship Funds Program, is a rare opportunity for scientists to explore the Tonga Trench in the South Pacific Ocean.Missing: early | Show results with:early
[50]
Tonga Trench Expedition Blog
Jun 17, 2019 · But no, alas, our latest readings indicate the Horizon Deep is 10,820 meters deep. That is 108 meters shallower than the deepest point in the ...Missing: maximum | Show results with:maximum
[51]
Dipping into the Deep: Mission Investigates Tonga Trench
Sep 25, 2012 · The mission aimed to explore the ecosystem that exists in the trench under intense pressures and at low temperatures, particularly to gain some understanding ...Missing: discovery | Show results with:discovery
[52]
High‐resolution multibeam sonar bathymetry of the deepest place in ...
May 5, 2021 · Over the course of 10 months, the global Five Deeps Expedition (2018–2019) mapped ~550,000 km2 of seafloor of which 61% comprised new ...
[53]
Tonga Trench - Deep-Sea Research Centre
... distance of around 14 km. The 2024 Tonga Trench Expedition was the most ambitious, largest and most comprehensive research expedition ever undertaken at ...Missing: length | Show results with:length
[54]
Expedition awakens rare shark species
Jan 22, 2025 · Researchers have captured rare vision of a sleeper shark during an expedition exploring the biodiversity of the Tonga Trench in the ...
[55]
Tonga Trench 2024 - First sub dive of expedition to 10K metres
Jul 31, 2024 · Tonga Trench 2024 - First sub dive of expedition to 10K metres ... Minderoo-UWA Deep-Sea Research Centre•1.8K views · 11:06. Go to channel ...
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https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/gdj3.122
[57]
Amphipoda from depths exceeding 6,000 meters revisited 60 years on
May 15, 2023 · Amphipoda was listed as a dominant hadal group, alongside several others, namely holothurians, isopods, and polychaetes. The number of ...
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https://www.deepoceansearch.com/2024/10/13/french-diver-joins-elite-club-after-landmark-tonga-trench-dive/
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https://www.uwa.edu.au/news/article/2025/january/expedition-awakens-rare-shark-species
[60]
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZKIbUJFcM2A
[61]
https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5994
[62]
Sources, Degradation, and Transport of Organic Matter in the New ...
May 22, 2019 · Hadal trenches are considered as depocenters for organic matter and hotspots for microbial diagenetic activity. Here, we explore the sources ...
[63]
Megathrust earthquake drives drastic organic carbon supply to the ...
Feb 7, 2019 · ... organic carbon to the hadal trench. This carbon supply is comparable to high carbon fluxes ... Tonga, and Peru-Chile Trenches, have also ...
[64]
Earthquake-enhanced dissolved carbon cycles in ultra-deep ocean ...
Sep 11, 2023 · The production and consumption of dissolved carbon in the hadal trench sediments are key processes in the deep subseafloor carbon cycle, ...
[65]
[PDF] Inventory of accidents and losses at sea involving radioactive material
After a successful launch on 11 April 1970 a malfunction occurred in the oxygen supply on board the manned spacecraft “Apollo 13” on ...
[66]
Radioisotope Power Systems Safety and Reliability - NASA Science
The lunar module carrying the RTG was targeted to fall into the Pacific Ocean near the Tonga Trench. Extensive reconnaissance of the area detected no ...
[67]
[PDF] Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Ulysses Mission (Tier 2)
and its SNAP 27 RTG heat source, which was jettisoned, fell intact into the. 20,000 feet deep Tonga Trench in the Pacific Ocean. The corrosion resistant.
[68]
[PDF] Safety Review Process for Space Nuclear System Launches
... RTG landed in the South Pacific. Ocean in the vicinity of the Tonga Trench. Radiological surveys found no traces of the RTG, indicating that the plutonium ...
[69]
Slow deformation event between large intraslab earthquakes at the ...
Jan 8, 2021 · Here, we analyse the seismotectonic activities in the Tonga subduction zone, which is the world's most active area with regard to deep ...Earthquake Catalogue... · Results · Earthquake ActivityMissing: facts | Show results with:facts
[70]
Vertical zonation patterns of scavenging amphipods from the Hadal ...
Hadal scavenging communities exhibited similar higher abundance but also ~3-fold higher species richness in the more food-rich New Britain Trench compared to ...
[71]
How Deep is the Ocean?
Mar 12, 2019 · This trench in the South Pacific acts as a biodiversity hotspot, with ... The Tonga Trench is found in the southwest Pacific around New ...
[72]
Extremophiles in Earth's Deep Seas: A View Toward Life in Exo ...
The larger size of the giant isopod may be an adaptation that allows it to quickly and efficiently monopolize food in the deep sea (McClain et al., 2015). A ...
[73]
Extremophiles in Earth's Deep Seas: A View Toward Life ... - PubMed
May 12, 2022 · We review and synthesize the range of environmental extremes observed in the deep sea, the life that persists in these extreme conditions, and the biological ...
[74]
[PDF] Historical Tsunami Effects near the Tonga Trench (1837-2023)
In this region, the Pacific Plate subducts west beneath the Australian Plate at a rate of 6-9 cm/year. The trench strikes south-north, and bends west in the ...
[75]
Characteristics of the 29th September 2009 South Pacific tsunami as ...
In 1919 a Tonga Trench earthquake generated a local tsunami with run up of up to 2.5 m in the Ha'apai Island group (470 km south of Niuatoputapu) and in 1865 ...
[76]
In depth: Surprising tsunamis caused by explosive eruption in Tonga
Between January 14-15, 2022, volcanic explosions destroyed much of Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai, an uninhabited island in the Tonga archipelago in the southern ...
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Tonga weighs new deep sea mining deal with The Metals Company
Jul 30, 2025 · Tonga is considering a new deep sea mining contract with Canadian mining group The Metals Company (TMC) - and a local NGO says the ...Missing: Trench | Show results with:Trench
[78]
Removal of dissolved organic carbon in the West Pacific hadal zones
Jan 16, 2025 · We find that up to 34% ± 7% of the DOC in the trench bottom is removed during the northeastward transport of dissolved carbon along the trench axis.
[79]
Distribution, Source, and Burial of Sedimentary Organic Carbon in ...
Apr 13, 2021 · In the Kermadec and Tonga Trench regions, the surface sediments exhibit substantially higher pollen biomasses at hadal sites (>7,000 m ...3 Results · 3.1 Bulk Geochemical... · 3.2 Bulk Geochemical...