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Trench boot

The trench boot, also known as the Pershing boot, is a type of military combat footwear developed by the United States Army during World War I specifically for the harsh, muddy, and waterlogged conditions of trench warfare.^[1] Designed to protect soldiers' feet from the cold, wet environments that caused widespread trench foot—a painful condition involving tissue damage from prolonged moisture exposure—the boot featured reinforced construction to enhance durability and mobility in combat.^[2] Introduced in early 1918 and named after General John J. Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Forces, it marked a critical evolution in military footwear, replacing the inadequate Russet Marching Shoe that had led to significant casualties from foot-related ailments.^[3] The trench boot's design incorporated several key innovations to address the deficiencies of prior boots, including thicker, weatherproofed leather uppers treated with dubbing—a mixture of tallow and oils—for water resistance, and soles embedded with hobnails for improved grip on slippery terrain.^[3] It also included metal rivets for reinforcement at stress points, such as the sides and back seams, and a triple-stitched backstay to prevent ripping under the strain of prolonged wear in trenches.^[3] These features were developed in response to reports of over 2,000 U.S. soldiers suffering from or incapacitated by trench foot in the war's early stages, prompting urgent Quartermaster Corps modifications approved by Pershing himself.^[4] Production ramped up rapidly, with the boot seeing primary use from August to November 1918 during the final Allied offensives, though its deployment was limited by the war's end.^[1] Beyond its immediate wartime role, the trench boot influenced subsequent military footwear designs, emphasizing waterproofing and ruggedness that carried into World War II and modern combat boots.^[2] Its legacy endures in civilian fashion and heritage recreations, where the style is valued for its robust construction using high-grade leather and traditional methods like Goodyear welting, evoking the resilience required of soldiers in one of history's most grueling conflicts.^[3] Despite these advancements, soldiers still faced challenges, such as the boot's added weight—earning it the nickname "little tanks"—and the need for daily foot inspections and oil treatments to fully mitigate trench foot risks.^[2]

History

Origins and Development

Prior to the United States' entry into World War I, the standard U.S. Army footwear consisted of the Russet Marching Shoe, a low-quarter boot made primarily of machine-sewed calfskin with uppers lined in white duck canvas for lightweight wear in garrison and field service.^[5] These shoes featured minimal waterproofing and a single leather sole, rendering them inadequate for the harsh, waterlogged environments encountered during the war, such as the muddy and cold trenches of Western Europe.^[5] As the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) deployed to France in 1917, early reports highlighted severe foot injuries among soldiers exposed to prolonged standing in wet trenches, with 2,064 hospital admissions for trench foot recorded across the AEF by the end of 1918.^[6] This non-freezing cold injury, exacerbated by inadequate footwear and immobility, emerged as a significant medical concern, prompting an urgent redesign to address the limitations of the Russet shoe in European conditions.^[6]^[7] General John J. Pershing, commander of the AEF, played a pivotal role by approving modifications to early prototypes, leading to the development of a more durable boot suited to trench warfare, which became known as the "Pershing boot" (M1918) in his honor.^[1] Initial prototypes of the 1917 Trench Boot, inspired by French and Belgian designs, were introduced in 1917 and underwent iterative testing through 1918, incorporating nine specification changes to enhance durability for extended exposure to water and mud.^[5] These efforts, culminating in Pershing's approval in January 1918, focused on creating footwear capable of withstanding the static, soaked conditions of the front lines, marking a critical shift toward specialized military equipment.^[5]

Introduction in World War I

In early 1918, following General Pershing's approval in January, the U.S. War Department officially adopted the trench boot—designated the M1918 Pershing Boot—for the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF), marking a significant shift in military footwear to equip troops for the European theater.^[5] This adoption came as the United States rapidly mobilized following its entry into World War I in April 1917, with the boot intended to replace earlier marching shoes and 1917 prototypes that proved insufficient for prolonged field service.^[2] The Pershing Boot was developed specifically to better withstand the demands of modern warfare, drawing motivation from the muddy and waterlogged environments of the Western Front.^[8] Production of the trench boot was scaled up dramatically to support the growing AEF, with primary manufacturing handled by the Red Wing Shoe Company, which launched its 1088 trench boot model in 1917 as a key contributor to military footwear needs.^[9] By 1918, over one million pairs had been produced across various contractors to outfit the expanding force, reflecting the urgency of equipping millions of draftees and volunteers.^[10] This effort involved multiple shoe manufacturers adapting civilian facilities for wartime output, ensuring a steady supply chain despite material shortages. The initial distribution timeline saw the first shipments of trench boots arriving in France in early 1918, coinciding with the buildup of AEF divisions on the front lines.^[11] By the summer of 1918, during major offensives such as the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, the boot had become standard issue for combat units, replacing mixed supplies of earlier footwear.^[2] Integration into training began during AEF mobilization at stateside camps, where recruits received trench boots upon induction to familiarize them with heavier field gear. Basic training adaptations included extended marches and simulated trench exercises to break in the boots and prepare soldiers for European conditions, with quartermaster units overseeing sizing and fit to minimize early attrition.^[5] This process ensured that by mid-1918, the majority of deployed troops were equipped with the new standard.

Design and Features

Materials and Construction

The upper of the trench boot was constructed from thick, oiled cowhide leather, typically chrome-vegetable retanned with the rough side out to enhance durability and water resistance when treated with dubbing—a mixture of beef tallow and neatsfoot oil applied by hand.^[5]^[3] This leather was stitched using double seams, particularly along the backstays with three rows of reinforcement to prevent tearing under stress.^[5] The sole consisted of three full layers of tanned cowhide leather, embedded with rows of iron hobnails for improved traction in muddy terrain; these were arranged in five rows across the sole.^[5]^[12] A horseshoe-shaped iron heel plate was affixed to the rear, along with additional iron reinforcements at the toe, secured via the clinch nail method that combined sewing, screwing, and nailing for secure attachment. Iron or brass rivets were added at the blucher ears for further reinforcement.^[5]^[12] The boot featured a 9-inch shaft height, laced to the top with brass eyelets for enhanced durability during prolonged use, providing ankle support while maintaining a snug fit intended to accommodate wool socks worn over puttees.^[13]^[5] Manufacturing involved hand-lasted construction on wooden molds, a common technique during World War I due to metal shortages, followed by machine-sewn assembly under evolving U.S. Army specifications that underwent nine revisions between 1917 and 1918 to refine strength and waterproofing.^[14]^[5]

Protective Elements

Trench boots were engineered with targeted protective features to mitigate the environmental challenges of trench warfare, including persistent moisture, unstable footing, and cold temperatures. A primary defense against water ingress was the application of dubbin, a traditional mixture of animal fats such as beef tallow and neatsfoot oil, rubbed into the leather uppers to create a water-repellent barrier that preserved boot integrity in flooded or rain-soaked conditions.^[5] This treatment, often applied during manufacturing or in the field, enhanced the natural properties of the heavy chrome-tanned leather, though its effectiveness depended on regular reapplication to counter the abrasive mud of the Western Front.^[15] To ensure stability on the irregular and debris-strewn terrain of trenches, the boots incorporated structural reinforcements such as an insole reinforced with canvas that provided arch support and distributed weight evenly, reducing fatigue during prolonged marches over uneven ground.^[5] Additionally, toe cleats, secured with additional hobnails, offered robust protection against sharp debris, rocks, and impacts from collapsing earth, safeguarding the wearer's toes from puncture and abrasion.^[5] These elements, combined with triple-stitched backstays and riveted lace stays, bolstered overall durability without compromising mobility.^[5] Grip was a critical protective innovation, addressed through hobnailed soles featuring multiple rows of steel or iron studs embedded in a deliberate pattern—typically five rows across the sole—that optimized traction in clay-heavy, waterlogged soils.^[16] The spaced arrangement of these hobnails facilitated mud evacuation by allowing clumps to dislodge between the studs rather than caking solidly, thereby preventing slippage and maintaining secure footing during advances or retreats in saturated environments.^[15] Insulation against the cold, damp conditions of trench life relied on the inherent thickness of the leather uppers, which trapped body heat to minimize frostbite risk, augmented by compatibility with puttees—khaki woolen wrappings spiraled from ankle to knee.^[5] These puttees not only provided supplemental warmth to the lower legs but also acted as a barrier to retain heat within the boot system while excluding wind, water, and debris, thereby enhancing overall thermal protection in sub-zero European winters.^[17]

Military Use

Deployment in Trench Warfare

Trench boots saw extensive deployment on the Western Front during World War I, particularly in the grueling conditions of major offensives where soldiers navigated shell-cratered landscapes and waterlogged trenches. In the Meuse-Argonne Offensive of 1918, these boots were critical for American Expeditionary Forces units, such as the 33rd Division, enabling mobility amid the dense Argonne Forest and flooded terrain that hindered advances. Soldiers like Corporal William Lobell of the 33rd Division wore them throughout the campaign, which lasted from September 26 to November 11 and resulted in nearly 1,000 fatalities and 6,000 wounded for the division over 98 days of intense fighting. The boots' design, with reinforced soles and hobnails, provided essential traction in the slippery, mud-churned environment, allowing troops to maintain footing during assaults.^[15] In daily operations, trench boots were worn continuously by soldiers for weeks at a time, becoming caked in the pervasive mud of the trenches and requiring regular field maintenance to sustain functionality. Troops applied dubbin, a waterproofing agent, to the leather uppers and soles to prevent cracking and preserve water resistance amid constant exposure to rain and standing water. This maintenance was vital in the static yet hazardous routine of trench life, where soldiers conducted patrols, manned posts, and prepared for sudden advances without opportunities for full resupply or rotation. The boots offered protection and warmth in the vermin-infested, water-filled ditches, supporting the endurance needed for prolonged frontline duty.^[15] Tactically, the trench boots conferred significant advantages over earlier low-quarter shoes, enhancing stability for infantry charges and reconnaissance patrols across no-man's-land. The hobnailed construction reduced the risk of slips on uneven, debris-strewn ground, facilitating quicker maneuvers in contested areas and contributing to the success of breakthrough operations during the late-war offensives. Compared to pre-1917 footwear, which lacked such grip, the boots allowed soldiers to traverse barbed wire entanglements and shell holes more effectively, bolstering offensive momentum.^[15] Logistical challenges in 1918 included footwear shortages that affected unit readiness, with some divisions like the 89th lacking a second pair of shoes as late as July, leading to mixed issuances where troops supplemented standard trench boots with older or alternative footwear. Early in the war, American units training with British forces received boots from Allied supplies, resulting in varied equipment across divisions until domestic production ramped up. These issues highlighted the strain on Quartermaster operations amid rapid mobilization, though by the Meuse-Argonne phase, most frontline troops were equipped with the Model 1917 or updated Pershing variants.^[18]^[19]

Associated Health Issues

Trench foot, also known as non-freezing cold injury (NFCI), is a medical condition characterized by tissue damage to the feet resulting from prolonged exposure to cold, wet environments without freezing temperatures, leading to circulatory changes, swelling, numbness, and pain.^[20] This ailment primarily affected soldiers in the static, waterlogged trenches of World War I, where feet remained damp for days due to constant moisture from rain, mud, and poor drainage. Symptoms typically began with tingling or itching, progressing to blisters filled with gangrenous fluid, severe edema extending to the knee, and in extreme cases, tissue necrosis requiring amputation to prevent further spread of infection.^[20] The design of trench boots significantly contributed to the development of trench foot, as their leather construction offered limited breathability, allowing sweat and external water to accumulate inside while failing to evaporate effectively in the confined, humid trench conditions.^[1] Additionally, the hobnails embedded in the soles, intended for traction on slippery terrain, acted as cold conductors, drawing heat away from the feet and exacerbating hypothermia-like effects during prolonged static holds.^[5] Inadequate opportunities for drying feet in combat zones further compounded these issues, as soldiers could not easily remove or air out their boots amid ongoing threats. Incidence rates peaked during the fall and winter of 1917–1918, particularly in prolonged trench stalemates on the Western Front; the British Expeditionary Force recorded approximately 74,711 cases with 41 deaths, while the U.S. Army, entering combat later, reported 1,987 cases and only 5 deaths, reflecting their shorter exposure to winter conditions.^[20] Military authorities implemented several mitigation strategies to combat trench foot, including directives for regular foot inspections by medical officers and mandatory sock changes—ideally twice daily—to maintain dryness and promote circulation.^[21] These measures, along with recommendations for foot massages every few hours and the provision of extra dry socks at the front lines, aimed to reduce moisture buildup, though their effectiveness was often limited by the relentless demands of trench warfare, such as restricted mobility and supply shortages.^[22] Despite these efforts, the condition remained a significant health burden, underscoring the challenges of footwear adaptation in harsh, immobile environments.^[20]

Evolution and Legacy

Post-War Improvements

Following World War I, the U.S. Army's Quartermaster Corps prioritized enhancements to footwear durability and versatility to better suit peacetime operations while mitigating vulnerabilities like moisture retention that contributed to trench foot during the war. This led to a shift from the high-laced trench boot to the lighter ankle-height service shoe, introduced around 1920, which provided improved comfort and mobility for general service without sacrificing essential protection.^[23]^[10] Waterproofing received particular attention in the interwar period, with the adoption of chrome-tanned leather for uppers, which offered greater resistance to water penetration and mildew compared to traditional vegetable-tanned hides used in wartime designs. In the early 1940s, service shoe models incorporated composition rubber soles and heels, often using reclaimed or synthetic rubber for better adhesion and longevity, addressing wet-condition vulnerabilities and reducing wear from prolonged exposure. These material changes improved durability in damp environments.^[24]^[23]^[10] The Quartermaster Corps established uniform specifications across sizes (from 3 to 15½ in widths AAA to EEE), enabling mass production techniques that lowered costs and improved supply efficiency for the reduced interwar force. Higher laced combat boots, such as 10-inch models, were developed separately for field support, balancing height with reduced weight compared to WWI trench boots.^[23]

Influence on Later Military Footwear

The trench boot's design principles, particularly its emphasis on waterproofing, ankle support, and traction in harsh conditions, directly informed the development of U.S. military footwear during World War II. The 1939 Service Shoe, an early WWII iteration, retained the all-leather uppers of its predecessors with leather soles but incorporated lighter construction to address mobility needs, evolving from interwar modifications that refined the trench boot's base form. Hobnailed variants were reintroduced in 1941.^[3] This culminated in the M-1943 Combat Boot, introduced in 1943, which used composition rubber soles without hobnails for better durability and reduced weight, while treated leather uppers echoed the trench boot's weather-resistant features.^[3]^[2] Key influences from the trench boot persisted in U.S. designs through modularity and material choices, with the M-1943 featuring removable insoles for easier maintenance and a double-buckle system for quick donning, building on the trench boot's practical adaptations for field use. All-leather uppers remained standard, providing robust protection that carried over into subsequent models, including the 1952 Combat Boot, until the Vietnam War era, when synthetic elements began to supplement leather for enhanced ventilation.^[8]^[3]^[23] Globally, the trench boot's hobnailed traction and ankle-high profile influenced post-WWI designs in allied armies; the British continued using similar hobnailed "ammo boots" into the mid-20th century, which contributed to standardized NATO footwear specifications emphasizing durability and compatibility across member nations. French forces, from whose early designs the U.S. trench boot was adapted, evolved their own hobnailed infantry boots through the interwar period, retaining core elements like reinforced heels that aligned with broader European military standards.^[25]^[26]^[27] In contemporary combat boots as of 2025, echoes of the trench boot appear in retained ankle support for stability during rugged terrain and traction elements derived from hobnail principles, now achieved through modern lug soles, ensuring soldiers' footing in diverse environments from deserts to cold weather operations. These principles continue in models like the Improved Combat Boot (introduced 2002).^[2]^[8]^[23]

References

[1]
The Pershing Boot - La Crosse County Historical Society
Apr 29, 2014 · Trench boots were produced during WWI and were made for trench warfare. The rows of hobnails on the bottom of the shoe were designed to help ...Missing: definition military
[2]
Boots on the Ground: The History of the Combat Boot - Filson
Sep 5, 2025 · Before Americans sported the trench boot, it had been provided to French and Belgian soldiers at the start of the war, as early as 1914. The ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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https://camelcitymill.com/blogs/news/history-american-military-boots
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Wolf & Iron - Small Batch Beard Care and Coffee for Honorable Men
### Summary of Trench Boots in WWI
[5]
Little Tanks - The American Field Shoe [Boot] - WORLDWAR1.com
The 1917 Trench boot consisted of the same Chrome Vegetable retanned cowhide, rough side turned out, but now had an insole that was reinforced with canvas.
[6]
History | AMEDD Center of History & Heritage
The treatment of trench foot as practiced in the American Expeditionary Forces was based largely upon the work of Raymond and Parisot, of the French Army.
[7]
Trench Diseases - World War I Centennial Commission
Trench foot was a constant source of troops having to be evacuated, and ... The American army recorded 1800 cases during 1917-18, although only 5 deaths.
[8]
https://garmonttactical.com/post/history-of-combat-boots-in-military.html
[9]
History of Combat Boots in military | Garmont Tactical
### Summary of US Army Trench Boots During WWI
[10]
Meet Red Wing, makers of premium heritage footwear
Following the country's entry into WW1 in 1917, they were the primary manufacturer of military footwear with the launch of the 1088 trench boot; which proved so ...
[11]
Footwear - CCC Uniforms
The 1912 Russet Marching Shoe was intended to be this boot for all seasons -- equally at home on the battlefield and at a regimental ball.
[12]
Getting American Soldiers Trained in the Realities of Trench Warfare
Nov 1, 2017 · The AEF needed to train men quickly and efficiently, and relied on the French and British to give practical training in trench warfare.Missing: boot adoption
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Oak Street Bootmakers Black Dainite Trench Boots - $462
Oct 10, 2014 · The boot was made of tanned cowhide with a half middle sole covered by a full sole, studded with five rows of hobnails. Iron plates were fixed ...
[14]
U.S. Army Field Shoes 1902 to 1917 - U.S. Militaria Forum
Mar 22, 2009 · The 1902 Black and Russet Shoes were made to the same pattern and the chief difference between the two was only the color. Presumably during ...Notes on the 1916 Heavy Marching Shoe - U.S. Militaria ForumShoes. What models? - (1917-1919) WORLD WAR ONE, RUSSIAN ...More results from www.usmilitariaforum.com
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The development of the modern last - SATRA
As World War I started to use up significant amounts of metal, many shoemakers turned back to using wooden lasts. This was often maple, sourced from Canadian ...
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[PDF] The Great War: U.S. Army Artifacts
12 “The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: A Brief History: World War I,” U.S.. Army Corps of Engineers, Headquarters, accessed on 7 May 2018, http://www.usace ...
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Boots, Service, M-1917: O/Rs, US Army | Imperial War Museums
The M-1917 boots are ankle-length, laced, brown leather with metal studded soles, and replaced the M1904 shoe in trenches. They are also known as the 'Pershing ...
[18]
[PDF] Puttees - Canadian War Museum
They provide ankle support and prevent debris and water from entering the boots or pants. Khaki-coloured wool puttees were widely worn with ankle boots by ...
[19]
None
Below is a merged summary of all provided segments regarding US Army footwear, trench boots, shortages, logistics, and issuance during WWI (1918). To retain all information in a dense and organized manner, I will use a combination of narrative text and a table in CSV format for detailed data points. The narrative will provide an overview, while the table will capture specific details from each segment, including mentions of footwear, shortages, logistics, issuance, and mixed use of pre-war footwear, along with relevant dates, units, and sources.
[20]
[PDF] U.S. Army Logistics and Personnel During World War I - DTIC
This document covers US Army logistics and personnel during World War I, including the situation in 1917, homefront mobilization, and creating an overseas ...Missing: boot | Show results with:boot
[21]
Trench Foot: The Medical Response in the First World War 1914–18
Trench foot appeared in the winter of 1914, characterized by pedal swelling, numbness, and pain. It was quickly recognized by military-medical authorities.
[22]
Trench Diseases of the First World War
In the worst cases, amputation became necessary. The early rash of Trench Foot casualties - over 20,000 were recorded by the British on the Western Front in the ...
[23]
In World War One, A Clean Pair Of Socks Could Save Your Life.
Mar 9, 2022 · The authorities recommended that the troops change their socks twice a day and keep their feet dry as much as possible.<|control11|><|separator|>
[24]
Shoes and The Army — Clothing: Former QM Corps
Oct 1, 2025 · Warfare is rough on shoes. Army shoes must stand up under hard marching, mud, snow, and the severities of the weather.Shoes And The Army · Measuring The Requirements · Conservation Of Leather By...Missing: standardization | Show results with:standardization
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[PDF] comfort factors in leather footwear - DTIC
Army Retan boot of old has been transformed into the grain-out combat boot with mildew-resistant chrome-tanned uppers, with developments like water resistance ...
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Boots, Boots, Boots: A Living History Case Study
Jun 18, 2017 · Ammo boots were ankle-high lace-up boots, made with pebble-grained leather uppers and hobnailed leather soles. They were as tough as the men that wore them.
[27]
Footwear - 151st Line Infantry Regiment
The French infantry boot of the Great War went through an evolution which began even before the start of the war. Several models of boot were in use between ...
[28]
hobnails on boots - Other Equipment - Great War Forum
May 21, 2007 · A good thing about WWI boots is that there was actually no prescribed hobnail pattern. In fact if the soles were made the way the WO wanted ...