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Abrasion

Abrasion is the mechanical process of removing material from a solid surface through friction caused by the action of another solid, typically hard particles sliding or impacting along the surface.^[1] This wear mechanism occurs when two surfaces rub against each other, often under load, resulting in the gradual degradation of the softer material.^[1] In geology, abrasion serves as a primary agent of mechanical weathering and erosion, where transported sediments—such as sand, gravel, or ice—grind against bedrock, smoothing and shaping landscapes over time.^[2] For instance, glacial abrasion carves U-shaped valleys by scraping underlying rock with embedded debris, while river abrasion polishes riverbeds and canyons through the scouring action of suspended particles.^[2] Wind-driven abrasion erodes exposed surfaces in arid environments through the impact of airborne particles, contributing to the formation of yardangs and ventifacts. In engineering and materials science, abrasion is a critical form of tribological wear that affects the longevity of components in machinery, tools, and infrastructure.^[1] Materials are tested for abrasion resistance using standardized methods, such as the Taber abrader, to predict performance in applications like tires, conveyor belts, and hydraulic structures where frictional contact with aggregates or fluids leads to surface deterioration.^[3] High-abrasion environments, such as mining operations or coastal defenses, demand alloys, composites, or coatings engineered to minimize material loss and maintain structural integrity.^[4] In dentistry, abrasion is the mechanical wear of tooth enamel due to friction from external objects other than teeth. In medicine, an abrasion refers to a superficial skin injury where the epidermis is scraped or rubbed off by friction against a rough surface, often resulting in minor bleeding, pain, and risk of infection if not cleaned properly.^[5] Common examples include road rash from falls or scrapes from contact sports, typically healing within 7–10 days without scarring when treated with antiseptic and dressings.^[5] Unlike deeper wounds, abrasions involve only partial-thickness damage and are distinguished from lacerations or punctures by their broad, frictional etiology.^[6]

Mechanical and Engineering Contexts

Definition and Processes

Abrasion is the removal of material from a solid surface by the mechanical action of another solid, often involving hard particles that slide or roll along the surface, leading to scuffing, scratching, wearing down, marring, or rubbing away of the material.^[1] This process occurs through friction, where the relative motion between surfaces generates shear forces that progressively degrade the softer or less resistant material. In engineering and materials science, abrasion is a fundamental form of wear that affects the durability and performance of components exposed to frictional contact.^[7] Abrasion can be intentional, as in controlled manufacturing operations designed to shape, finish, or polish materials, or unintentional, arising from everyday use, environmental factors, or operational stresses that lead to gradual surface degradation.^[8] Intentional abrasion employs abrasives to achieve desired geometries or textures, while unintentional abrasion often results in component failure if not mitigated through material selection or protective measures.^[9] Historically, abrasion techniques have been integral to stone shaping since ancient times, with civilizations such as the Egyptians using dense abrasives like emery—a mixture rich in corundum—to work softer stones like limestone.^[10] These methods involved rubbing the abrasive against the stone surface, frequently aided by water to create a slurry that enhanced particle removal and reduced friction.^[10] This early application laid the groundwork for modern abrasive processes by demonstrating the effectiveness of harder materials in eroding softer ones through sustained frictional contact. Controlled abrasion processes today include abrasive machining, which removes small amounts of material using hard, sharp, nonmetallic particles embedded in tools or wheels to produce precise shapes and finishes.^[11] Grinding, a common variant, employs a rotating abrasive wheel to refine surfaces on metals, ceramics, or composites, achieving tolerances finer than those possible with conventional cutting tools.^[12] These techniques parallel natural geological abrasion, where sediment particles transported by water or wind erode rock surfaces over extended periods.^[1]

Abrasion Resistance and Testing

Abrasion resistance refers to a material's capacity to withstand the removal of surface material through friction, rubbing, or the action of hard particles, thereby maintaining structural integrity under mechanical wear.^[13] This property is crucial in engineering for predicting the longevity of components exposed to abrasive environments, such as sliding contacts or particulate flows.^[14] In quantitative terms, it measures the minimal loss of mass, volume, or thickness resulting from controlled abrasive interactions.^[14] Key metrics for evaluating abrasion resistance include the abrasion rate, commonly expressed as the mass lost per 1,000 cycles of abrasion, which provides a direct indicator of wear severity under standardized conditions.^[15] The normalized abrasion rate, also known as the abrasion resistance index, is calculated as the ratio of the reference standard's abrasion rate to that of the test material, enabling consistent comparisons across different materials and test setups with values greater than 1 indicating superior resistance.^[16] These metrics prioritize relative performance over absolute values, facilitating material selection in design.^[17] Common standardized tests assess abrasion resistance through simulated wear mechanisms. The Taber abrasion test, governed by ASTM D4060, employs two rotating abrasive wheels pressed against a stationary sample under a specified load, typically for organic coatings, plastics, and textiles, where resistance is quantified by weight loss after a set number of cycles or revolutions until a failure endpoint like breakthrough.^[18] ASTM G65 uses a dry sand/rubber wheel method, feeding angular quartz sand between a rotating chloroprene rubber wheel and the specimen to mimic low-stress sliding abrasion on metals and hard coatings, with results reported as volume loss normalized to sliding distance and load.^[19] The abrasion scrub tester, as per ASTM D4213, involves a reciprocating arm with a nylon brush or abrasive pad and a detergent slurry scrubbing a coated panel, measuring weight loss or cycles to expose the substrate for evaluating wet abrasion resistance in paints and varnishes.^[20] Several factors significantly influence the outcomes of these abrasion tests. Applied load directly affects contact pressure and thus wear depth, with higher loads accelerating material removal.^[21] Sliding distance correlates with cumulative exposure, often leading to a linear increase in wear up to a transition point.^[21] Abrasive particle size determines the severity of scratching, as larger particles cause deeper grooves and higher wear rates.^[22] Surface conditions, including initial roughness, hardness, and the presence of lubricants or contaminants, further modulate friction and particle embedding, altering overall resistance.^[14] These testing methods find broad applications across industries to ensure material durability. In coatings, they verify resistance to environmental and cleaning abrasion for architectural paints and automotive finishes.^[23] For rubber products like tires and seals, tests predict performance under frictional stresses.^[23] Plastics undergo evaluation for consumer goods and packaging to assess scratch and mar resistance.^[24] In textiles, abrasion testing gauges wear in fabrics for upholstery, apparel, and protective gear.^[23] Such assessments guide material optimization, often interpreted through foundational models like the Archard equation, which links wear to load and distance for predictive insights.^[25]

Mathematical Models

The Archard wear equation provides a foundational quantitative model often applied to predict wear volume in sliding contacts within mechanical engineering contexts, including extensions to abrasive wear scenarios. It is expressed as

Q = K \frac{W L}{H},

where Q is the volume of wear debris removed, K is a dimensionless wear coefficient, W is the normal load, L is the sliding distance, and H is the hardness of the softer material.^[26]^[27] This equation derives from adhesive wear theory, which posits that wear particles form through the shearing of adhesive junctions between asperities on sliding surfaces, though for abrasive wear, modifications account for cutting or ploughing by hard particles rather than adhesion. Archard modeled the process by assuming that real contact occurs at discrete asperity junctions, each bearing a fraction of the total load, and that a constant probability exists for junction severance to produce a wear fragment after sliding a certain distance; the resulting linear relationship between wear volume, load, and distance follows from geometric considerations of junction area and material removal efficiency. For abrasive wear specifically, models like that of Rabinowicz incorporate a cutting constant based on particle geometry and attack angle.^[26]^[27] The wear coefficient K encapsulates system-specific influences and typically ranges from $10^{-2} to $10^{-6}, depending on the interacting materials, with lower values indicating better wear resistance. Key factors affecting K include surface roughness, which increases adhesion and thus K for rougher interfaces; temperature, where elevated levels soften materials and elevate K; and the presence of third-body abrasives, such as contaminants, that accelerate wear by enhancing cutting mechanisms and raising K by orders of magnitude.^[28]^[29] While versatile, the Archard equation has limitations, as it primarily applies to steady-state sliding abrasion under mild conditions and assumes a constant K, which may not hold for severe wear regimes where fatigue or delamination dominate. Extensions incorporate variable K or additional terms for rolling contacts, where wear scales differently with Hertzian stresses, or impact abrasion, integrating velocity-dependent energy dissipation.^[28]^[30] In practical applications, the equation predicts tire tread wear by integrating sliding distances from vehicle dynamics with rubber hardness under load, enabling simulations that estimate lifespan under varying road conditions. Similarly, in manufacturing, it forecasts tool life for cutting inserts by relating flank wear volume to machining parameters like feed rate and depth, guiding selection of carbide grades for prolonged operation.^[31]^[32] Empirical validation often employs standardized tests such as ASTM G65 to calibrate K against model predictions.

Medical Context

Classification by Depth

Medical abrasions are classified by depth based on the extent of tissue involvement, analogous to burn classifications but specific to friction-induced injuries. This system categorizes them into first-degree, second-degree, and third-degree, reflecting progressive damage from superficial epidermal loss to deeper structural involvement.^[33]^[34] First-degree abrasions represent the mildest form, confined to the epidermis—the outermost skin layer—resulting in superficial scraping without penetration into deeper tissues. These injuries typically appear as red, raw areas of scraped skin, accompanied by mild pain, tenderness, and slight swelling, but without bleeding or blister formation. They commonly occur on high-friction sites such as the palms of the hands, knees, or elbows during falls or slides across surfaces.^[33]^[34]^[5] Second-degree abrasions extend beyond the epidermis into the upper dermis, involving partial-thickness skin loss that disrupts blood vessels and connective tissue. This leads to more pronounced symptoms, including minor bleeding, potential blistering from fluid accumulation, and increased pain due to exposed dermal nerve endings. Such abrasions often heal with minimal scarring if properly managed but require cleaning to prevent infection. They frequently affect bony prominences like elbows or knees in scenarios involving greater shear force.^[33]^[34]^[35] Third-degree abrasions penetrate the full dermis into the subcutaneous tissue, causing extensive tissue denudation that may resemble an avulsion with ragged edges and significant bleeding from disrupted deeper vessels. These severe injuries pose risks of infection, delayed healing, and permanent scarring or functional impairment, often necessitating professional evaluation and debridement. Common in high-impact falls or drags, they are less frequent but critical to identify early.^[33]^[34] In contrast to full-thickness wounds like lacerations or punctures—which involve complete transection through all skin layers and often require suturing—abrasions are inherently partial-thickness injuries caused by tangential friction or shear forces rather than sharp penetration or compression. This distinction influences healing dynamics, with abrasions generally regenerating via epidermal migration rather than granulation from the base. For all depths, initial treatment emphasizes gentle cleansing and dressings to avert infection, particularly in deeper cases.^[36]^[5]^[35]

Causes and Risk Factors

Skin abrasions primarily result from friction between the skin and rough surfaces, such as sliding or scraping against concrete or asphalt, which removes layers of the epidermis.^[36] Impacts from forceful blows or falls onto uneven terrain can also cause abrasions by shearing the skin, while prolonged pressure from objects may lead to patterned abrasions where the object's imprint is visible on the skin.^[36] These mechanisms often occur in everyday physical trauma, distinguishing abrasions from deeper wounds like lacerations.^[37] Common scenarios include sports injuries, such as those from biking or skateboarding, where high-speed falls on abrasive surfaces are frequent.^[37] Falls represent a leading cause across age groups, particularly in children during play and in older adults due to balance issues.^[36] Accidents, like vehicle collisions or pedestrian mishaps, and occupational hazards, such as construction workers handling rough materials or tools, further contribute to incidence rates.^[38] In these settings, abrasions often accompany other minor traumas but can become significant if untreated. Risk factors encompass age-related vulnerabilities, with children experiencing the highest rates—accounting for 70.7% of reported cases—due to active play and falls, while elderly individuals face increased susceptibility from skin fragility and mobility limitations.^[36] Dry skin heightens risk by reducing natural barrier protection against friction, leading to easier tearing or cracking.^[39] Underlying conditions like diabetes exacerbate vulnerability through impaired skin integrity, dry texture, and reduced bacterial resistance, though these primarily affect healing rather than initial injury occurrence.^[40] Environmental factors, including cold weather, diminish skin elasticity via reduced blood flow and increased dryness, promoting cracks that predispose to abrasions.^[41] Abrasions frequently embed dirt, gravel, or bacteria from the contact surface, heightening infection potential due to the loss of the protective epidermal layer, which exposes underlying tissue to pathogens like Clostridium tetani and Staphylococcus aureus.^[36] This contamination risk is particularly elevated in outdoor or dirty environments, where prompt cleaning is essential to mitigate complications.^[42] Abrasions constitute a significant portion of minor emergency department visits, with open wounds—including abrasions—accounting for approximately 4.7 million U.S. cases annually, and higher incidence observed in active populations such as children and athletes.^[43] These injuries often affect the head and torso (50% of cases) or extremities, though minor instances may go underreported.^[36]

Treatment and Healing

The initial treatment of medical abrasions focuses on minimizing infection risk and promoting clean wound healing. Thorough cleaning with mild soap and water is essential to remove embedded debris, followed by irrigation using saline solution to flush out contaminants; hydrogen peroxide should be avoided as it can cause tissue damage and delay healing. After cleaning, topical applications help prevent bacterial colonization. Antibiotic ointments such as bacitracin or neomycin are commonly applied to reduce infection rates, particularly in superficial abrasions, while petroleum jelly or similar occlusive agents maintain a moist environment that supports faster epithelial recovery. Pain management varies by abrasion size and severity. For small areas, topical anesthetics like lidocaine can provide localized relief without systemic effects, whereas larger or more painful abrasions may require oral analgesics such as ibuprofen, which also helps reduce associated inflammation. Appropriate dressing is crucial for protection and monitoring. Non-adherent dressings, such as those impregnated with petrolatum, are recommended to cover the wound, facilitating moist healing and preventing adherence to the scab; these should be changed daily to inspect for signs of infection, including increased redness, swelling, or pus formation. Healing timelines depend on abrasion depth. Superficial abrasions typically resolve in 7-10 days through re-epithelialization, where new skin cells migrate to cover the wound bed, while deeper abrasions may require 2-4 weeks and carry risks of scarring or post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation. Potential complications underscore the need for vigilant care. Infections such as cellulitis can arise if bacteria enter the wound, leading to systemic symptoms; tetanus prophylaxis is advised if vaccination status is outdated, as the risk increases with contaminated abrasions. Post-healing, sun exposure should be avoided or protected with sunscreen to prevent discoloration of newly formed skin. Conditions like diabetes can slow healing by impairing circulation and immune response, potentially extending recovery.

Geological Context

Fluvial and Glacial Abrasion

Fluvial abrasion occurs when sediment particles transported by rivers erode the underlying bedrock through mechanical wear. Bedload sediments, such as pebbles and gravel, roll or saltate along the riverbed, impacting and scouring the surface to polish and deepen channels.^[44] This process is particularly effective in high-velocity flows where sediment flux is sufficient to maintain contact with the bed. Suspended load, consisting of finer particles like sand and silt, contributes to subtler abrasion by impacting the bedrock at higher velocities, leading to gradual smoothing and incision.^[45] The efficiency of these mechanisms depends on river flow velocity, which must exceed thresholds for erosion and transport as described by the Hjulström curve, originally derived from experiments on sediment entrainment in the River Fyris.^[46] In rivers, abrasion often combines with corrosion, where chemical dissolution weakens the rock, facilitating mechanical breakdown across both hard and soft lithologies.^[47] Glacial abrasion involves the grinding action of debris embedded in the basal ice of a glacier against the underlying bedrock, producing characteristic landforms. Clasts trapped at the glacier's base act as abrasives, creating linear striations, polished surfaces, and broad U-shaped valleys through sustained frictional wear. Subglacial sediment deformation, where a layer of till deforms plastically under the ice, further enhances abrasion by concentrating abrasive particles and increasing shear stress at the bed.^[48] Plucking, or quarrying, complements this by fracturing and entraining bedrock blocks, which then become additional abrasive tools incorporated into the glacier's load.^[49] These processes operate effectively on varied rock types, though rates vary with ice velocity and debris concentration. While abrasion rates in both fluvial and glacial settings are typically lower than those of chemical weathering in stable environments—often on the order of 0.1 to 1 mm per year for fluvial incision and up to 10 mm per year for glacial erosion—they cumulatively shape major landscapes over geological timescales.^[50] Evidence includes the deeply incised and polished granite walls of Yosemite Valley, formed primarily by repeated Pleistocene glaciations that amplified pre-existing fluvial erosion.^[51]

Coastal and Aeolian Abrasion

Coastal abrasion occurs when waves, particularly during high-energy conditions, transport sand, pebbles, and other sediments that impact and erode cliff faces and shorelines. This mechanical process is enhanced by hydraulic action, where the force of breaking waves compresses air in rock cracks and joints, exerting pressure that dislodges fragments, while the abrasive load grinds away material like sandpaper. In addition to mechanical breakdown, solution processes dissolve soluble rocks such as limestone, contributing to overall erosion, though abrasion dominates in rocky coasts. These actions typically concentrate at the base of cliffs, forming undercuts that destabilize overlying material, leading to collapses and gradual retreat of the shoreline.^[52]^[53]^[52] Persistent wave abrasion at the tide line creates flat, wave-cut platforms, often exposed at low tide, which extend seaward as benches of eroded rock. These platforms result from the ongoing scouring of cliff bases, reducing slope angles and protecting inland areas until further retreat occurs. Raised beaches, elevated remnants of ancient abrasion platforms and associated sediments, form when relative sea levels drop, leaving these features above the current intertidal zone; they indicate past higher sea levels and ongoing tectonic or eustatic changes. An example is observed along the cliffs of Ventnor on the Isle of Wight, UK, where wave-driven abrasion contributes to rapid coastal retreat rates exceeding 0.5 meters per year in exposed sections, exacerbating landslide risks.^[54]^[55]^[56] Aeolian abrasion, prevalent in arid and semi-arid regions, involves wind transporting sand particles that bombard exposed rocks, sculpting surfaces through repeated impacts. This process etches, pits, grooves, and polishes rocks into ventifacts, which often display faceted sides aligned with dominant wind directions, serving as indicators of paleo-wind patterns. In desert environments, sustained abrasion can form yardangs—streamlined, elongated ridges of cohesive sediment or soft rock, oriented parallel to prevailing winds and sometimes reaching tens of meters in height and kilometers in length. Notable features in the Namib Desert include extensive ventifact fields and yardangs, where quartz-rich sands driven by trade winds create polished boulders and eroded landforms over millennia.^[57]^[58]^[57] Key environmental factors influencing both coastal and aeolian abrasion include the concentration, velocity, and mass of abrasive particles, which determine the kinetic energy available for erosion. In coastal settings, higher wave velocities during storms increase particle impact force, while greater sediment loads from nearby beaches amplify grinding efficiency. Similarly, in aeolian processes, wind speeds above threshold values accelerate saltating sand grains, with particle mass affecting penetration depth into rock surfaces; abrasion rates peak near the ground where particle flux is highest. Global warming intensifies these dynamics, as rising sea levels expose more coastline to wave attack and storms generate stronger surges, accelerating abrasion and threatening infrastructure like roads and buildings through enhanced erosion and flooding.^[59]^[52]^[60]^[61] Unlike fluvial abrasion, which involves relatively continuous sediment-laden flows in rivers, coastal and aeolian processes are more intermittent, occurring primarily during storms or high winds, yet they exert greater power in high-energy zones due to concentrated bursts of velocity and load. This episodic nature can lead to rapid, localized landscape changes, such as deepened coastal notches or desert deflation hollows, contrasting with the steadier incision of fluvial systems. Aeolian abrasion may produce striations similar to those from glacial ice, though wind-driven features are typically finer and more faceted.^[62]^[52]^[58]

Dental Context

Causes and Mechanisms

Abrasion in the dental context refers to the pathological wear of tooth structure caused by friction from external objects, distinct from attrition involving tooth-to-tooth contact. The primary cause is aggressive toothbrushing, characterized by excessive force, prolonged duration, or use of hard-bristled brushes, which predominantly affects the cervical margins of premolars and canines.^[63] This mechanical action erodes enamel and exposes dentin, often manifesting as saucer-shaped or wedge-like defects near the cementoenamel junction.^[64] Other mechanisms include habitual behaviors such as nail-biting, pipe-smoking, and using toothpicks, which introduce abrasive forces to tooth surfaces.^[65]^[66] Consumption of abrasive foods like nuts or the presence of ill-fitting dental appliances can further contribute to wear, particularly when combined with softened enamel from prior acidic exposure.^[67] These factors exacerbate friction-induced damage, as demineralized enamel becomes more susceptible to mechanical removal.^[63] The abrasiveness of toothpaste is quantified using the Relative Dentin Abrasivity (RDA) scale, which measures wear on dentin relative to a standard abrasive; values of 250 or less are considered safe for daily use according to ISO 11609 standards.^[68] Electric toothbrushes generally reduce abrasion compared to manual ones, especially those with pressure sensors that limit excessive force.^[63] Over a lifetime, acceptable enamel wear is typically under 400 μm when using low-RDA products.^[69] Pathophysiologically, abrasion involves repeated friction that progressively removes enamel and dentin layers, resulting in characteristic V-shaped lesions at the cervical region.^[70] This wear triggers secondary dentin formation as a protective response but can lead to sensitivity and structural compromise. The prevalence of non-carious cervical lesions, which often include abrasion, ranges from less than 10% to over 90% in adults and increases with age.^[71] Modifying brushing techniques, such as adopting gentler strokes, can mitigate these risks.^[63]

Prevention and Management

Preventing dental abrasion involves adopting proper oral hygiene practices and addressing contributing behaviors to minimize tooth surface wear. The Bass brushing technique, which positions the toothbrush at a 45-degree angle to the gumline with short, gentle strokes using soft bristles for approximately two minutes, effectively removes plaque while reducing the risk of abrasion from excessive pressure.^[72] Dentists recommend soft-bristled toothbrushes and light pressure to prevent enamel and dentin erosion during brushing.^[73] Additionally, switching to low-abrasive toothpastes with a relative dentin abrasivity (RDA) value below 100 (ideally under 70 for those at risk) helps limit mechanical wear, as commonly classified in dental literature, with ADA guidelines confirming safety for values up to 250.^[74]^[75] Fluoride varnishes applied professionally can strengthen enamel and reduce sensitivity in at-risk areas.^[76] Behavioral counseling is essential for modifying parafunctional habits, such as aggressive brushing or nail-biting, through techniques like reminder therapy and patient education to halt progression.^[77] Managing sensitivity from early abrasion focuses on non-invasive desensitizing agents before considering restorative interventions. Stannous fluoride dentifrices occlude dentinal tubules and provide relief, with clinical trials demonstrating significant reduction in hypersensitivity when used twice daily.^[78] For minor lesions confined to enamel or cementum without caries, smoothing the rough edges with polishing agents can prevent plaque accumulation and further irritation, avoiding unnecessary restorations.^[79] Advanced abrasion lesions require restorative options that balance durability, aesthetics, and fluoride release. Resin-modified glass ionomer cements (RMGICs) are preferred for their wear resistance, adhesion to tooth structure, and aesthetic properties, showing high retention rates over 10 years in clinical follow-ups.^[80] Prior to application, surface roughening of the prepared lesion enhances bonding without beveling the margins, as beveling can reduce longevity in glass ionomer restorations. Regular dental check-ups every six months are crucial for monitoring abrasion progression through visual exams, study models, or intraoral scans, enabling early intervention to preserve tooth integrity.^[81] While newer bioactive materials, such as those incorporating calcium phosphates or advanced glass ionomers developed post-2019, show promise for remineralization and anti-erosive effects, comprehensive clinical data on their long-term efficacy in abrasion management remains limited.^[82]

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Untreated or severely dry skin can cause your skin to crack open and bleed. Open sores or wounds from these cracks expose your body to germs that can cause ...
[41]
Diabetes and Skin Complications | ADA
People with high glucose levels tend to have dry skin and less ability to fend off harmful bacteria. Both conditions increase the risk of infection. Keep skin ...
[42]
How Weather Conditions Affect Wound Healing - OWC Center
Apr 8, 2025 · Cold temperatures restrict blood flow, reducing oxygen and nutrients needed for tissue repair, while dry air can cause skin cracking, further ...Missing: abrasions | Show results with:abrasions
[43]
Can Scrapes Lead to Serious Health Issues?
Mar 28, 2024 · Bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens can enter through open wounds, posing health risks. Prompt and proper care of scrapes reduces the risk of ...
[44]
Minor wound evaluation and preparation for closure - UpToDate
Feb 19, 2025 · Annually, approximately 4.7 million wounds are treated in emergency departments in the United States [1] and more than 1 million patients ...
[45]
[PDF] Modeling the Effects of Bed Topography on Fluvial Erosion by ...
Abrasion by bed load is a dominant erosional mechanism of fluvial incision into bedrock. The foremost saltation-abrasion model states that erosion rate is ...
[46]
A model for fluvial bedrock incision by impacting suspended and ...
Sep 17, 2008 · A mechanistic model is derived for the rate of fluvial erosion into bedrock by abrasion from uniform size particles that impact the bed during transport in ...
[47]
[PDF] CHAPTER 9 THRESHOLD OF MOVEMENT - MIT OpenCourseWare
Hjulström undertook to represent the boundaries among erosion, transportation, and deposition in a graph of flow velocity vs. particle size. He acknowledged ...
[48]
Bedrock bedforms produced by fluvial bedload abrasion
7) defined fluvial bedrock bedforms as “those forms resulting principally from sculpting of the rock by any fluvial mechanism (abrasion, corrosion, fluid ...
[49]
Is erosion by deforming subglacial sediments significant? (Toward ...
Jan 20, 2017 · The erosion rate is normalized to the ice longitudinal strain rate and the material hardness. If the abrasion rate under a deforming layer is ...
[50]
[PDF] Glacial erosion: plucking and abrasion as a function of bedrock ...
Subglacial erosion beneath glaciers occurs predominantly by abrasion and plucking ... Is erosion by deforming subglacial sediments significant? (Toward till.<|separator|>
[51]
[PDF] The relative efficacy of fluvial and glacial erosion over modern to ...
Aug 23, 2009 · The highest erosion rates, far exceeding 10 mm yr−1, have been measured from rapidly retreating tidewater glaciers and volcanically disturbed ...
[52]
glacial history of the yosemite valley
Nov 28, 2006 · The evidences of glacial action in a mountain region are in general of three kinds—grooved and polished rock surfaces, characteristic ...
[53]
Coastal Processes—Erosion (U.S. National Park Service)
Mar 8, 2019 · Waves, especially breaking waves, are the main erosive agent. They move sand, dislodge rock, and cause abrasion, with plunging breakers having ...
[54]
Tectonics, Sediment Supply, and Morphologies Along Rocky Coasts
... waves and turn into stumps due to continual erosion. So, as you can see through the agents of erosion (hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, and corrosion) ...Missing: no | Show results with:no
[55]
[PDF] Formation, Evolution, and Stability of Coastal Cliffs–Status and Trends
They commonly form during times of rising sea level, such as the present, as the shoreline advances landward and erodes the elevated landmass. Coastal cliffs ...
[56]
Coastal Erosion - Geological Survey Ireland
Abrasion is when rocks and other materials carried by the sea are picked up by strong waves and thrown against the coastline causing more material to be broken ...Missing: raised | Show results with:raised
[57]
Eolian Processes - USGS Publications Warehouse
Oct 29, 1997 · Ventifacts are rocks which have been cut, and sometimes polished, by the abrasive action of wind. Sculpted landforms, called yardangs, are ...
[58]
Aeolian (Dunes) Landforms - Geology (U.S. National Park Service)
Dec 1, 2022 · Ventifacts are geomorphic features made of rocks that are abraded, pitted, etched, grooved, or polished by wind-driven sand or ice crystals.
[59]
The effects of sediment properties on the aeolian abrasion and ...
Oct 23, 2025 · Alongside the particle characteristics, two key factors determining the rate of abrasion are the particle velocity and mechanical energy ...
[60]
[PDF] The physics of wind-blown sand and dust
Aug 2, 2017 · Specifically, we review the physics of aeolian saltation, the formation and development of sand dunes and ripples, the physics of dust aerosol ...
[61]
Coasts, Storms, and Sea Level Rise | U.S. Geological Survey
Intense storms and higher seas create more winds, waves, and floods, leading to increased coastal erosion. Hurricanes can wash away sandy barrier islands, ...
[62]
Abrasion rates of ventifacts | Discover Applied Sciences
Jul 15, 2019 · The accumulative effective abrasion duration is 36 h. For the common rock or mineral components of vitrifaction in Table 1, the abrasion depths ...
[63]
Systematic Review on Toothbrushing and Cervical Abrasion
Many variables, including rough toothbrushing and the use of dentifrice with a high-abrasive component, may lead to tooth abrasion. Brushing causes lesions that ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[64]
Abrasion and Recession - Using an Evidence-based Approach to ...
Abrasion is multi-factorial but is generally believed to be caused by improper brushing technique, frequent brushing with too much pressure, bristle design ...
[65]
11 Habits That Damage Your Teeth | Colgate® Oral Care
1. Brushing Your Teeth and Gums Too Hard · 2. Biting Your Nails · 3. Chewing Ice · 4. Clenching or Grinding Your Teeth · 5. Using Tobacco · 6. Sucking Your Thumb or ...1. Brushing Your Teeth And... · 2. Biting Your Nails · 7. Using ToothpicksMissing: abrasion pipe-
[66]
Whistle Abrasion: A Case Report - PMC - PubMed Central
Pipe smoking is commonly associated with tooth abrasion. Abrasion from pipe smoking occurs on the incisal surfaces in association with placement of the pipe ...
[67]
Tooth Wear - General and Cosmetic Dentist - Total Health Dentistry
A small amount of wear as we age is considered normal. By “wear,” we mean loss of tooth structure. Wear starts with loss of the hard, translucent enamel.Missing: limit 400 μm<|separator|>
[68]
ISO 11609 Tooth Relative Enamel Abrasivity and Relative Dentine ...
ISO 11609 applies to dentifrices, including toothpastes, destined to be used by the consumers on a daily basis with a toothbrush to promote oral hygiene.
[69]
(PDF) Diagnosis and Management of Dental Wear - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · Dental wear is loss of tooth structure resulting from erosion, attrition, abrasion, and, possibly, abfraction.
[70]
Pathophysiology of Demineralization, Part I: Attrition, Erosion ...
Feb 7, 2022 · The maximum depth of a NCCL is a stress riser when the tooth is flexed, so abfraction tends to form and deepen a V-shaped lesion (Fig. 2) ...<|separator|>
[71]
The Prevalence of Tooth Wear and Their Associated Etiologies ...
May 4, 2024 · The prevalence of tooth wear among 18-40-year-old adult patients of the dental clinic at Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah City was 74%, in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[72]
Manual toothbrushing techniques for plaque removal and the ...
Jul 5, 2024 · There was evidence of low certainty that adults taught the Bass technique would show a reduction in plaque after brushing in the short term and ...
[73]
Toothbrushes | American Dental Association
Oct 7, 2022 · Also, when brushing, the ADA recommends that people use a soft-bristled toothbrush and apply gentle pressure, both of which may help reduce the ...
[74]
Toothpastes | American Dental Association
Sep 26, 2025 · It assigns dentifrices an abrasivity value, relative to a standard reference abrasive that is arbitrarily given an RDA value of 100.Missing: ISO | Show results with:ISO<|separator|>
[75]
Managing Tooth Sensitivity: Tips for Healthier Teeth
Jun 9, 2025 · Fluoride varnishes applied by a dental professional are particularly effective as they adhere to the teeth for several hours, allowing for ...<|separator|>
[76]
Management of Oral Parafunctional Habits: A Case Report
Apr 18, 2023 · direct habit counseling of the patient by the dental surgeon, reminder therapy, rewards concept, and finally orthodontic appliance therapy.
[77]
A randomized, controlled, two-month pilot trial of stannous fluoride ...
May 10, 2020 · Either stannous fluoride or sodium fluoride dentifrices can be recommended to dentinal hypersensitivity patients who undergo professional ...
[78]
Abfraction lesions: etiology, diagnosis, and treatment options - PMC
May 3, 2016 · Abfraction lesions are observed primarily on the buccal surfaces and are typically wedge- or V-shaped lesions with clearly defined internal and ...Missing: pathophysiology | Show results with:pathophysiology
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10-Year Follow-Up on Resin Modified Glass Ionomer Restorations
Oct 6, 2020 · This case study reports on the long-term clinical performance involving restoration with resin modified glass ionomer.
[80]
Monitoring of erosive tooth wear: what to use and when to use it - NIH
Mar 24, 2023 · Taking study models at baseline and at future appointments is often recommended as a method to monitor tooth wear progression. However, visual ...
[81]
Bioactive dental materials - JADA Foundational Science
Apr 19, 2023 · Bioactive materials are designed to elicit a desired therapeutic or beneficial response. Such materials have been described as releasing ions or molecules.