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Two-hit hypothesis

The two-hit hypothesis, proposed by geneticist Alfred G. Knudson in 1971, is a foundational model in cancer genetics that explains the development of tumors through the sequential inactivation of both alleles of a tumor suppressor gene, requiring two distinct mutational "hits."^[1] This hypothesis originated from Knudson's statistical analysis of retinoblastoma cases, where he observed differences in age of onset and tumor bilaterality between hereditary (familial) and sporadic (nonhereditary) forms: hereditary cases, comprising about 35–45% of instances, typically present earlier (mean age 12 months) and are often bilateral due to a germline mutation as the first hit, followed by a somatic second hit in retinal cells, while sporadic cases (55–65%) occur later (mean age 30 months), are unilateral, and require two somatic hits.^[2] The model uses Poisson statistics to estimate mutation rates, revealing that the somatic mutation rate for the second hit is approximately equal to the combined germline and somatic rates for the first hit, with an average of three tumors per affected carrier in hereditary cases.^[1] Knudson's framework predicted the existence of tumor suppressor genes like RB1—the gene mutated in retinoblastoma—15 years before its cloning in 1986, and it has since been validated experimentally, such as through restriction fragment length polymorphism studies showing loss of heterozygosity in tumors.^[3] The hypothesis has been generalized beyond retinoblastoma to numerous cancers and tumor suppressors, including TP53 (implicated in Li-Fraumeni syndrome and various malignancies), APC (in colorectal cancer), and BRCA1/2 (in breast and ovarian cancers), where at least 30 such genes have been identified that normally inhibit cell proliferation, promote apoptosis, or repair DNA damage.^[2] Over the past five decades, extensions to the model incorporate epigenetic inactivation (e.g., promoter hypermethylation as a "hit"), haploinsufficiency (where one mutation partially impairs function), and context-specific roles, such as "caretaker" genes maintaining genomic stability or "gatekeeper" genes directly controlling cell growth, while also recognizing complexities like third hits or stromal influences in tumorigenesis.^[3] This enduring theory has profoundly shaped understanding of hereditary cancer syndromes, genetic predisposition, and targeted therapies, emphasizing the recessive nature of tumor suppressor loss at the cellular level.^[3]

History

Formulation by Knudson

Alfred G. Knudson Jr. (1922–2016) was an American physician and geneticist renowned for his work on the genetic basis of pediatric cancers, particularly retinoblastoma, during his tenure at institutions like the City of Hope Medical Center and later the Fox Chase Cancer Center.^[4] In 1971, Knudson proposed the two-hit hypothesis in a seminal paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences titled "Mutation and Cancer: Statistical Study of Retinoblastoma," based on his analysis of clinical data from 48 retinoblastoma cases and prior reports.^[1] Knudson's formulation arose from comparing the age-of-onset distributions between hereditary (germinal) and non-hereditary (sporadic) forms of retinoblastoma. He observed that hereditary cases typically manifest earlier and are often bilateral or multifocal, suggesting that affected individuals inherit one mutation and require only a single additional somatic mutation to initiate tumorigenesis, whereas sporadic cases, lacking the inherited mutation, necessitate two independent somatic mutations and thus present later and usually unilaterally.^[1] To quantify this, Knudson employed a mathematical model based on the Poisson distribution, estimating the somatic mutation rate and predicting an average of three tumors per genetic carrier; this approach aligned the observed tumor multiplicities (from none to multiple per eye) with the hypothesis that retinoblastoma requires biallelic inactivation of a susceptibility gene, with germinal and somatic mutation rates being roughly equal.^[1] For his groundbreaking contribution to understanding cancer genetics through the two-hit model, Knudson received the 1998 Albert Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research, shared with Peter C. Nowell for related advancements in oncogenesis.^[5]

Early Evidence and Development

The initial supporting evidence for the two-hit hypothesis emerged from Alfred G. Knudson's statistical analysis of retinoblastoma cases in 1971, based on 48 cases and data from prior reports. This dataset revealed a striking difference in disease onset: hereditary forms manifested at a mean age of about 12 months, compared to 24 months for sporadic cases, with bilateral tumors almost exclusively in the hereditary group. These patterns suggested that hereditary retinoblastoma required only one additional somatic mutation after a germline event, while sporadic cases needed two independent somatic mutations, aligning with Poisson distribution models for tumor initiation.^[1]^[6] Further validation came in the mid-1980s with molecular studies that identified mechanisms consistent with the hypothesis. In 1986, Friend et al. cloned the RB1 gene on chromosome 13q14, demonstrating that retinoblastoma tumors consistently exhibited biallelic inactivation—loss or mutation of both copies—confirming the need for two hits at the same locus. Concurrently, the understanding evolved beyond simple point mutations to encompass loss of heterozygosity (LOH), where large chromosomal deletions or mitotic recombination eliminate the wild-type allele. This was evidenced in 1983 by Cavenee et al., who used restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers to detect LOH in retinoblastoma tumors from heterozygous patients, showing how the second hit often involved gross genomic alterations rather than solely small mutations. By the 1990s, the two-hit model extended beyond retinoblastoma to other tumor suppressor genes, broadening its impact on cancer genetics. The TP53 gene, identified as a key tumor suppressor in 1990 through studies of Li-Fraumeni syndrome families, followed a similar biallelic inactivation pattern in various sporadic and inherited cancers, reinforcing the hypothesis's generality. These refinements solidified the hypothesis as a foundational paradigm for understanding tumor suppression.

Core Principles

Role of Tumor Suppressor Genes

Tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) encode proteins that regulate cell growth, promote DNA repair, or trigger apoptosis to prevent uncontrolled proliferation and maintain genomic integrity.^[7] For instance, the RB1 gene produces the retinoblastoma protein, which acts as a key inhibitor of cell cycle progression by binding E2F transcription factors and halting the G1-to-S phase transition. Central to the two-hit hypothesis, TSGs demonstrate haplosufficiency, where a single functional allele suffices to suppress tumor formation, but both alleles must be inactivated for tumorigenesis to occur, as implied by Knudson's model.^[1] This recessive behavior at the cellular level explains why inherited mutations in one TSG allele predispose individuals to cancer only after a somatic "second hit" inactivates the remaining copy.^[1] TSGs are broadly categorized into gatekeepers and caretakers based on their primary functions.^[8] Gatekeeper genes, exemplified by RB1, directly restrain cell proliferation by enforcing growth-inhibitory signals or apoptosis pathways. In contrast, caretaker genes, such as BRCA1, safeguard genomic stability through DNA repair mechanisms, indirectly fostering tumorigenesis when mutated by allowing mutation accumulation over time. Unlike oncogenes, which drive cancer through dominant gain-of-function alterations in a single allele, TSGs require biallelic loss-of-function to unleash oncogenic potential, underscoring the protective "two-hit" requirement in Knudson's model.^[9] The cloning of RB1 in 1986 represented the first identification of a TSG, paving the way for the discovery of numerous known TSGs (over 100 as of 2024) through advances in genomic sequencing and functional studies.^[10]^[11]

Inherited Versus Sporadic Cancers

In inherited cancers, the first hit occurs as a germline mutation in a tumor suppressor gene, present in every cell of the body, which predisposes individuals to tumorigenesis upon acquisition of a somatic second hit in specific cells.^[3] This contrasts with sporadic cancers, where both hits are somatic mutations acquired during life, making such events rarer and typically resulting in later disease onset and unilateral or unifocal presentations.^[12] For example, carriers of germline RB1 mutations, as in hereditary retinoblastoma, face a nearly 90% lifetime risk of developing the tumor due to the ubiquitous first hit, often leading to bilateral or multifocal disease at a young age. The two-hit model predicts substantially elevated risks for multiple tumors in inherited cases, as only one additional somatic event is required per affected tissue compared to two independent events in sporadic cases; in retinoblastoma, this translates to a dramatically higher incidence of bilateral tumors among carriers, on the order of hundreds-fold greater than in non-carriers.^[9] Inherited forms also exhibit substantially higher risk relative to the baseline population risk, reflecting the efficiency of the pre-existing germline mutation in promoting oncogenesis across a lifetime.^[12] Family pedigrees of these cancers display an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern at the organismal level, as a single germline mutation confers susceptibility, yet the mechanism remains recessive at the cellular level, requiring biallelic inactivation for tumor formation.^[13] By 2025 estimates, 5-10% of all cancers involve an inherited first hit in a tumor suppressor gene, with syndromes like Li-Fraumeni syndrome—caused by germline TP53 mutations—exemplifying this category through elevated risks for multiple cancer types following a somatic second hit.^[14]^[15]

Mechanisms

Nature of the First Hit

The first hit in the two-hit hypothesis refers to the initial genetic event that inactivates one allele of a tumor suppressor gene, rendering it non-functional. This event can manifest as various types of mutations, including point mutations, small insertions or deletions, or larger chromosomal alterations such as structural changes or loss of the allele.^[16] These alterations disrupt the gene's normal function without immediately affecting cellular behavior, as the remaining wild-type allele continues to produce functional protein.^[9] Following the first hit, the affected cell becomes heterozygous for the tumor suppressor gene, with one mutated and one intact allele. Due to the compensatory action of the wild-type allele, there is typically no observable phenotypic change or loss of growth control at this stage, maintaining cellular homeostasis.^[9] In inherited forms of cancer predisposition, the first hit occurs in the germline, resulting in a constitutional mutation present in all cells of the affected individual; this follows an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern with a 50% transmission risk to each offspring.^[17] In contrast, sporadic cases involve an early somatic mutation in a progenitor cell, which is then propagated to all descendant cells but remains confined to the affected tissue lineage.^[1] Historically, detection of the first hit in familial cases relied on linkage analysis within affected pedigrees to map the susceptibility locus, as exemplified in studies of retinoblastoma families that helped localize the RB1 gene.^[18] Modern approaches have advanced to include single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays, which enable genome-wide identification of loss of heterozygosity (LOH) regions, thereby pinpointing loci where the first hit may have occurred alongside a subsequent event.^[19] These methods confirm the heterozygous state but often require integration with sequencing to precisely characterize the initial mutation. The first hit establishes a population of susceptible cells but does not confer a selective growth advantage on its own, limiting any clonal expansion until the second hit inactivates the remaining wild-type allele.^[3] This dependency underscores the recessive nature of tumor suppressor gene inactivation at the cellular level.^[1]

Nature of the Second Hit

The second hit in the two-hit hypothesis refers to the somatic event that inactivates the remaining functional allele of a tumor suppressor gene (TSG), following an initial germline or somatic mutation in the first allele. This decisive inactivation can occur through various genetic mechanisms, including loss of heterozygosity (LOH), which often arises from mitotic recombination, chromosome loss, or non-disjunction, resulting in the replacement of the wild-type allele with the mutated one. Alternatively, the second hit may involve direct point mutations that disrupt the wild-type allele's coding sequence or regulatory elements, leading to loss of protein function. Unlike the first hit, which establishes heterozygosity across a large cell population, the second hit is a rate-limiting step, occurring at a somatic mutation frequency of approximately 10^{-6} to 10^{-7} per gene per cell division. This low probability necessitates numerous cell divisions over time, contributing to the observed latency in tumor development, as only a small fraction of heterozygous cells acquire the second alteration to initiate clonal expansion. Epigenetic mechanisms extend the concept of the second hit beyond purely genetic changes, with promoter hypermethylation of CpG islands silencing TSG expression without altering the DNA sequence; this process is potentially reversible, unlike irreversible genetic hits. For instance, in sporadic colorectal cancers, hypermethylation of the MLH1 promoter serves as the second hit, inactivating the wild-type allele and promoting mismatch repair deficiency, which drives tumorigenesis. The complete biallelic inactivation from the second hit abolishes TSG function, removing critical restraints on cell proliferation, DNA repair, and apoptosis, thereby enabling uncontrolled growth and tumor initiation. Recent integrations of CRISPR/Cas9 technology have validated these mechanisms in vivo; for example, targeted biallelic knockout of TSGs like Ptch1 in mouse models induces rapid tumor formation, mirroring the tumorigenic consequences of natural second hits.

Applications in Oncology

Retinoblastoma as a Model

Retinoblastoma serves as the paradigmatic example of the two-hit hypothesis, illustrating how biallelic inactivation of a tumor suppressor gene drives oncogenesis in a pediatric malignancy of the retina. This rare eye cancer predominantly affects children under five years of age, with an incidence of about 1 in 15,000 to 20,000 live births worldwide. Approximately 40% of cases are hereditary, arising from germline mutations in the RB1 tumor suppressor gene present in all cells, while the remaining 60% are sporadic, requiring two somatic mutations within retinal cells.^[20] Alfred Knudson's seminal 1971 analysis of retinoblastoma pedigrees provided the foundational evidence for the two-hit model, demonstrating distinct patterns between hereditary and non-hereditary forms. In hereditary cases, which account for nearly all bilateral or multifocal tumors, the first hit is a germline RB1 mutation, leading to tumors with 95% penetrance and an average age of onset around 12 months; the second hit occurs somatically in retinal precursors. In contrast, sporadic cases are typically unilateral and unifocal, with both hits being somatic and resulting in a later average diagnosis age of 24 months. These temporal and clinical differences underscored the rate-limiting nature of the second hit in hereditary disease and both hits in sporadic cases. The RB1 gene, mapped to the 13q14 chromosomal locus, encodes the retinoblastoma protein (pRB), which regulates cell cycle progression by binding E2F transcription factors to prevent uncontrolled proliferation. In retinoblastoma tumors, RB1 mutations encompass a wide spectrum, including nonsense mutations that introduce premature stop codons, frameshift mutations from insertions or deletions, and promoter hypermethylation, all leading to loss of functional pRB. Loss of heterozygosity (LOH) at 13q14, often via mitotic recombination or chromosomal nondisjunction, serves as the second hit in approximately 70% of tumors, effectively eliminating the remaining wild-type allele and confirming biallelic inactivation as the driver event.^[21] Clinically, the two-hit framework has transformed retinoblastoma management through RB1 genetic testing, which identifies germline mutation carriers among family members and unaffected siblings, enabling targeted surveillance with frequent retinal exams to detect early tumors. For affected eyes, treatment prioritizes preservation when possible, using systemic chemotherapy (e.g., vincristine, etoposide, and carboplatin) combined with focal therapies like laser or cryotherapy, while enucleation remains standard for advanced or blind eyes to prevent metastasis. Prenatal screening, including chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis for RB1 mutation detection in at-risk pregnancies, has significantly reduced disease incidence in hereditary families by informing options like preimplantation genetic diagnosis.^[22]^[23] A pivotal historical milestone was the 1986 cloning of the human RB1 gene, the first tumor suppressor gene identified, achieved through positional cloning from retinoblastoma cell lines showing homozygous deletions. This breakthrough not only validated the two-hit hypothesis at the molecular level but also enabled the development of gene therapy strategies to restore pRB function in early-stage disease.

Examples in Other Cancers

In colorectal cancer, the APC gene located on chromosome 5q21 exemplifies the two-hit hypothesis, where germline mutations serve as the first hit in familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) syndrome, predisposing individuals to hundreds of polyps that can progress to malignancy, and the second hit often occurs through loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in the remaining wild-type allele, leading to biallelic inactivation and tumor initiation.^[24] This pattern aligns with Knudson's model, as somatic mutations or LOH in APC are detected in over 80% of sporadic colorectal tumors as well, underscoring its role as a key tumor suppressor gatekeeper.^[25] The two-hit mechanism also applies to breast and ovarian cancers through mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, where inherited germline mutations in one allele represent the first hit, substantially increasing lifetime breast cancer risk by 10- to 20-fold and ovarian cancer risk by up to 40-fold compared to the general population.^[26] The second hit typically involves somatic inactivation of the wild-type allele via mechanisms such as LOH, intragenic mutations, or promoter methylation, resulting in loss of DNA repair function and genomic instability that drives tumorigenesis.^[27] This biallelic loss is observed in the majority of BRCA-associated tumors, confirming the tumor suppressor nature of these genes.^[28] In Wilms tumor, a pediatric kidney malignancy, the WT1 gene on chromosome 11p13 follows a similar paradigm, with approximately 10% of cases linked to familial or syndromic inheritance involving germline WT1 mutations as the first hit, followed by somatic second hits leading to biallelic inactivation in tumor cells.^[29] These events, including point mutations, deletions, or hypermethylation, disrupt WT1's transcriptional regulation of kidney development genes, promoting nephroblastomal progression, and are particularly prevalent in stromal-predominant subtypes.^[30] Biallelic WT1 loss is identified in up to 20% of sporadic Wilms tumors, highlighting the gene's critical suppressor role beyond hereditary cases.^[31] Genomic studies of Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS), caused by germline TP53 mutations, have validated the two-hit hypothesis in associated sarcomas, where the inherited first hit is complemented by somatic loss of the wild-type TP53 allele via LOH or mutation, enabling unchecked cell proliferation and sarcomagenesis.^[32] Similarly, in pancreatic cancer, the SMAD4 gene (also known as DPC4) adheres to this model, with biallelic inactivation—often the first hit as a somatic mutation followed by LOH as the second—occurring in about 50% of cases, disrupting TGF-β signaling and facilitating invasive ductal adenocarcinoma development.^[33] These patterns emphasize TP53 and SMAD4 as pivotal suppressors in LFS-related and sporadic pancreatic tumors, respectively.^[34] Therapeutically, the two-hit inactivation of BRCA1/2 has been exploited through PARP inhibitors, which induce synthetic lethality in BRCA-deficient cells by overwhelming homologous recombination-deficient tumors with unrepaired DNA damage, as evidenced by improved progression-free survival in clinical trials for BRCA-mutated breast and ovarian cancers.^[35] This approach targets the vulnerability arising from the second hit, offering a paradigm for precision oncology in two-hit-driven malignancies.^[26]

Evidence and Modern Validation

Experimental and Clinical Studies

Experimental validation of the two-hit hypothesis began with Knudson's statistical analysis of retinoblastoma cases, which demonstrated that hereditary forms exhibit an earlier age of onset compared to sporadic cases, consistent with one inherited mutation requiring only a single additional somatic event versus two somatic hits in non-hereditary tumors.^[1] This analysis, based on 48 cases and published reports, used probability models to predict tumor incidence rates, showing a mean onset age of approximately 12 months for bilateral (hereditary) cases versus 24 months for unilateral (sporadic) ones. Subsequent population studies refined these findings by applying Kaplan-Meier survival curves to larger cohorts, illustrating the distinct survival distributions for age at diagnosis and confirming the predicted onset differences between hereditary and sporadic retinoblastoma. In the 1980s, clinical correlations provided molecular evidence through tumor sequencing and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analyses, revealing consistent loss of heterozygosity (LOH) at the RB1 locus on chromosome 13q14 in hereditary retinoblastoma tumors. These studies showed that in patients with germline RB1 mutations, the second hit often involved somatic LOH, affecting over 60% of informative cases and leading to biallelic inactivation.^[36] For instance, Cavenee and colleagues examined retinoblastoma tumors from heterozygous carriers and found that LOH occurred via mitotic recombination, chromosome loss, or nondisjunction, directly supporting the requirement for a second mutational event in inherited cancers. Pre-2000 cytogenetic studies further corroborated the hypothesis by identifying visible 13q deletions in retinoblastoma samples, present in approximately 5-6% of cases but indicative of the broader role of RB1 locus alterations. These analyses, using G-banding and other karyotyping techniques, detected interstitial deletions encompassing 13q14 in both hereditary and sporadic tumors, with about 60% of tumors showing allelic loss when combining cytogenetic and molecular data.^[37] Such findings highlighted the chromosomal mechanisms underlying the second hit, including deletions that eliminate the wild-type allele. Early interventions based on the two-hit model demonstrated clinical utility, particularly prophylactic laser therapy or cryotherapy in RB1 mutation carriers identified through family screening, which reduced the risk of tumor development or progression to enucleation by over 90% in monitored infants.^[38] These approaches targeted nascent lesions detected via regular ophthalmic exams, preventing full tumor formation in high-risk eyes and validating the hypothesis's predictive power for preventive oncology. Animal models provided definitive experimental proof in the pre-genomic era, with the development of Rb1 knockout mice in 1992 showing that heterozygous animals did not develop retinoblastoma, while biallelic loss in retinal cells was required for tumorigenesis. Jacks et al. generated Rb1-targeted mutants, where homozygous embryos were nonviable, but chimeras with Rb1-null retinal cells developed tumors only upon loss of the remaining wild-type allele, mirroring the human two-hit process.^[39] Conditional knockout models subsequently confirmed this requirement by inducing tissue-specific biallelic inactivation, leading to retinoblastoma-like lesions exclusively in the retina.

Insights from Genomic Sequencing

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, particularly from the 2010s onward, have provided extensive genomic evidence supporting and refining the two-hit hypothesis by enabling comprehensive analysis of tumor genomes. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) project, spanning 2006 to 2018, generated multi-omic data from over 11,000 tumors across 33 cancer types, revealing that biallelic inactivation of tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) is a pervasive mechanism in oncogenesis. In pan-cancer analyses derived from TCGA and similar datasets, key TSGs exhibit biallelic loss in 80% or more of affected tumors, underscoring the necessity of both hits for tumor progression.^[40] For instance, TP53, the most frequently mutated TSG, shows biallelic inactivation in approximately 92% of TP53-altered tumors and is somatically mutated in over 50% of all human cancers, often through a combination of point mutations and loss of heterozygosity (LOH).^[41]^[42] These findings validate Knudson's model by demonstrating that monoallelic alterations alone rarely suffice for tumorigenesis, while biallelic events correlate strongly with aggressive disease phenotypes. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) has further illuminated the subtlety and diversity of second hits, detecting alterations that targeted sequencing might miss, such as intronic mutations, small indels, or structural variants leading to LOH. In large-scale WGS studies of solid tumors, these methods have identified second hits in TSGs like RB1 and PTEN that disrupt splicing or promoter regions without coding changes, contributing to complete gene inactivation. Recent 2025 analyses of pediatric cancers, including Wilms tumors, highlight how WGS uncovers epigenetic modifications—such as promoter hypermethylation or histone alterations—as alternative second hits in about 20% of cases where genetic mutations are insufficient. These epigenetic events mimic genetic losses by silencing the remaining wild-type allele, expanding the two-hit paradigm beyond purely mutational mechanisms.^[43]^[44] Distinguishing driver from passenger mutations has been pivotal, with two-hit events in TSGs emerging as hallmark drivers due to their high functional impact and recurrence. The Catalogue of Somatic Mutations in Cancer (COSMIC) database, aggregating data from thousands of sequenced tumors, catalogs over 200 TSGs exhibiting biallelic inactivation patterns, including truncating mutations, deletions, and LOH that align with the two-hit model. For example, genes like APC and SMAD4 show near-complete biallelic loss (up to 96%) in colorectal cancers, confirming their role as drivers rather than neutral passengers.^[45]^[46] Mutation burden analyses from WGS cohorts further quantify this, revealing that while tumors accumulate thousands of somatic variants, the second hit in TSGs acts as a rate-limiting bottleneck in 90% or more of solid tumor initiations, as its acquisition is essential for clonal expansion beyond benign lesions.^[47]^[46] In precision oncology, NGS has transformed the two-hit hypothesis into actionable insights, enabling identification of germline carriers for targeted screening and early intervention. For instance, studies using NGS on endometrial cancers have demonstrated that biallelic PTEN loss occurs in approximately 40% of endometrioid subtypes, often via a somatic second hit on a heterozygous background, guiding risk stratification and therapeutic decisions like PI3K/AKT inhibitors.^[48] Such applications extend to population-level screening, where detecting first-hit carriers in high-risk families reduces incidence through surveillance. Overall, these genomic insights affirm the two-hit model's robustness while highlighting opportunities for personalized cancer prevention.

Multi-Hit and Beyond-Two-Hit Models

The multi-hit hypothesis extends the two-hit model by proposing that tumorigenesis often requires a sequence of multiple genetic alterations accumulating over time, rather than just biallelic inactivation of a single tumor suppressor gene (TSG). In colorectal cancer, Bert Vogelstein and colleagues proposed in 1990 a genetic model involving 5-7 sequential hits, starting with inactivation of the APC TSG, followed by activation of the KRAS oncogene, loss of DCC and SMAD4 TSGs, and finally TP53 inactivation, leading to progression from adenoma to carcinoma.^[49] This framework illustrates how sequential mutations in both TSGs (requiring two hits each for complete loss) and oncogenes (typically one activating hit) cooperate to drive oncogenesis, with the order and specific genes varying by cancer type.^[50] Threshold models further refine this by suggesting that for certain TSGs, biallelic loss alone may not suffice, requiring additional modifier events to fully unleash oncogenic potential. In neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1)-associated cancers, such as malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNSTs), a three-hit sequence is implicated: a germline NF1 mutation, somatic loss of the wild-type NF1 allele, and a third hit involving inactivation of genes like SUZ12 in the polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), which promotes tumor progression from benign neurofibromas.^[51] This integration of two-hit TSG loss with an additional oncogenic or modifier hit highlights how multi-hit dynamics can explain variable penetrance and tumor heterogeneity in hereditary syndromes.^[50] Pan-cancer genomic analyses, such as the 2020 Pan-Cancer Analysis of Whole Genomes (PCAWG) Consortium study analyzing over 2,600 genomes, have validated these extensions, revealing an average of approximately 4-5 driver alterations per tumor across diverse cancers, including both coding and non-coding changes, with two-hit TSG inactivations forming the core mechanism for many while oncogene activations provide complementary hits, underscoring the prevalence of multi-hit paths in sporadic cancers.^[50] Mathematical extensions of multi-hit concepts employ multi-stage carcinogenesis models to describe the probabilistic accumulation of hits over time. The Armitage-Doll model, originally proposed in 1954, posits that cancer arises after k rate-limiting transitions, with incidence rates fitting a Weibull distribution to capture age-dependent hazard functions, where the shape parameter reflects the number of stages (often 4-7 hits).^[52] These models, refined with Weibull parameters for continuous exposure scenarios, predict that higher stage numbers (more hits) yield steeper age-incidence curves, aligning with observed patterns in epithelial cancers like colorectal.^[53]

Chromothripsis and Field Cancerization

Chromothripsis refers to a catastrophic genomic event characterized by the shattering of one or a few chromosomes into numerous fragments, followed by their chaotic reassembly, resulting in tens to hundreds of rearrangements occurring in a single cellular crisis. This phenomenon was first described in 2011 through whole-genome sequencing of cancer samples, revealing localized clustering of rearrangements that deviate from the gradual accumulation typical of most mutations. Comprehensive pan-cancer analyses have shown chromothripsis to be pervasive, occurring in approximately 30-50% of human cancers, with notably higher prevalence in certain subtypes, such as over 70% of osteosarcomas.^[54] The mechanism of chromothripsis often involves the formation of micronuclei during mitosis, where prematurely separated chromosomes are encapsulated outside the main nucleus and subjected to pulverization due to defective DNA replication and repair. These fragmented pieces are then re-ligated in a non-random but clustered manner, leading to copy number oscillations and structural variants confined to specific chromosomal regions. For instance, a single chromothripsis event can achieve the "two-hit" inactivation of the TP53 tumor suppressor gene by simultaneously deleting one allele and disrupting the other through rearrangements, bypassing sequential mutations.^[55] Recent studies as of 2024 indicate that chromothripsis can be an ongoing subclonal process in pediatric cancers like osteosarcoma, contributing to intratumoral heterogeneity.^[56] In contrast, field cancerization describes the expansion of genetically altered epithelial patches that predispose multiple sites to independent tumor formation, a concept introduced in 1953 based on histopathological observations of abnormal tissue surrounding oral carcinomas. These fields arise from shared exposure to carcinogens, creating clones of cells with early oncogenic changes across a tissue region. A classic example is in the oral cavity, where chronic alcohol consumption induces widespread TP53 mutations in the epithelium, priming synchronous or metachronous tumors without requiring separate initiating events at each site.^[57] Advances in sequencing technologies have highlighted field effects in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas, where molecular analyses confirm clonal expansions of mutated cells in non-tumorous mucosa. These findings highlight how chromothripsis and field cancerization accelerate the two-hit process in sporadic cancers, enabling rapid tumor progression through massive, localized genomic instability or pre-existing mutagenic fields rather than strictly sequential hits.

Limitations

Haploinsufficiency and Exceptions

Haploinsufficiency occurs when the loss of a single allele of a tumor suppressor gene (TSG) results in reduced gene dosage that is sufficient to promote mild phenotypes or elevate cancer risk, challenging the strict requirement for biallelic inactivation in the classic two-hit hypothesis.^[58] This partial loss can perturb cellular homeostasis, such as altered signaling pathways or increased proliferation, without complete gene elimination.^[59] For instance, heterozygous mutations in PTEN, a lipid phosphatase that negatively regulates the PI3K/AKT pathway, lead to increased cancer susceptibility in tissues like the breast and prostate, even in the absence of a second somatic hit, due to dosage-sensitive effects on cell growth and survival.^[60] Similarly, dosage-sensitive TSGs like NF1, which encodes a Ras-GAP that attenuates Ras signaling, exhibit haploinsufficiency manifesting as abnormal myelopoiesis and heightened tumor predisposition in neurofibromatosis type 1, where reduced NF1 levels disrupt cell fate decisions independently of full inactivation.^[61] Another representative example is PTCH1, the receptor for Sonic Hedgehog signaling, where heterozygous germline mutations in nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (Gorlin syndrome) cause haploinsufficiency that predisposes individuals to multiple basal cell carcinomas by derepressing GLI transcription factors and promoting basal cell proliferation in the skin, although full tumors often involve a second hit.^[62] These cases highlight how certain TSGs operate in a continuum of suppression, where intermediate dosage levels confer selective advantages to incipient cancer cells.^[58] Exceptions to the two-hit model also arise from non-genetic mechanisms, such as viral oncogenes that functionally inactivate TSGs unilaterally. In human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated cancers, the E7 oncoprotein binds and degrades the RB1 protein, effectively mimicking biallelic loss by disrupting RB1's inhibition of E2F-mediated cell cycle progression, thus bypassing the need for genetic mutations in both alleles.^[63] Likewise, in mismatch repair (MMR)-deficient tumors, such as those in Lynch syndrome or sporadic microsatellite instability-high colorectal cancers, hypermutation driven by defective MMR proteins (e.g., MLH1 or MSH2) accelerates the accumulation of somatic mutations across the genome, facilitating rapid acquisition of oncogenic alterations and effectively bypassing the temporal constraints of sequential two-hits in TSGs by increasing the probability of driver events.^[64] Epigenetic mechanisms can also lead to biallelic repression without genetic mutations; a notable example is constitutional epimutation of MLH1 in Lynch syndrome families, where a single nucleotide variant in the promoter triggers mosaic hypermethylation affecting both alleles soma-wide.^[65] To accommodate these deviations, the two-hit model has been refined into probabilistic frameworks that incorporate dosage thresholds and partial inactivation, positing that tumorigenesis risk scales continuously with TSG activity levels rather than requiring absolute biallelic loss, as evidenced by mathematical models integrating haploinsufficiency and epigenetic effects.^[58]

Challenges in Complex Genomes

Intratumor heterogeneity poses a significant challenge to the two-hit hypothesis by revealing that second hits in tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) often occur subclonally within tumor subpopulations, rather than uniformly across all cells. This clonal evolution, driven by Darwinian selection pressures such as therapy or microenvironmental changes, allows heterogeneous clones to expand and dominate, complicating the model's assumption of biallelic inactivation as a straightforward, early event. For instance, in clear cell renal cell carcinoma, while the initial 3p loss of heterozygosity is typically clonal, subsequent TSG mutations in genes like SETD2, PBRM1, and BAP1 arise in subclones, fostering diverse evolutionary trajectories.^[66] Non-coding mutations in regulatory elements further undermine the two-hit model's focus on coding sequence alterations, as they can disrupt TSG expression without requiring biallelic coding hits. These mutations, often in enhancers or promoters, lead to phenomena like enhancer hijacking, where regulatory rewiring silences TSGs; pan-cancer analyses indicate that non-coding driver events occur in approximately 25% of tumors.^[50] Computational frameworks have identified such non-coding variants altering transcription factor binding sites in enhancers, contributing to TSG dysregulation in multiple cancers.^[50] Therapeutic resistance exemplifies these complexities, where reversion mutations restore TSG function post-initial inactivation, evading treatments targeting the two-hit vulnerability. In ovarian cancer with BRCA1/2 mutations, reversion events—restoring homologous recombination repair—occur in approximately 26% of progressing cases, primarily via microhomology-mediated end joining, and are detected in both BRCA1 (22%) and BRCA2 (31%) carriers. This dynamic reversion highlights how the two-hit model oversimplifies resistance mechanisms in evolving tumors.^[67] Evolutionary models have increasingly portrayed the two-hit hypothesis as an oversimplification in metastatic disease, where parallel and convergent evolution across tumor sites generates extensive genetic complexity beyond simple biallelic hits.^[68] Metastatic seeding often precedes diagnosis by years and involves multiple contingent mutations. From an evolutionary perspective, somatic mutation rates vary markedly by tissue—higher in proliferative sites like the colon (with hundreds of mutations accumulating per cell over time)—which complicates the universal application of the two-hit model, as elevated rates in such tissues accelerate clonal expansions and multi-hit scenarios. Recent studies as of 2024 emphasize the role of epigenetic robustness in cancer evolution, highlighting liabilities in tumor cells due to compromised regulation.^[69]

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Many tumor suppressor genes have been the object of studies, and there are likely many more that have yet to be discovered. The mechanisms of each tumor ...Definition/Introduction · Issues of Concern · Clinical Significance
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Tumor Suppressor (TS) Genes and the Two-Hit Hypothesis | Learn Science at Scitable
### Summary of the Two-Hit Hypothesis and Related Content
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The RB1 Story: Characterization and Cloning of the First Tumor ...
Nov 1, 2019 · The RB1 gene is the first described human tumor suppressor gene and plays an integral role in the development of retinoblastoma, a pediatric malignancy of the ...
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Age-specific incidence of inherited versus sporadic cancers - PNAS
Jan 25, 2005 · Knudson's original papers chose the right comparisons to illuminate the theory and correctly interpreted the data. But the first mathematical ...
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Hereditary cancer: Two hits revisited
According to a “two-hit” model, dominantly inherited predisposition to cancer entails a germline mutation, while tumorigenesis requires a secon.
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Genetic Testing Fact Sheet - NCI - National Cancer Institute
Apr 18, 2024 · About 5%–10% of all cancers are thought to be caused by harmful genetic changes that are inherited from a parent.Missing: hit | Show results with:hit
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Germline TP53 mutations undergo copy number gain years prior to ...
Jan 5, 2023 · The primary genetic cause of Li-Fraumeni syndrome has been known for 30 years: germline mutations in TP53 have been found in >70–80% of cases.
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Evolutionary dynamics of tumor suppressor gene inactivation - PNAS
Point mutations, small insertions, deletions, structural changes of the chromosome, or chromosomal loss can constitute the first hit, whereas all of these ...
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Knudson Hypothesis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Knudson's '2-hit' hypothesis states that the first 'hit' in the development of a familial tumour occurs in the germline in a cancer susceptibility gene.
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Linkage analysis of families with hereditary retinoblastoma
In one family an inherited deletion involving one of the RB1 alleles was detected. Our findings emphasize the use of a combination of both intragenic and ...Missing: first hit
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Loss of heterozygosity analyzed by single nucleotide polymorphism ...
This paper reviews the detection of LOH by recently developed single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays (all analyzed by Affymetrix array)
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Retinoblastoma: Review and new insights - PMC
Nov 2, 2022 · Autosomal dominant inheritance is seen in 30-40% of cases whereas the non-inherited sporadic type accounts for the remaining 60-70% (4).Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
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Entry - #180200 - RETINOBLASTOMA; RB1 - OMIM - (OMIM.ORG)
Retinoblastoma (RB) is an embryonic malignant neoplasm of retinal origin. It almost always presents in early childhood and is often bilateral.
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Retinoblastoma Treatment (PDQ®) - NCI - National Cancer Institute
Apr 3, 2025 · Genetic Testing. Blood and tumor samples can be tested to determine whether a patient with retinoblastoma has a germline or somatic variant in ...Missing: prenatal | Show results with:prenatal
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Update on Retinoblastoma Predisposition and Surveillance ...
About 45% of children with retinoblastoma (RB) have hereditary disease. These children are at risk for both intraocular disease and additional neoplasms ...
[21]
Molecular Pathways of Carcinogenesis in Familial Adenomatous ...
Mar 16, 2023 · The process of tumorigenesis also in the case of FAP follows Knudson's two-hit hypothesis, with the inactivation of both APC alleles; in FAP ...
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Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) and Other ... - PubMed Central
Together this evidence indicates strongly that the APC gene is a tumor suppresser gene and is directly involved in colorectal cancer development. Phenotypic ...
[23]
The biological effects and clinical implications of BRCA mutations
Aug 12, 2016 · Individuals carrying germline pathogenic mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA2 are at highly elevated risk of developing breast and/or ovarian cancer.
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Jul 17, 2006 · Germline mutations in one allele of the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes significantly increase the risk of developing early-onset breast cancer [1]. Tumour ...
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How do mutations affecting the breast cancer genes BRCA1 ... - NIH
Jul 8, 2019 · The inheritance of monoallelic germline mutations affecting BRCA1 or BRCA2 predisposes with a high penetrance to several forms of epithelial malignancy.Missing: hypothesis | Show results with:hypothesis
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Wilms' tumours: about tumour suppressor genes, an oncogene ... - NIH
These observations strongly suggest that WT1 is a TSG, the homozygous inactivation of which is a crucial step in the development of Wilms' tumour. Wilms' tumour ...
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Entry - #194070 - WILMS TUMOR 1; WT1 - OMIM - (OMIM.ORG)
Correlation of germ-line mutations and two-hit inactivation of the WT1 gene with Wilms tumors of stromal-predominant histology. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 94 ...
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Genetic and epigenetic features of bilateral Wilms tumor ...
Dec 18, 2023 · In 1972, Knudson and Strong hypothesized that, like retinoblastoma, familial WT and BWT developed from two genetic events (two-hit hypothesis), ...
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Primed for cancer: Li Fraumeni Syndrome and the pre-cancerous ...
May 21, 2015 · In effect cancer incidence in LFS is due to the 'two-hit' model first proposed by Knudson based on analysis of hereditary transmission of ...The Pre-Cancerous Niche · Tp53 And The Pre-Cancerous... · Immune Dysregulation<|separator|>
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Smad4 haploinsufficiency: a matter of dosage - PMC - PubMed Central
The inactivation of tumor suppressor genes follows Alfred Knudson's 'two-hit' model: both alleles need to be inactivated by independent mutation events to ...
[31]
Drivers of Pancreatic Cancer: Beyond the Big 4 - PMC
Jul 15, 2025 · Finally, a significant minority of PDACs contain mutations in the SMAD4 gene, also sometimes referred to as Deleted in Pancreatic Cancer-4 (DPC ...
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BRCA1 and BRCA2: from cancer susceptibility to synthetic lethality
PARP inhibitor resistance in BRCA1/2 mutated cancers. PARPis have demonstrated strong clinical responses, leading to a significantly extended progression ...
[33]
Mutation and cancer: statistical study of retinoblastoma - PubMed
In the dominantly inherited form, one mutation is inherited via the germinal cells and the second occurs in somatic cells. In the nonhereditary form, both ...
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Expression of recessive alleles by chromosomal mechanisms in ...
Inheritance of a mutation at the Rb-1 locus, which has been mapped to band q14 of human chromosome 13, results in predisposition to retinoblastoma.Missing: heterozygosity | Show results with:heterozygosity
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Genetics and cytogenetics of retinoblastoma - ScienceDirect
Retinoblastoma tumor formation is initiated by loss of function of both alleles at the RB1 locus on chromosome 13. In nonhereditary retinoblastoma (60% of ...
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Mice deficient for Rb are nonviable and show defects in ... - Nature
Sep 24, 1992 · Mice with an insertional mutation in exon 20 of the Rb-1 locus were generated. Homozygous mutants die before the 16th embryonic day with multiple defects.Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
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Integrative Pan-Cancer Genomic and Transcriptomic Analyses of ...
Major tumor suppressor genes frequently underwent biallelic inactivation. Such inactivations were observed in 92% of TP53-hit tumors, 95% for CDKN2A, 81 ...
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Why are there hotspot mutations in the TP53 gene in human cancers?
Nov 3, 2017 · The p53 gene contains homozygous mutations in ~50–60% of human cancers. About 90% of these mutations encode missense mutant proteins that ...
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Mutant p53 in cancer: from molecular mechanism to therapeutic ...
Nov 18, 2022 · Unfortunately, inactivation of TP53 is a common event in tumorigenesis, with mutations occurring in more than 50% of human primary tumors [5].<|separator|>
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Systematic discovery of germline cancer predisposition genes ... - NIH
Jul 4, 2018 · Inherited germline variants and somatic mutations contribute to cancer. Here, the authors present the statistical method ALFRED that tests the ...
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Knudson's “Two-Hit” Hypothesis and Cancer Predisposition: A Bit ...
Feb 7, 2025 · This study by Treger and colleagues is a comprehensive evaluation of the genome and epigenome of tumors and constitutional tissue from children with Wilms ...
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The COSMIC Cancer Gene Census: describing genetic dysfunction ...
In Tier 1 69 genes can act as tumour suppressor genes (TSGs) or oncogenes. The majority of genes involved in gene fusions promote cancer by gaining oncogenic or ...
[43]
Pan-cancer whole-genome analyses of metastatic solid tumours
Oct 23, 2019 · For many key TSGs, the biallelic inactivation rate is almost 100%—TP53 (93%), CDKN2A (97%), RB1 (94%), PTEN (92%) and SMAD4 (96%)—which suggests ...
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[PDF] Symmetric vs asymmetric stem cell divisions - arXiv
May 1, 2013 · The generation of two-hit mutants is normally considered to be a rate-limiting step in cancer initiation. Once such a mutant is produced, it may ...
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PTEN-negative endometrial cancer cells protect their genome ...
May 4, 2023 · The majority of EC presented with endometrioid histology and mutations in the tumor suppressor gene PTEN, resulting in its loss of function.
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Clinical Assessment of PTEN Loss in Endometrial Carcinoma - NIH
Feb 3, 2012 · Somatic PTEN mutations have been detected in 34–55% of endometrial cancers (3, 4), particularly in the endometrioid histotype. Accurate ...
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A genetic model for colorectal tumorigenesis - PubMed
A genetic model for colorectal tumorigenesis. Cell. 1990 Jun 1;61(5):759-67. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90186-i. Authors. E R Fearon , B Vogelstein ...Missing: hypothesis | Show results with:hypothesis
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Pan-cancer analysis of whole genomes - Nature
Feb 5, 2020 · Biallelic inactivation due to somatic alteration on top of a germline PTV was observed in 4.5% of patients overall, with 81% of these affecting ...
[49]
Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumor, a Heterogeneous ...
Jul 2, 2024 · SUZ12 mutation may be part of a “three-hit” sequence that converts neurofibromas to MPNSTs, with the earlier hits including germline NF1 ...
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Multistage models of carcinogenesis - PMC - NIH
The age distribution of cancer and a multi-stage theory of carcinogenesis. ... Weibull distributions for continuous-carcinogenesis experiments. Biometrics ...
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Epidemiology, multistage models, and short-term mutagenicity tests 1
This section is intended as an introduction to, and apology for, multistage models. Such models occupy a curious position in the world of cancer research.
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Chromothripsis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Moreover, chromothripsis is more prevalent in bone cancers; about 25% of osteosarcoma and chordoma exhibit features of this phenomenon.
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Micronuclei-based model system reveals functional consequences ...
Nov 28, 2019 · Chromothripsis, a frequent phenomenon in cancer genomes, enables cancer cells to generate rapid and massive changes in their chromosomal ...
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Oral Field Cancerization: Carcinogen-induced Independent Events ...
Exposure to alcohol was an additional factor in the HNSCC patients (57) and might have played a role in the development of the p53 positive cell clusters ...
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A Continuum Model for Tumour Suppression - PMC - NIH
Aug 10, 2011 · We integrate the classical “two-hit” hypothesis of tumour suppression with a continuum model that accounts for subtle dosage effects of tumour suppressors.Missing: plus | Show results with:plus
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The two-hit theory hits 50 - Molecular Biology of the Cell (MBoC)
Nov 4, 2021 · This model explained why spontaneous cases of retinoblastoma occurred later in life and were never bilateral, as the number of stem cells, the ...
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PTEN breast cancer susceptibility: a matter of dose - PMC - NIH
The genes that behave as p53 were named “haploinsufficient” tumor suppressor genes. In our recent paper in Nature Genetics, we push further the concept of ...
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Genetic and biochemical evidence that haploinsufficiency of the Nf1 ...
Jan 3, 2000 · We show that haploinsufficiency at Nf1 perturbs cell fates in mast cells in vivo, and partially rescues coat color and mast cell defects in W(41) mice.Missing: hypothesis | Show results with:hypothesis
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Patched1 haploinsufficiency severely impacts intermediary ... - Nature
Sep 10, 2019 · We show that Ptch1 haploinsufficiency affects the metabolic landscape in phenotypically normal skin of Ptch1 +/− /ODC t /C57BL/6 mice.
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Molecular Mechanisms of HPV-induced Carcinogenesis - NCBI - NIH
The early proteins, E6 and E7, bind and inactivate the tumour-suppressor gene product, p53, and the retinoblastoma tumour-suppressor protein (pRb), respectively ...
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Mismatch repair deficiency endows tumors with a unique mutation ...
Aug 1, 2014 · Deficiency of the MMR machinery leads to DNA replication errors in the tumor tissue, but not the normal surrounding tissue. In particular, ...
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Dominantly Inherited Constitutional Epigenetic Silencing of MLH1 in ...
Aug 16, 2011 · We report a cancer-affected family showing dominant transmission of soma-wide highly mosaic MLH1 methylation and transcriptional repression ...
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Clonal Heterogeneity and Tumor Evolution: Past, Present, and the ...
Feb 9, 2017 · Intratumor heterogeneity, which fosters tumor evolution, is a key challenge in cancer medicine. Here, we review data and technologies that ...
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Dr.Nod: computational framework for discovery of regulatory non ...
Jan 10, 2023 · In conclusion, our study demonstrates that non-coding mutations in enhancers play a previously underappreciated role in cancer and dysregulation ...
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https://www.cell.com/cancer-cell/fulltext/S1535-6108(11)00260-1