Ulf Merbold
Ulf Dietrich Merbold (born 20 June 1941) is a German physicist and astronaut who flew three space missions, becoming the first European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut to reach orbit and the only German to complete multiple flights to both the U.S. Space Shuttle and the Russian Mir space station.[1][2][3] Selected as part of ESA's 1978 astronaut group after earning a physics diploma from the University of Stuttgart in 1968 and a doctorate in 1976, Merbold conducted microgravity research during his inaugural flight on STS-9 (Spacelab 1) aboard Space Shuttle Columbia from 28 November to 8 December 1983, marking the debut of Europe's Spacelab module and the first non-U.S. citizen on a Shuttle mission.[1][4][5] His subsequent missions included STS-42 (International Microgravity Laboratory 1) on Space Shuttle Discovery from 22 January to 1 February 1992, focusing on materials science and life sciences experiments, and Euromir 94 via Soyuz TM-20 to Mir from 3 October to 4 November 1994, where he performed long-duration studies on human physiology and technology operations.[1][3] Across these flights, Merbold accumulated 55 days in space, contributing to advancements in fluid physics, combustion, and biomedical research while representing West Germany's pioneering role in post-World War II European space endeavors.[3][1]Early Life and Education
Birth and Post-War Upbringing
Ulf Dietrich Merbold was born on 20 June 1941 in Greiz, a town in the Vogtland region of Thuringia, Germany, during the final stages of World War II.[1][6][2] Merbold's early childhood unfolded in the immediate post-war period amid the Allied division of Germany, with Greiz falling under Soviet occupation in 1945. The region experienced severe shortages, infrastructure devastation, and political upheaval as the Soviet zone transitioned into the German Democratic Republic in 1949, imposing a socialist system with centralized planning and restricted personal freedoms. He resided with his mother during this time, reflecting the era's family disruptions from wartime losses and internments.[7] Merbold completed his secondary education, graduating from high school in East Germany in 1960 at age 19. That year, he chose to relocate to West Germany, crossing during a period of increasing border restrictions prior to the Berlin Wall's construction in August. This move enabled his pursuit of higher education in the Federal Republic, away from the ideological constraints of the GDR.[7]Academic Training in Physics
Ulf Merbold, born in Greiz in the German Democratic Republic on October 20, 1941, initially aspired to study physics at the University of Jena but, facing restrictions under the East German regime, defected to West Germany at age 19 to pursue his education at the University of Stuttgart.[3] He enrolled in the physics program there around 1960, focusing on solid-state physics topics that would later inform his research career.[3] Merbold completed his Diplom in physics—a degree equivalent to a combined bachelor's and master's—in 1968, after approximately eight years of study typical for the German system at the time.[1] [2] His diploma work involved experimental investigations in physics, aligning with his subsequent professional interests in materials under extreme conditions.[8] Following a period of research at the Max Planck Institute, Merbold returned to academia and earned his doctorate (Dr. rer. nat.) in natural sciences from the University of Stuttgart in 1976.[1] [6] The dissertation examined the effects of radiation on metals, contributing to understanding material degradation relevant to aerospace applications.[2] This advanced training equipped him with expertise in experimental physics, emphasizing empirical methods and first-principles analysis of physical phenomena.Pre-Astronaut Scientific Career
Research at Max Planck Institute
Following his diploma in physics from the University of Stuttgart in 1968, Merbold joined the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research (now the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems) in Stuttgart, initially supported by a scholarship from the Max Planck Society.[1] He remained affiliated with the institute until 1978, conducting research as part of its solid-state physics group.[3][4] Merbold's work centered on problems in solid-state physics, with a specialization in low-temperature physics and crystal lattice defects in metals.[3][9] This research contributed to understanding material properties under extreme conditions, aligning with the institute's broader investigations into metallurgy and condensed matter.[10] In 1976, he earned his doctorate from the University of Stuttgart while at the institute, advancing empirical studies on radiation effects relevant to material durability.[11] His efforts during this period established him as a physicist equipped for interdisciplinary applications, though specific publications from this phase emphasize foundational experiments over theoretical modeling.[12]Astronaut Selection and Training
Entry into ESA Astronaut Corps
In 1977, the European Space Agency (ESA) launched its inaugural astronaut selection process to identify payload specialists for the Spacelab missions aboard NASA's Space Shuttle, stemming from a 1973 ESA-NASA agreement providing Europe with flight opportunities in exchange for developing the Spacelab orbital laboratory.[13] Ulf Merbold, then a 36-year-old experimental physicist at the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research in Stuttgart, applied amid national nominations from ESA member states; his expertise in lattice defects and materials science under microgravity conditions positioned him as a strong candidate for experiment operations.[2][1] Merbold underwent rigorous evaluations including medical, psychological, and technical assessments, leading to his pre-selection in late 1977 as one of the initial payload specialist candidates specifically for Spacelab 1.[2] On May 18, 1978, he was formally selected into the ESA Astronaut Corps alongside Wubbo Ockels (Netherlands) and Claude Nicollier (Switzerland), with Franco Malerba (Italy) also chosen but who later resigned his position before flying in 1992.[13][2] This cohort of four—reduced to three active members—constituted ESA's first dedicated astronaut group, prioritizing scientists over pilots to maximize payload utilization on the pressurized Spacelab module.[13] The selection criteria emphasized advanced degrees in STEM fields, hands-on research experience, and adaptability to spaceflight demands, reflecting ESA's focus on international collaboration rather than independent crewed programs at the time.[13] Merbold's inclusion, as a West German national, fulfilled geographic distribution goals among ESA's founding members while leveraging his doctoral training (Dr. rer. nat., 1976, University of Stuttgart) in low-temperature physics.[2] Post-selection, he relocated to NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston for joint training, integrating ESA candidates into U.S. protocols for mission-specific payload handling.[1] This entry established Merbold as a pioneer, enabling Europe's direct participation in human spaceflight beyond observer status.[13]Specialized Training for Multi-National Missions
Merbold's preparation for multi-national missions emphasized cross-agency collaboration, beginning with NASA training for ESA's Spacelab contributions to the Space Shuttle program. In 1978, following his nomination as a payload specialist, he relocated to NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, for instruction in Shuttle operations, Spacelab module functionality, payload handling, and mission-specific scientific protocols.[1][14] This regimen, conducted alongside U.S. astronauts, included simulations of orbital maneuvers, experiment deployments, and contingency responses, underscoring the bilateral NASA-ESA framework established under the 1973 Memorandum of Understanding for Spacelab development.[4] For his second Shuttle flight, STS-42 carrying the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1), Merbold initiated specialized training in April 1989 at Johnson Space Center, with formal selection in January 1990.[2] The curriculum focused on advanced microgravity experimentation across 34 nations' contributions, incorporating payload integration, data acquisition systems, and international crew coordination drills to ensure operational efficacy in a multinational environment.[1] Transitioning to ESA-Russia cooperation, Merbold's training for the Euromir 94 mission to Mir began with preparatory courses at the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne, Germany, in 1993, followed by transfer to the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre (TsPK) in Star City near Moscow in August 1993.[1][2] At TsPK, alongside backup astronaut Pedro Duque, he mastered Soyuz TM spacecraft docking and re-entry procedures, Mir station environmental controls, long-duration life support systems, and joint protocol simulations with Russian cosmonauts, including elements of physical endurance testing and emergency egress in diverse terrains to foster interoperability between Western and Soviet-era hardware.[15] This phase, lasting over a year, represented a pioneering adaptation for an ESA astronaut to Russian standards, enabling the 32-day residency on Mir from October 3 to November 4, 1994.[8]Space Shuttle Missions
STS-9 (Spacelab 1, 1983)
STS-9, designated as the first Spacelab mission, launched on November 28, 1983, aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39A, marking the sixth flight of that orbiter. The mission lasted 10 days, 7 hours, 47 minutes, and 24 seconds, completing 166 orbits at an altitude of approximately 350 kilometers. It carried the pressurized Spacelab 1 module, developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) through contributions from 11 member states, to conduct multidisciplinary scientific research in microgravity.[16][17] Ulf Merbold served as a payload specialist, selected by ESA in September 1982 as the prime crew member for this flight, becoming the first ESA astronaut and the first non-U.S. citizen to fly on a Space Shuttle mission. Representing West Germany, Merbold's role involved operating experiments within the Spacelab module alongside fellow payload specialist Byron Lichtenberg and mission specialists Owen Garriott and Robert Parker. The crew, commanded by John Young and piloted by Brewster Shaw, executed 72 experiments across disciplines including atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, materials science, life sciences, and technology development, with principal investigators from the U.S., Europe, Canada, Japan, and Saudi Arabia.[4][18][19] Merbold's contributions focused on payload operations, particularly in physics-related investigations leveraging his background in solid-state physics and materials science from the Max Planck Institute. He assisted in activating and monitoring instruments such as those for plasma diagnostics and materials processing, contributing to data collection that yielded over 150,000 images, spectra, and measurements despite challenges like thermal control issues in the Spacelab module. The mission demonstrated effective international collaboration, with ESA providing the laboratory hardware and experiments valued at approximately $500 million, validating Spacelab's design for reusable orbital research.[20][14] The flight concluded with a landing at Edwards Air Force Base on December 8, 1983, delayed by about eight hours due to analysis of orbiter systems and weather conditions, but all objectives were met, producing foundational data for subsequent Spacelab missions. Merbold's participation established a precedent for European involvement in U.S.-led human spaceflight, enhancing ESA's expertise in microgravity research.[21][17]STS-42 (IML-1, 1992)
STS-42 launched aboard Space Shuttle Discovery (OV-103) on January 22, 1992, at 9:52:33 a.m. EST from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39A, carrying the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) Spacelab module as its primary payload.[22] Ulf Merbold served as payload specialist for the European Space Agency (ESA), marking his second spaceflight after STS-9; he was responsible for operating experiments focused on microgravity effects during the 8-day mission.[23] The mission concluded with landing on January 30, 1992, at 8:07:17 a.m. PST on Runway 22 at Edwards Air Force Base, California, after 8 days, 1 hour, 14 minutes, and 44 seconds in orbit, completing 129 orbits.[22] The crew consisted of Commander Ronald J. Grabe, Pilot Stephen S. Oswald, Mission Specialists Norman E. Thagard (payload commander), David C. Hilmers, and William F. Readdy, plus Payload Specialists Merbold and Roberta L. Bondar of the Canadian Space Agency.[22] To enable continuous experiment operations, the team divided into Red and Blue shifts operating on 12-hour cycles; Merbold was assigned to the Red shift with Hilmers and Readdy, alternating with the Blue shift led by Grabe, Oswald, Thagard, and Bondar.[23] This structure supported round-the-clock monitoring of IML-1's 46 experiments from international partners including NASA, ESA, Japan's National Space Development Agency, and others.[22] IML-1 emphasized microgravity research in life sciences and materials processing, with Merbold contributing to studies on human nervous system adaptation to low gravity, developmental biology (e.g., effects on shrimp eggs, lentil seedlings, fruit fly eggs, and bacteria), and materials science such as crystal growth of enzymes, mercury iodide, and viruses.[23] These investigations aimed to quantify microgravity's influence on biological processes and material properties, yielding data on organism development and improved crystal quality for potential applications in pharmaceuticals and electronics.[22] The mission was extended by one day on flight day six due to adequate consumables, allowing additional experiment time.[23] No major anomalies occurred, though post-flight analysis confirmed the payload's success in providing high-fidelity microgravity data despite minor vibration effects from shuttle operations.[22]