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Max Planck

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a theoretical regarded as the originator of , which revolutionized by introducing the concept of energy quanta to resolve discrepancies in spectra. In December 1900, Planck derived a formula for the spectral energy density of , positing that is emitted and absorbed in discrete packets of energy proportional to frequency, quantified by the constant h (Planck's constant), expressed as E = hν. This breakthrough, initially a mathematical expedient rooted in thermodynamic principles, laid the groundwork for , influencing subsequent developments by figures like Einstein, Bohr, and Heisenberg, though Planck himself remained skeptical of its broader implications for classical . For these foundational contributions, he was awarded the in 1918, recognizing his services to the advancement of physics. Planck held professorships at , , and universities, served as president of the (precursor to the ), and contributed to and , while enduring personal tragedies including the loss of his son to Nazi execution.

Early Life and Education

Family Background and Childhood in Kiel

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born on April 23, 1858, in Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein, then part of the Kingdom of Prussia following the Second Schleswig War. His father, Julius Wilhelm Planck (born 1817), served as a professor of constitutional law at the University of Kiel and later as a high court judge, continuing an academic family tradition that included theology professors among his grandfather and great-grandfather in Göttingen. His mother, Emma Patzig (born 1821), was Julius's second wife after his first marriage to Mathilde Voigt; both parents were in their late thirties at the time of Max's birth, with Julius aged 41 and Emma 37. Planck was the sixth child in the family, which included two half-siblings from his father's prior marriage and five older full siblings, though two siblings died young. The household emphasized values of scholarship, intellectual curiosity, honesty, fairness, and generosity within a devout Lutheran environment. Planck's early childhood in Kiel, spanning until the family's relocation in 1867, centered on elementary schooling where he began formal education. From a young age, he displayed aptitude in mathematics, science, and music, reading popular books on physical principles and grappling with concepts like the second law of thermodynamics, which struck him as insufficiently explained. He excelled particularly in music, achieving proficiency on the piano and organ, developing perfect pitch, and even composing pieces, though he later prioritized science for its "pure reasoning" into natural mechanisms over a potential musical career. In spring 1867, at age nine, the family moved to Munich after Julius received a professorship appointment, ending Planck's Kiel residency.

Schooling and Early Scientific Interests

Planck began his elementary education in , where he was born on April 23, 1858, shortly after the family's arrival following the family's relocation due to his father's academic position. In spring 1867, at age nine, the family moved to when his father accepted a professorship in law at the University of Munich, prompting Planck to enroll in the renowned Maximiliansgymnasium, a classical emphasizing alongside sciences. At the Maximiliansgymnasium, Planck studied from 1867 until obtaining his , the German school-leaving qualification, in 1874. His mathematical aptitude emerged early, nurtured particularly by his teacher , who instructed him in and astronomy, fostering a foundational interest in physical principles. Müller recognized Planck's talent and encouraged pursuits in and physics, despite the era's emphasis on classical studies like Latin and in such gymnasia. Planck's early scientific inclinations leaned toward , though he also pursued seriously, becoming proficient on and and briefly contemplating a musical career before deeming his talents insufficient for professionalism. This dual interest reflected a broader , but encounters with physical laws through Müller's solidified his preference for the certainties of over the interpretive nature of or arts, as he later reflected on the completeness of physics despite contemporary views of its maturity. By the end of his schooling, these experiences directed him toward studies in physics, marking the transition from general to specialized inquiry.

University Studies and Dissertation


Planck enrolled at the University of Munich in October 1874 at the age of 16, initially studying mathematics, physics, and philology under professors including for physics and Ludwig von Fraunhofer's influence lingering in traditions. He soon focused primarily on , conducting independent studies amid a curriculum emphasizing and . In 1877, seeking advanced exposure, Planck transferred to Friedrich-Wilhelms University in Berlin for two semesters, where he attended lectures by and , though he found their presentations formal and uninspiring, preferring self-directed reading of their works and those of . This period reinforced his interest in , particularly the foundational principles of and . Returning to in 1878, Planck prepared his doctoral dissertation independently, without direct guidance from his professors, defending it on February 21, 1879, titled Über den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie ("On the Second Fundamental Theorem of the Mechanical Theory of Heat"). The work rigorously examined the second law of , arguing for its absolute validity as an empirical generalization rather than a statistical approximation, deriving increases from mechanical principles without probabilistic interpretations akin to those later advanced by . He received his doctoral degree in July 1879 at age 21, qualifying him for academic pursuits despite initial skepticism from von Jolly about the field's saturation.

Academic Career

Initial Teaching Positions in Munich and Kiel

Following his doctoral dissertation, defended on 14 July 1879 at the University of on the second fundamental theorem in the mechanical theory of heat, Planck submitted his habilitation thesis in 1880 and was appointed (unsalaried lecturer) in at the same university. He retained this position from 1880 to 1885, delivering specialized lectures on , electrodynamics, and to sparse audiences, as theoretical physics commanded limited interest among students and faculty during that era. The role offered no fixed , requiring Planck to support himself through private tutoring and occasional fees, while his efforts to secure a full professorship in proved unsuccessful amid competition and the nascent status of the discipline. In April 1885, through his father's professional networks in government and academia, Planck obtained the position of ausserordentlicher Professor (extraordinary professor, akin to ) of at the University of , returning to his birthplace. He served in this salaried but subordinate capacity from 1885 to 1889, teaching courses on and in a modest physics department with few resources or students, while advancing his research on the irreversible nature of thermodynamic processes and , including publications extending Rudolf Clausius's foundational work. During this period, on 31 March 1887, he married Marie Merck, a childhood acquaintance from whose family provided social connections. The Kiel appointment marked a step up from the precariousness of Munich but highlighted the challenges of establishing as a viable academic specialty in late 19th-century Germany, prompting Planck's subsequent pursuit of opportunities in Berlin.

Appointment and Professorship at Berlin University

In October 1887, , professor of at Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu , died, creating a vacancy that , Planck's former teacher and a prominent figure at the university, sought to fill with a specialist in . Helmholtz recommended Planck, then an at the University of , citing his original research in thermomechanics as qualifying him for the role. On 29 November 1888, Planck received the appointment as extraordinarius (extraordinary or associate) professor of , simultaneously becoming director of the Institute for , a position that allowed him to shape the institution's direction despite limited initial resources. Planck relocated to in 1889, where he lectured primarily on , heat radiation, and related topics, building on the legacies of Kirchhoff and Helmholtz, whom he regarded as intellectual mentors. His early years involved intensive teaching with modest student attendance, as was not yet a dominant field, but the position provided access to the and collaborative opportunities in the capital's scientific community. On 23 May 1892, following Helmholtz's death in 1894, Planck was promoted to ordinarius (full or ordinary) , securing a permanent chair that he held until his retirement on 1 October 1926 at age 68. Throughout his nearly four-decade tenure, Planck emphasized rigorous mathematical approaches to physical problems, publishing foundational texts such as Vorlesungen über Thermodynamik (1897) and mentoring a generation of physicists, though his classes initially drew fewer students than experimental counterparts. The professorship positioned him at the center of German physics, facilitating his later administrative influence, including election to full membership in the Prussian Academy in 1894. Despite personal losses—such as the death of his first wife in 1909—Planck maintained productivity, with serving as the base for his resolution of key theoretical challenges in the ensuing decades.

Administrative Roles in Scientific Organizations

Planck was elected a member of the in 1894 and appointed permanent secretary of its mathematical and physical sections in 1912, a position he held until 1938. In this administrative capacity, he oversaw the academy's operations in the natural sciences amid growing political pressures in , including the enforcement of Nazi racial policies after , from which he resigned his secretaryship in late 1938 following the academy's loss of independence to the regime. In 1930, Planck succeeded as president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (KWS), the predecessor to the modern , serving until 1937. Under his leadership, the KWS, already prestigious with seven winners among its affiliates, navigated the challenges of the early Nazi era by advocating for scientific autonomy while confronting demands for ideological conformity; Planck, as a non-Jewish figure of authority, interceded on behalf of persecuted colleagues, though the society ultimately implemented measures. He briefly resumed the presidency from 16 May 1945 to 31 March 1946 at the war's end, aiding the organization's damaged infrastructure amid Allied occupation and efforts before it was restructured and renamed in his honor in 1948. Planck also held leadership roles in the , contributing to its administrative direction during his Berlin tenure, though specific presidencies are less documented compared to his academy and KWS positions. These roles underscored his commitment to institutional stability in German science, balancing empirical advancement with the era's authoritarian constraints.

Scientific Contributions

Foundations in Thermodynamics and Entropy

Planck's doctoral dissertation, completed in 1879 at the University of Munich, examined the second law of thermodynamics, emphasizing the principle of entropy increase in irreversible processes and drawing heavily from Rudolf Clausius's formulations. In this work, Planck sought to rigorously derive the second law from fundamental mechanical principles without relying on probabilistic interpretations, reflecting his commitment to an absolute, deterministic foundation for thermodynamics. His analysis highlighted entropy as a measure of irreversible energy dispersal, distinct from reversible cycles, and underscored its role in limiting the efficiency of heat engines. Following his in in 1880, Planck's early publications, such as those in the 1880s on and in dilute solutions, extended these ideas to practical thermodynamic systems. He critiqued Ludwig Boltzmann's , which treated as a probabilistic quantity arising from molecular disorder, insisting instead on the second law's inviolable nature as an empirical independent of microscopic assumptions. This stance motivated Planck to explore 's functional dependence on energy and volume in closed systems, formulating expressions that preserved the law's universality across mechanical, thermal, and chemical contexts. By the mid-1890s, Planck had synthesized these investigations into a comprehensive thermodynamic framework, detailed in his 1897 Treatise on Thermodynamics, which formalized as S = k \ln W in a manner anticipating but not endorsing statistical derivations—here k denotes a constant and W the number of accessible states, though Planck viewed it axiomatically rather than probabilistically. His approach privileged empirical validation over atomistic hypotheses, applying principles to phenomena like thermoelectric effects and chemical affinities to predict conditions with quantitative precision, such as in the dissociation of gases at specific temperatures. These foundations established thermodynamics as a self-consistent discipline, insulated from the kinetic theory's perceived uncertainties, and positioned Planck to later confront challenges in radiation physics through entropic reasoning.

Resolution of Black-Body Radiation Problem

In the closing years of the , physicists grappled with discrepancies between theoretical predictions and experimental observations of spectra. The Rayleigh-Jeans law, derived from classical equipartition of energy assuming continuous modes, accurately matched long-wavelength (low-frequency) but predicted an unphysical to infinite at short wavelengths (high frequencies), a failure later termed the "" in retrospective analyses. Experimental curves, obtained by researchers such as Otto Lummer and Ferdinand Kurlbaum using improved black-body cavities, exhibited a peak intensity shifting with temperature per and a rapid falloff at frequencies, contradicting classical expectations while aligning partially with Wilhelm Wien's empirical distribution for short wavelengths but deviating at longer ones. Max Planck, then a professor at the University of Berlin, approached the problem through thermodynamic principles, building on his prior work in and irreversible processes. Seeking a universal law derivable from fundamental electrodynamics and akin to Ludwig Boltzmann's methods, Planck initially pursued a classical entropy maximization for radiation oscillators in 1899, yielding forms interpolating Wien's and Rayleigh-Jeans limits but requiring ad hoc adjustments. On October 19, 1900, he presented to the an empirical spectral formula that precisely fitted all available data across frequencies: u(\nu, T) = \frac{8\pi h \nu^3}{c^3} \frac{1}{e^{h\nu / kT} - 1}, where h is a new constant, k Boltzmann's constant, c the , and T ; this radiance law resolved the spectral inconsistencies without infinities. To justify this thermodynamically, Planck postulated in a follow-up derivation that the energy of material oscillators interacting with radiation is not continuously variable but exchanged in discrete multiples \epsilon = h\nu, where \nu is frequency, effectively discretizing the energy to evade classical averaging pitfalls at high frequencies. This "quantum hypothesis," introduced reluctantly as a mathematical formalism rather than a physical reality—Planck initially viewed quanta as pertaining only to matter exchanges, not radiation itself—yielded the average oscillator energy \langle E \rangle = \frac{h\nu}{e^{h\nu / kT} - 1} via a combinatorial entropy count, mirroring Boltzmann's but with indivisible energy elements. The value h \approx 6.55 \times 10^{-34} J·s emerged from fitting to Lummer-Pringsheim data at 1000 K, marking the birth of energy quantization despite Planck's hesitation to abandon classical continuity until later validations. This resolution, formalized in Planck's , 1900, , prioritized empirical fidelity over classical orthodoxy, deriving integrated laws like Stefan-Boltzmann for total power (\sigma T^4, with \sigma = \frac{2\pi^5 k^4}{15 c^2 h^3}) and confirming Wien's displacement (\lambda_{\max} T = b, b \approx 2.897 \times 10^{-3} m·K) without contradictions. While contemporaries praised the formula's accuracy, the quantum postulate faced skepticism, as Planck himself doubted its ontological status, preferring a return to classical limits; its causal implications for discontinuous energy transfer only gained traction post-Einstein's light-quantum extension.

Quantum Hypothesis and Planck's Constant

In addressing the theoretical challenges of , Max Planck postulated on December 14, 1900, that the energy of material oscillators emitting and absorbing is not continuous but discrete, exchanged only in finite packets proportional to the radiation . This quantum , presented to the , yielded the [formula E](/page/Formula_E) = nh\nu, where n is a positive , \nu is the , and h is a new fundamental constant. Planck derived this by adapting Ludwig Boltzmann's combinatorial approach to , treating elements of size \epsilon = h\nu as indistinguishable units distributed among oscillators, which produced the correct matching experimental curves from 1899 onward. The constant h, empirically fitted to data, has a modern value of $6.62607015 \times 10^{-34} J s, though Planck's initial derivation emphasized its role in averaging over statistical ensembles rather than inherent discreteness. This resolved the "" of classical Rayleigh-Jeans theory, which diverged to infinite at high frequencies, by suppressing short-wavelength contributions through quantization. Initially, Planck regarded the as a desperate mathematical —a "lucky intuition"—to reconcile with observation, not a literal physical discontinuity in energy, and he resisted its atomistic implications for years. The full paper appeared in in 1901, formalizing the radiation law B(\nu, T) = \frac{2h\nu^3}{c^2} \frac{1}{e^{h\nu / kT} - 1}, where k is Boltzmann's constant and c the . This work, though groundbreaking, remained disconnected from atomic structure until Einstein's 1905 application to the .

Reception of and Contributions to Relativity

Max Planck quickly recognized the significance of Albert Einstein's 1905 paper on , describing it as immediately arousing his "lively attention" upon review, and he became one of the earliest prominent physicists to endorse the theory. Unlike many contemporaries who resisted the abandonment of , Planck integrated into his framework without delay, lecturing on its principles as early as 1906 and applying it to reformulate classical electrodynamics in a relativistic manner. His acceptance stemmed from a foundational commitment to empirical consistency and mathematical invariance, viewing the constancy of light speed as analogous to the quantum of action in his own theory. In a pivotal 1906 , Planck extended his quantum hypothesis to a relativistic context, deriving the energy of a moving quantum oscillator as E = h\nu / \sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}, where h is Planck's constant, \nu the , v the velocity, and c the ; this work introduced relativistic for discrete energy elements, bridging quantum discreteness with Lorentz invariance and anticipating dynamics. Further, in an 1908 paper, he developed a comprehensive relativistic linking radiation fields to electrodynamics, emphasizing the theory's necessity for resolving inconsistencies in under high speeds. These contributions positioned Planck as a key developer of relativistic , though he maintained reservations about fully quantizing the itself. Planck's support extended to general relativity, which he defended amid skepticism following its 1915 formulation; writing to Einstein in 1915, he urged mutual resolve against critics, stating they "must stick together" to uphold the theory's validity. During the 1920s anti-relativity campaigns led by figures like , Planck publicly championed Einstein's work, leveraging his authority as a Nobel to counter ideological attacks framing relativity as "Jewish physics," thereby safeguarding its institutional acceptance in . While not authoring direct extensions to general relativity's field equations, Planck explored its implications for and in lectures, such as those in 1916, and viewed it as a natural evolution of causal principles, though he critiqued incomplete unification with . His advocacy ensured relativity's endurance in academic discourse despite political pressures.

Evolution Toward Modern Quantum Mechanics

Planck initially regarded his 1900 quantum hypothesis as a mathematical expedient rather than a physical reality, describing it as an "act of despair" to fit experimental data while preserving classical electrodynamics. He sought derivations within continuous classical frameworks, resisting the discrete nature of exchange implied by the . This stance persisted into the early 1900s, even as extended the concept to light in 1905 to explain the and specific heats, applications Planck initially critiqued for abandoning wave continuity in . By the 1910s, accumulating evidence compelled gradual acceptance; Planck developed a "second radiation theory" (1911–1913) incorporating irreversible processes and resonators exchanging in finite steps, bridging toward atomic discreteness while upholding . Niels Bohr's 1913 atomic model, postulating stationary orbits with quantized via Planck's constant h, marked a pivotal advance in "," enabling spectral line predictions like the Balmer series—developments Planck acknowledged as validating quanta physically. In his 1918 Nobel lecture, Planck reflected on quantum theory's maturation, citing Einstein's corpuscular insights and Bohr's postulates as establishing the quantum of action (approximately 6.55 × 10⁻²⁷ erg·s) as a foundational constant challenging classical continuity. The 1920s "quantum revolution" transformed Planck's into modern , though Planck played a supportive rather than inventive role as Prussian Academy president and leader, fostering seminars for pioneers like Bohr and . Heisenberg's 1925 introduced non-commuting operators for observables, yielding probabilistic outcomes via Born's interpretation, while Erwin Schrödinger's 1926 offered a continuous ψ-function description—Planck favoring the latter for its visual analogy to classical waves and potential for deterministic limits. Despite endorsing the formalism's empirical success in atomic spectra and scattering, Planck retained reservations about inherent probabilism, viewing as provisional and anticipating a return to strict through underlying mechanisms. This conservative evolution reflected his commitment to , influencing institutional support for the theory's refinement amid debates on complementarity and .

World War I and Interwar Period

Scientific and Advisory Roles During the War

During the outset of , Max Planck joined 92 other prominent German intellectuals in signing the , issued on October 4, 1914, which proclaimed solidarity with Germany's war effort and repudiated Allied allegations of German barbarism, including the and the shooting of civilians in . The document, drafted by Wilhelm II's advisors and circulated internationally, asserted that German troops had spared cultural monuments and adhered to civilized conduct, positions later contradicted by eyewitness accounts and investigations confirming widespread destruction and reprisal killings. Planck's endorsement aligned with widespread initial enthusiasm among German academics for a against encirclement by , , and . As hostilities prolonged scientific isolation due to Allied blockades and , Planck assumed an informal yet recognized role as spokesman for German , leveraging his prestige to defend the integrity of German amid propaganda campaigns portraying it as tainted by . He actively sought to preserve cross-border scholarly exchanges, emphasizing 's supranational character through private correspondence and public statements that urged restraint in politicizing academic pursuits. In 1915, for instance, Planck successfully advocated within the for awarding a to an Italian physicist's paper on , despite Italy's neutrality and growing , thereby sustaining limited international recognition for German theoretical work. Planck's advisory influence extended through his leadership positions, including as a senator in the —where he had helped shape its research priorities since its 1911 founding—and as permanent secretary of the physics section in the since 1912. In these capacities, he guided institutional responses to wartime exigencies, such as reallocating resources for amid shortages while prioritizing fundamental inquiries over direct military applications, unlike contemporaries like who spearheaded chemical weapons development. This approach reflected Planck's conviction that long-term scientific advancement necessitated safeguarding autonomy from immediate utilitarian demands, even as the war claimed his elder son Karl in combat on October 25, 1916.

Postwar Reconstruction and Weimar Engagement

Following the of November 11, 1918, and the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, Max Planck continued his administrative duties as permanent secretary of the , a position he had held since , helping to sustain scientific operations amid political upheaval and economic distress. science faced severe challenges, including the loss of international collaborations due to wartime isolation, reparations burdens under the , and dwindling state funding, which threatened research continuity. Planck's receipt of the on November 2, 1918—for his quantum hypothesis of 1900—elevated his stature as a of enduring scientific excellence, with the delayed ceremony in 1919 aiding efforts to restore global prestige despite Allied boycotts of German scholars. In response to the funding crisis, Planck co-founded the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft on October 30, 1920, alongside and others, as an emergency body to support through private donations from industry and foundations when public resources were scarce. As presiding secretary of the Prussian Academy, Planck temporarily led the organization until Friedrich Schmidt-Ott assumed the presidency, directing grants toward personnel, equipment, and projects for young researchers amid peaking in 1923, which eroded institutional budgets by over 90 percent in real terms. By 1925, the Notgemeinschaft had disbursed funds equivalent to millions of Reichsmarks (adjusted for inflation), stabilizing key fields like physics and chemistry and preventing a broader of talent, though it prioritized applied over purely theoretical work to attract donors. Throughout the Weimar era, Planck deepened his engagement by serving on committees of the —despite its imperial name retaining symbolic continuity—and advocating for scientific autonomy in policy circles, including efforts to reintegrate researchers into international bodies like the International Research Council after 1922 withdrawals. His lectures abroad, such as in 1921, promoted advancements and secured foreign collaborations, countering isolation while the Notgemeinschaft evolved into the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in 1929 under state auspices. These initiatives, grounded in Planck's emphasis on long-term , mitigated the era's instability, funding over 1,000 projects by the late and laying groundwork for institutional resilience, even as Planck privately viewed the democratic framework with reservations.

Critiques of Democratic Institutions

Planck, a product of Prussian academic and juristic traditions, maintained a conservative outlook that inclined him toward skepticism regarding the Weimar Republic's democratic institutions. He affiliated with the , a moderately conservative party emphasizing , national unification, and pragmatic acceptance of the republic while distancing itself from socialist influences and the extremes of both left and right. This membership, joined after , marked the limit of his accommodation to parliamentary politics, as deeper involvement in the volatile democratic framework was deemed incompatible with his preference for institutional stability and apolitical scientific authority. The DVP's platform, under leaders like , critiqued the inefficiencies of and frequent government collapses—Weimar saw 20 cabinets between 1919 and —which Planck implicitly endorsed through his support, viewing such instability as undermining effective governance and scientific progress. His tenure as president of the (from 1920) prioritized insulating research from partisan interference, reflecting a broader conservative wariness of politics and bureaucratic overreach in democratic systems prone to economic crises, such as the of 1923 that eroded middle-class savings by over 90 percent. Despite these reservations, Planck engaged in advisory roles for stabilization efforts, advocating for expert-led over purely electoral mandates to restore order amid and that claimed thousands of lives in political clashes by 1923.

Nazi Era and World War II

Initial Accommodation and Meetings with Hitler

Upon Adolf Hitler's appointment as on January 30, 1933, Max Planck, serving as president of the (KWS) since 1930, adopted a strategy of cautious engagement rather than outright opposition to the nascent Nazi regime. Despite the rapid implementation of anti-Semitic policies, including the boycott of Jewish businesses and preliminary dismissals in , Planck remained in his leadership role, prioritizing the preservation of scientific institutions over immediate resignation or emigration. He viewed public confrontation as futile, instead advocating for behind-the-scenes influence to mitigate damage to German research, a position he communicated to colleagues like , urging them to avoid provocative actions. In May 1933, amid escalating pressures from the targeting academics, Planck secured a private audience with Hitler to plead for exemptions allowing key scientists, including Haber, to retain their positions alongside non-Jewish staff. Hitler rejected the appeal vehemently, declaring the removal of essential for national purification and insisting that science could temporarily dispense with their contributions; this rebuff convinced Planck of the regime's intransigence on racial matters. Following the unsuccessful meeting, Planck enforced compliance with Nazi directives within the KWS, overseeing the dismissal of approximately a quarter of its scientific personnel who were Jewish or politically suspect by late , while negotiating limited waivers to retain some expertise. This accommodation extended to public gestures of alignment; on May 24, 1933, at a KWS general assembly presided over by Planck, members collectively affirmed loyalty to the new government, framing scientific progress as compatible with national renewal under Hitler. Such steps secured continued state funding for the , which increased substantially from Nazi sources starting in 1933, though at the cost of ideological oversight and the erosion of . Planck's rationale, rooted in pragmatic , held that institutional survival outweighed symbolic protest, even as it facilitated the regime's early consolidation of control over .

Defense of Scientific Autonomy and Colleagues

In May 1933, shortly after the Nazi regime's enactment of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which mandated the dismissal of Jewish civil servants including academics, Planck secured an audience with to advocate for the retention of Jewish scientists in German institutions. He argued that their forced emigration would constitute "self-mutilation" for German science, depriving the nation of vital expertise, but Hitler dismissed the plea, insisting that Jews were inherently destructive like a requiring excision despite temporary costs. As president of the (KWS) from 1930 to 1937, Planck maneuvered to preserve the organization's relative autonomy amid pressures for ideological conformity and . He negotiated temporary exemptions allowing select Jewish researchers, such as chemist and physicist , to continue their work covertly or under protected statuses for several years, delaying full compliance with dismissal quotas; the KWS ultimately dismissed 104 Jewish staff members by , but Planck's interventions mitigated immediate purges in key institutes. Planck's defenses extended to symbolic acts of defiance, including hosting a memorial service in January 1935 for Haber—who had resigned under the racial laws and died in exile—despite official Nazi prohibitions on honoring Jews, an event attended by colleagues like at personal risk. In a 1943 speech to German officers in , he explicitly praised Albert Einstein's relativity theory by name, countering Nazi-backed campaigns that branded it "Jewish science" unfit for scholars. These efforts reflected Planck's conviction that internal could safeguard scientific more effectively than or open , which he viewed as futile against the regime's power; however, by , mounting interference prompted his from KWS leadership, after which protections eroded further under successors more aligned with Nazi directives.

Resignation from Leadership and Familial Losses

In late 1938, the adopted new statutes aligning with the Nazi , stripping the institution of its autonomy and requiring alignment with regime directives, including the expulsion of remaining Jewish members. As Perpetual Secretary—a role Planck had held since 1912—he bore responsibility for implementing these measures but refused to comply fully, leading to his resignation on December 13, 1938, at age 80, in a quiet against the politicization of science. This act followed years of limited resistance, including private appeals to Nazi officials on behalf of dismissed colleagues, but marked Planck's effective withdrawal from institutional leadership amid escalating . Planck's personal tragedies intensified during World War II. In August 1944, Allied bombing raids destroyed his home at Grünewald, forcing the 86-year-old physicist, his wife Marga, and surviving family members into temporary relocation amid the chaos of the collapsing regime. More devastating was the fate of his son Erwin, a and official who had maintained reservations about Nazi policies; Erwin was arrested in August 1944 for peripheral involvement in the assassination attempt on , led by . Tried before the Volksgerichtshof on October 23, 1944, he was sentenced to death despite limited evidence of direct participation, and executed by hanging at on January 23, 1945. Planck personally appealed to Hitler via a drafted around October 25, 1944, pleading for mercy based on Erwin's service and lack of ideological opposition, but received no response, underscoring the regime's ruthlessness toward perceived traitors even in its final months. These losses compounded earlier family bereavements—his first wife and several children had predeceased him—but the wartime events left Planck in profound grief, relocating to post-war where he briefly resumed nominal leadership of the from May 1945 until his death.

Philosophical and Religious Views

Commitment to Causality and Anti-Positivism

Planck regarded as a fundamental of scientific , indispensable for establishing lawful connections between phenomena and predicting outcomes with precision. Introduced to positivist ideas through in his early career, he initially found them appealing for emphasizing empirical over speculative metaphysics. However, by the early , Planck rejected this framework, arguing that positivism's restriction to sensory data undermined the objective underlying physical laws and led to an untenable about unobservable causes. In the context of , which Planck pioneered with his 1900 hypothesis of energy quanta to resolve the problem, he opposed probabilistic interpretations that discarded strict in favor of statistical descriptions. He contended that such views, associated with the , represented a retreat from rational explanation, substituting mere correlations for genuine causal mechanisms. Planck maintained that an underlying deterministic structure must exist, even if not fully accessible, to preserve physics as a causal science rather than a descriptive phenomenology. Planck's anti-positivist stance crystallized in his writings, including the collection Where Is Going?, where he warned that abandoning for "statistical causality" or observer-dependent would erode 's claim to truth and devolve it into subjective convention. He advocated for , positing that the external world possesses an independent existence governed by absolute causal laws, which the human mind apprehends through logical inference mirroring physical necessity. This position, articulated in lectures and essays like those from onward, positioned Planck against contemporaries who embraced positivism's denial of metaphysics, insisting instead that thrives on metaphysical commitments to and order.

Reconciliation of Science with Theism

Max Planck viewed science and theism as inherently compatible, with religion complementing the explanatory scope of by addressing ultimate purposes and moral imperatives beyond empirical causation. In his 1937 lecture "Religion und Naturwissenschaft," he argued that "no matter where and how far we look, nowhere do we find a between and ," emphasizing their mutual reinforcement in upholding an ordered against and unbelief. Planck, a devout Lutheran who served as a church elder, drew on historical precedents such as , , and —pioneering scientists who integrated profound religious convictions with rigorous inquiry—to illustrate that theistic belief has historically fueled rather than hindered scientific progress. Central to Planck's reconciliation was the shared necessity of belief in God, though positioned differently in each domain: for religion, God serves as the foundational starting point of direct, symbolic experience, while for science, God emerges as the culminating inference from inductive reasoning about natural laws. He stated, "Therefore, while both religion and natural science require a belief in God for their activities, to the former He is the starting point, to the latter the goal of every thought process." This distinction preserved science's reliance on sensory data and causality—domains closed to religious intrusion—while affirming theism's role in providing the metaphysical rationale for the universe's rational intelligibility, which Planck saw as evidence of a conscious divine intelligence undergirding physical forces. Planck further reconciled the two by portraying them as allies in a "joint battle" against dogmatism and , with deepening reverence for creation's order and safeguarding the intrinsic against materialist reductions. "There can never be any real opposition between and ; for the one is the complement of the other," he wrote, warning that denying life's purpose undermines both endeavors. His commitment to absolute causality, rooted in empirical , led him to reject positivist limitations on , positing instead that scientific pursuit of universal laws inevitably points toward a transcendent lawgiver, harmonizing theism's emphasis on with 's focus on mechanism.

Critiques of Atheism and Materialism

Planck rejected strict , contending that undermined the notion of as self-existent and primary. He argued that all arises from a vibratory implying an underlying conscious , stating in a 1944 speech in : "There is no as such. All originates and exists only by virtue of a which brings the particle of to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the together. We must assume behind this the existence of a conscious and intelligent mind. This mind is the matrix of all ." This view positioned as philosophically inadequate, as it failed to account for the non-material origins of physical reality evident in atomic structure. He further critiqued atheistic interpretations of for neglecting the foundational role of in rational . Planck asserted that sustained scientific work demands belief in an orderly , declaring: "Anybody who has been seriously engaged in scientific work of any kind realizes that over the entrance to the gates of the temple of are written the words: 'Ye must have .' It is a lesson which we all would do well to learn." In his 1937 lecture "Religion and Science," he emphasized that both domains require "belief in " to sustain their pursuits, implying atheism erodes the metaphysical commitment to and discoverable truth. Planck distinguished superficial , which he saw as deriding religious symbols without addressing the universe's rational foundation, from genuine . He warned against overvaluing empirical data at the expense of metaphysical insight, viewing materialist as a threat to science's of laws. His commitment to as absolute—opposing probabilistic —reinforced this, as he held that denying a divine left unexplained the precise mathematical governing . These critiques stemmed from his lifelong integration of physics with , where appeared as an incomplete worldview unable to originate the "force" behind observed phenomena.

Personal Life and Death

Marriages, Children, and Enduring Tragedies

In March 1887, Max Planck married Marie Merck, the sister of a classmate from his school days in . The couple had four children: an eldest son named , twin daughters Margarete and , and a younger son Erwin. Marie died on October 17, 1909, after 22 years of marriage, leaving Planck to raise the children amid his growing scientific responsibilities. Two years later, in March 1911, Planck remarried Marga von Hösslin, the niece of his first wife, who was 29 years his junior. This union produced a fifth child, son Hermann, born in late 1911. Marga outlived Planck, dying in 1948, but the family faced mounting losses that profoundly shaped his later years. inflicted early blows: , a in the , was on the Western Front in 1916. Both twin daughters perished in soon after—Margarete in 1917 and in 1918—leaving Planck with only his three sons. The Nazi era compounded these sorrows. Erwin, who had served as a judge and diplomat, was arrested by the following the July 20, 1944, bomb plot against , in which he was implicated through associations despite limited direct involvement. He was tried by a special court and executed by hanging on January 28, 1945. Hermann survived the war but died in 1954. These familial devastations, spanning wars and personal misfortunes, overshadowed Planck's achievements and tested his resilience until his own death.

Final Years and Death in 1947

Following the conclusion of in 1945, Max Planck, aged 87, was evacuated from by Allied authorities and resettled in , where he resided with relatives in modest conditions amid the hardships of occupied . Despite his frailty and the era's disruptions—including food shortages and institutional disarray—Planck engaged in advisory efforts to revive German physics, corresponding with scientists and supporting the transition from the to what would become the , though formal reorganization occurred posthumously. His resilience at such an age stemmed from a lifelong commitment to scientific continuity, even as personal losses, including the execution of his son Erwin in 1945 for alleged involvement in anti-Nazi plotting, had already deepened his physical and emotional exhaustion. Planck's health, long undermined by chronic and grief, deteriorated further in 1946–1947, confining him increasingly to bed and rendering travel or intensive work impossible. He spent his remaining time in quiet reflection, occasionally receiving visits from colleagues like , who later described his passing as a form of release from accumulated suffering. On October 4, 1947, Planck suffered a fatal at the of Göttingen's , where he had been under care; he was 89 years old. His occurred three days later on October 7, attended by a small circle of admirers despite restrictions, and he was interred in Göttingen's Stadtfriedhof alongside family members.

Legacy and Publications

Enduring Scientific Impact and Honors

Planck's formulation of the quantum hypothesis in 1900, introducing the concept of energy quanta to resolve discrepancies in black-body radiation spectra, established the foundational principle of quantum theory, fundamentally altering the understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. This breakthrough, encapsulated in the relation E = h\nu where h is Planck's constant, provided the proportionality factor necessary for empirical agreement with observed radiation laws, overturning classical continuum assumptions and enabling subsequent developments in photoelectricity, atomic structure, and wave-particle duality. The enduring influence of Planck's work permeates , underpinning as developed by figures such as Einstein, Bohr, and Heisenberg, with applications extending to technologies like semiconductors, lasers, and through the quantization of energy levels. Planck's constant, fixed at $6.62607015 \times 10^{-34} J⋅s in the since 2019, serves as a cornerstone for defining fundamental physical units and calibrating measurements in and . In recognition of these contributions, Planck was awarded the in 1918 for advancing physics through , a delayed honor due to disruptions. The for the Advancement of Science, successor to the and renamed in his honor in 1948, operates over 80 research institutes worldwide, fostering basic research in natural sciences, life sciences, and humanities. Additional tributes include the naming of in cosmology and the Max Planck Medal, awarded by the for exceptional achievements in theoretical physics.

Major Works and Writings

Planck's foundational contributions to appeared in his 1897 textbook Vorlesungen über Thermodynamik, which advanced a rigorous, principle-based framework for the field, emphasizing the second law and in a manner independent of molecular hypotheses. This work established his reputation in before his quantum innovations. His pivotal papers on marked the origin of . In "Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum," presented to the on December 14, 1900, and published that year in Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft, Planck derived the by assuming exchanges occur in units proportional to , ε = hν, where h is now known as Planck's constant. This resolved the of classical theory empirically, fitting experimental data from Rubens and Kurlbaum. A detailed follow-up appeared in in March 1901 as "On the Law of the Energy Distribution in the Normal Spectrum," formalizing the derivation via combinatorial statistics of elements. Planck systematized these ideas in Vorlesungen über die Theorie der Wärmestrahlung (Lectures on the Theory of Heat Radiation), published in 1906 by J.A. Barth, which integrated quantum postulates with thermodynamic principles to explain radiation laws, including derivations of Wien's displacement law and Stefan-Boltzmann law from the quantum distribution. Later writings, such as applications to specific heats and early relativity endorsements, built on this foundation, though his core innovations remained rooted in radiation theory.

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