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Upper Krishna Project

The Upper Krishna Project (UKP) is a multi-purpose mega irrigation and hydropower initiative in Karnataka, India, centered on harnessing the Krishna River's waters through dams at Almatti and Narayanpur, along with an extensive canal network, to irrigate drought-prone districts including Vijayapura, Bagalkot, and Raichur.^[1]^[2] Conceived originally by the princely state of Hyderabad in the mid-20th century as part of broader Krishna basin development, the project aims to utilize approximately 173 thousand million cubic feet (TMC) of water to bring over 622,000 hectares under irrigation while generating electricity.^[3]^[2] Initiated with the foundation stone laid by Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri on 22 May 1964, the UKP has been implemented in stages, with Stage-I focusing on initial dam construction and canal systems to stabilize irrigation in arid regions historically reliant on rain-fed agriculture.^[2] Subsequent phases, including Stage-II and the ongoing Stage-III, expand coverage to additional lakhs of hectares, incorporating lift irrigation schemes to counter the region's topography.^[4]^[5] By providing reliable water supply, the project has transformed agricultural productivity in beneficiary areas, enabling crop diversification and reducing famine risks, though full potential remains unrealized due to phased execution.^[6] Despite these advancements, the UKP faces persistent challenges, including interstate water-sharing disputes with Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra over reservoir heights and allocations, which have delayed heightening of the Almatti Dam and overall completion.^[7] Over six decades since inception, political delays, land acquisition hurdles, and allegations of mismanagement and corruption in contracts have left significant portions incomplete, prompting ongoing farmer agitations for expedited funding and execution.^[8]^[9]^[10] Resettlement issues for displaced populations have also drawn criticism, with reports highlighting inadequate compensation and rehabilitation despite World Bank involvement in early phases.^[11]^[12]

History

Origins and Early Planning

The Upper Krishna Project originated from proposals by the princely State of Hyderabad to harness waters from the upper Krishna River basin for irrigation, conceived alongside the Lower Krishna Project (later developed as the Nagarjunasagar Dam) to mitigate drought in arid Deccan regions.^[3]^[13] These early ideas focused on constructing dams and diversion structures to supply water to rain-fed agricultural lands spanning what are now districts in northern Karnataka.^[14] Following India's independence in 1947 and the 1948 annexation of Hyderabad, the upper basin territories were incorporated into the Indian Union and later redistributed under the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, placing them primarily in Bombay State (subsequently Mysore State, renamed Karnataka in 1973). Initial post-independence planning emphasized localized schemes, such as the 1950 Vijayapura Lift Irrigation Scheme (later renamed Mulwad Lift Irrigation Scheme), which proposed pumping Krishna River water to irrigate command areas in Bijapur district as a precursor to broader basin development.^[15] By the late 1950s, the Government of Mysore commissioned detailed hydrological surveys and feasibility studies to consolidate these efforts into a unified multipurpose project, targeting irrigation for approximately 1.09 million hectares across drought-prone districts including Bijapur, Bagalkot, and Gulbarga.^[2] The blueprint incorporated major reservoirs at proposed sites like Almatti and Narayanpur, with associated canals and power generation components, though interstate water-sharing disputes delayed formalization until the Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal's establishment in 1961.^[16] Planning documents from this period projected utilization of 8.25 thousand million cubic meters (tmc) of water annually from Karnataka's 811 tmc allocation under emerging tribunal considerations.^[17]

Post-Independence Development and World Bank Involvement

Following India's independence in 1947, irrigation development in the Krishna River basin accelerated amid rising agricultural demands and inter-state water sharing disputes among Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The Upper Krishna Project, initially conceptualized under the princely state of Hyderabad before 1948, was re-evaluated and prioritized by the newly formed Mysore State (later Karnataka) after the linguistic reorganization of states in 1956, which transferred the relevant territories from Hyderabad and Bombay states to Mysore. Detailed surveys and feasibility studies in the late 1950s confirmed the project's potential to irrigate approximately 1.536 million acres in drought-prone northern Karnataka districts, including Bijapur (now Vijayapura), Bagalkot, and Raichur.^[2]^[10] The establishment of the Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal (KWDT-I) in 1961 under the Inter-State Water Disputes Act addressed allocation conflicts, culminating in its 1973 report that assigned Karnataka 911 thousand million cubic feet (TMC) of dependable Krishna waters, enabling structured project advancement. Construction commenced in 1963, with Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri laying the foundation stone on May 22, 1964, marking the official launch of dam and canal works at Narayanpur and later Almatti sites to harness 173 TMC of water for multipurpose use. By the early 1970s, initial phases focused on Narayanpur Dam completion in 1978, providing foundational storage despite ongoing tribunal-related delays and revisions to align with allocated shares.^[2]^[18]^[19] World Bank involvement began in 1978 with a credit of approximately Rs 47 crore (equivalent to about $5.9 million at contemporaneous exchange rates) to support early implementation components, reflecting the institution's emphasis on large-scale irrigation for food production enhancement. This funding aided Stage I Phase I, covering initial canal networks and resettlement, though the project emerged as the Bank's largest supported involuntary resettlement operation, displacing over 200,000 people amid challenges in land acquisition and rehabilitation. Subsequent assistance included a 1989 loan for Stage I Phase II, financing 60% of costs for expanded irrigation to 100,000 hectares, with total World Bank commitments exceeding $126 million by the late 1980s for dam heightening and distribution systems. These interventions were conditional on state compliance with environmental and resettlement safeguards, though evaluations later highlighted persistent landlessness among 80-90% of displacees, underscoring implementation gaps.^[10]^[20]^[21]

Technical Components

Dams and Reservoirs

The Upper Krishna Project relies on two principal dams across the Krishna River to create reservoirs for water storage, enabling irrigation, hydropower, and regulated downstream flow in drought-prone regions of northern Karnataka. The upstream Narayanpur Dam, situated near Narayanpur in Yadgir district, forms Basava Sagara reservoir with a gross storage capacity of 37.646 thousand million cubic feet (TMC) and live storage of 30.473 TMC at its full reservoir level.^[6] Constructed to a height of 29.72 meters above the lowest foundation level, the dam spans over 10.6 kilometers and features 30 gates, including 22 spillway gates, supporting Stage I canal systems for irrigating approximately 47,233 hectares via the Narayanpur Left Bank Canal. Completion of the dam and allied works occurred by the late 1970s, marking an early milestone in the project's implementation.^[22] The downstream Almatti Dam, located near Almatti village in Bagalkot district, serves as the project's main storage facility, impounding water up to a full reservoir level of 519.60 meters with a gross capacity of 123.08 TMC and live storage of approximately 102 TMC. Standing at a height of 52.5 meters and extending about 3.5 kilometers in length, it integrates a 290 MW hydroelectric power station on its right bank, generating an annual output of 713 million kilowatt-hours.^[23]^[24] The dam's reservoir supports multipurpose utilization under Stages I and II, including releases for the Narayanpur Right Bank Canal and left bank networks, though interstate disputes have capped operations below the originally planned height of 524 meters. In September 2025, Karnataka approved raising the height to 524.256 meters to expand capacity toward 300 TMC, accompanied by compensation measures for affected farmers, pending resolution of concerns from neighboring states.^[7]

Canals, Irrigation Networks, and Power Facilities

The Upper Krishna Project's irrigation networks comprise an interconnected system of main canals, branch canals, distributaries, and lift irrigation schemes originating from the Narayanpur and Almatti reservoirs, designed to convey water across drought-prone terrains in northern Karnataka districts including Vijayapura, Bagalkot, Yadgir, and Raichur.^[25] These networks facilitate both gravity-fed and pumped distribution to enhance cultivable command areas, with Stage I emphasizing foundational canal infrastructure from Narayanpur and Almatti, while Stages II and III incorporate advanced lift mechanisms to access elevated lands. Prominent among the canals is the Narayanpur Left Bank Canal (NLBC), operational since 2001, which irrigates 142,580 hectares via its main canal (initially constructed up to 18 km) and distributaries, though remodelling has been pursued to mitigate seepage-induced salinity and improve water use efficiency.^[26] From Almatti, the West Main Canal spans 61 km with 25 distributaries and the East Main Canal extends 54 km with 22 distributaries, supporting irrigation under both gravity and lift systems in early stages.^[27] Supplementary lift irrigation schemes, such as Yalligutti (700 hectares) and others under progress, integrate with the primary network to extend coverage, often involving feeder canals (e.g., 1.75 km lengths) and branch canals up to 40 km in targeted sub-projects.^[28] Hydropower facilities are embedded within the dam infrastructure, with the primary installation being the 290 MW Almatti Power House situated on the right bank of Almatti Dam, commissioned in 2005 to harness reservoir releases for electricity generation estimated at 672 million units annually.^[29] This facility contributes to the project's multipurpose objectives by utilizing turbine systems downstream of the dam, though overall power development across stages has faced delays relative to irrigation components, with earlier plans for up to 1,100 MW total capacity across multiple sites remaining partially realized.^[30]

Implementation Stages

Stage I: Completion and Key Milestones

Stage I of the Upper Krishna Project primarily involved the construction of the Narayanpur Dam (also known as Basava Sagara) and the Almatti Dam up to a full reservoir level of 519 meters, along with allied works and initial canal networks to irrigate 424,903 hectares.^[31] The Narayanpur Dam and associated infrastructure were completed, allowing for water storage, diversion, and initial hydropower generation to support downstream irrigation.^[22] The Almatti Dam's construction progressed to its Stage I height, with completion achieved in July 2005, enabling enhanced storage capacity of approximately 1.3 thousand million cubic meters at that level for irrigation and power purposes.^[32] Key canal components, including the Narayanpur Left Bank Canal and branch canals like Shapur and Indi, were developed to distribute water across the command area in northern Karnataka districts.^[33] By the early 2000s, major structural elements of Stage I were operational, though full irrigation potential realization was delayed due to ongoing canal works and inter-state water disputes; official progress reports indicate Stage I and II combined as completed, achieving the targeted irrigation for over 620,000 hectares cumulatively.^[34] This phase marked the project's foundational hydraulic infrastructure, with the dams providing regulated flows critical for drought-prone regions.^[35]

Stage II: Progress and Modifications

Stage II of the Upper Krishna Project, a multipurpose initiative, seeks to harness 54 thousand million cubic feet (TMC) of water for irrigating 197,120 hectares across northern Karnataka's arid regions, building on Stage I infrastructure through expanded canal networks and lift irrigation systems.^[4] This stage emphasizes command area development, including distributary canals and on-farm improvements to optimize water delivery efficiency. Implementation has advanced substantially, with Stage II nearing completion alongside Stage I, collectively generating an irrigation potential of 608,000 hectares as of 2025.^[33] Key achievements include the remodeling and lining of principal canals such as the Narayan Left Bank Canal (NLBC), Hagari Branch Canal (HBC), Sulebhavi Branch Canal (SBC), MBA Branch Canal (MBC), Jawalge Branch Canal (JBC), and Indira Branch Canal (IBC) from kilometer 0.00 to 64.00, allowing initial water releases for cultivation.^[36] These enhancements address seepage losses and improve conveyance, with physical works on branch and minor canals progressing to support stabilized cropping in tail-end areas. Modifications to the original blueprint have primarily involved scope adjustments for better resource utilization amid interstate water-sharing constraints imposed by the Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal II (KWDT-II), which allocated Karnataka 177 TMC overall, influencing downstream priorities without altering core Stage II water quantum.^[33] Engineering tweaks, such as reinforced canal sections and pump installations for lift schemes, were incorporated to mitigate operational inefficiencies observed in early trials, though detailed cost overruns specific to Stage II remain undocumented in public records beyond integrated project funding. Delays in full utilization stem from land acquisition hurdles and funding intermittency, yet recent state commitments of annual allocations exceeding Rs 18,000 crore signal accelerated closure.^[37] Empirical outcomes indicate partial realization of ayacut potential, with stabilized irrigation in over 150,000 hectares by mid-2020s, contingent on monsoon variability and equitable distribution.^[33]

Stage III: Current Status and Planned Expansions

Stage III of the Upper Krishna Project, intended to utilize an additional 130 TMC of water for irrigating over 500,000 hectares in northern Karnataka districts, has advanced to land acquisition following cabinet approvals in September 2025.^[38] The phase focuses on raising the Almatti Dam's height from 519.6 meters to 524.256 meters to increase storage capacity and enable expanded canal networks for irrigation and hydropower.^[39] This expansion requires acquiring 133,867 acres of land, including 75,563 acres for submergence—90% of which is currently irrigated—51,837 acres for canals, and 6,469 acres for rehabilitation colonies.^[40] On October 10, 2025, the Karnataka government issued a notification for this land acquisition, committing ₹75,000 crore over the next four years toward implementation.^[41] Compensation rates were set at ₹40 lakh per acre for irrigated land and ₹30 lakh per acre for dry land, with provisions for additional benefits like job quotas and housing in rehabilitation areas.^[42] However, farmers have expressed concerns over delayed payments and pending litigations exceeding 20,000 cases seeking higher compensation, potentially hindering progress.^[43] ^[44] Planned expansions under Stage III include constructing new branch canals and lifts to command an additional 12-13 lakh acres, prioritizing drought-prone regions in Bagalkot, Vijayapura, and Kalaburagi districts.^[45] The overall phase cost is estimated at ₹70,000 crore, funded through state budgets and potential central assistance, though interstate disputes with Maharashtra over water shares may complicate execution.^[46] Physical works on dam modifications and canal lining are slated to commence post-acquisition, aiming for phased completion to mitigate fiscal strains.^[47]

Objectives and Empirical Achievements

Irrigation Expansion and Agricultural Outcomes

The Upper Krishna Project (UKP) has expanded irrigated agriculture across drought-prone districts in northern Karnataka, primarily through Stages I and II. Stage I aims to irrigate 425,000 hectares using 119 thousand million cubic feet (TMC) of water, while Stage II targets 197,120 hectares with 54 TMC, for a combined potential of 622,000 hectares.^[33] As of 2016 assessments, the project was irrigating 622,023 hectares, closely matching the planned extent for these phases and enabling a shift from predominantly rain-fed to irrigated cultivation.^[31] Stage III proposals seek further expansion, potentially adding over 500,000 hectares through lift irrigation schemes.^[45] This irrigation development has facilitated higher cropping intensities, often reaching two to three crops per year, and diversification toward water-intensive cash crops like sugarcane, cotton, and horticultural produce alongside staples such as paddy and pulses. Reliable canal supplies have supported these changes, with command areas exhibiting upward trends in overall agricultural production and productivity linked to consistent water availability.^[11]^[48] Empirical evaluations highlight improved water use efficiency and economic returns; for example, automated canal systems in the Narayanpur Left Bank Canal command area—part of UKP—have boosted farmer incomes through better water distribution and reduced losses. Precise irrigation techniques, such as alternate wetting and drying in paddy fields, have demonstrated yield gains of 6.75% to 10.64% over conventional methods while conserving water.^[49]^[50] Direct-seeded rice practices under UKP have further elevated benefit-cost ratios to 2.77, enhancing soil health and profitability.^[51] Broader outcomes include elevated rural employment and household incomes for approximately 100,000 beneficiaries, contributing to regional economic stabilization despite challenges like uneven utilization and maintenance needs. Water productivity analyses confirm higher output per unit of water in UKP compared to adjacent rain-fed zones, underscoring causal links between expanded irrigation and agricultural intensification.^[11]^[52]

Hydropower Generation and Water Supply Benefits

The Upper Krishna Project's hydropower component centers on facilities at the Almatti and Narayanpur dams, enabling electricity generation from the Krishna River's flow. The Almatti Dam hosts a 290 MW hydroelectric power station that supplies power to Karnataka's state grid, contributing to the region's energy requirements amid growing demand.^[53] This installation harnesses regulated reservoir releases to produce electricity, with the project overall supporting an estimated annual output in the range of hundreds of millions of kilowatt-hours.^[6] In addition to power, the reservoirs provide benefits for non-agricultural water supply, including drinking water to nearby towns and cities in northern Karnataka, thereby improving access in historically drought-affected areas.^[54] The structured water management through dams and associated infrastructure ensures more reliable distribution for domestic and potentially industrial uses, reducing dependency on erratic rainfall and groundwater sources. Empirical data from project operations indicate that such allocations have enhanced water security, though precise volumes for non-irrigation purposes remain integrated within broader utilization plans totaling around 173 TMC for initial stages.^[33] These elements collectively mitigate energy shortages and support basic water needs, fostering socioeconomic stability in the project zones.

Broader Economic and Regional Development Impacts

The Upper Krishna Project has facilitated economic expansion in Karnataka's semi-arid northern districts by stabilizing water supply for agriculture, which constitutes the primary economic activity in the region. Irrigation from the project's reservoirs and canals has supported higher cropping intensities and diversification into cash crops such as sugarcane and cotton, contributing to sustained increases in agricultural output and farmer incomes.^[11] ^[31] Empirical assessments indicate yield improvements of 25-30% in command areas over two decades, driven by reliable water access that mitigates drought risks historically prevalent in districts like Bagalkot and Vijayapura.^[55] Employment generation represents a key channel for regional economic upliftment, with the project creating direct opportunities for around 100,000 individuals through intensified farming and ancillary activities like agro-processing.^[11] Beyond agriculture, spillover effects include non-farm jobs in maintenance, transportation, and small-scale industries reliant on enhanced rural productivity, fostering gradual livelihood diversification.^[31] These developments have helped curb distress migration from rural areas, stabilizing local economies and supporting household income resilience.^[55] On a regional scale, the project addresses developmental imbalances between Karnataka's water-scarce north and more prosperous south by bolstering GDP contributions from agriculture in beneficiary districts, though incomplete infrastructure rollout has led to uneven realization of benefits across sub-command areas.^[55] Hydropower integration further amplifies economic value by providing reliable electricity for agro-industries and rural electrification, indirectly promoting non-agricultural growth.^[13] Overall, these impacts underscore irrigation's role in causal pathways to poverty reduction, albeit constrained by factors like water distribution inefficiencies.^[11]

Challenges and Operational Realities

Financial Costs, Overruns, and Funding Mechanisms

The Upper Krishna Project's financial trajectory has been marked by substantial cost overruns, driven primarily by protracted delays, expanded scopes including additional canals and rehabilitation, inflationary pressures, and escalated land acquisition expenses amid legal disputes and compensation revisions. Early phases benefited from international loans, while later stages rely heavily on state budgetary allocations, highlighting a shift toward domestic funding amid fiscal strains. Total expenditures across phases have far exceeded initial projections, with Phase III alone seeing revisions from approximately ₹51,148 crore to ₹87,818 crore as of 2025, largely attributable to land costs rising from ₹17,627 crore to ₹40,558 crore.^[37]^[56] Phase I, initiated in the late 1970s, had an initial administrative approval cost of ₹283.65 crore in 1978, though earlier planning estimates were as low as ₹75 crore for the first stage; actual costs ballooned due to construction complexities and World Bank-assisted expansions, though precise final figures remain elusive in public records beyond the framework of a US$284.4 million appraisal estimate (inclusive of contingencies). Phase II, appraised at US$542.2 million in the late 1980s, incurred actual costs of US$755.9 million by 1997 closure, representing a 39% overrun linked to extended timelines, additional works like power components, and currency fluctuations. These overruns underscore inefficiencies in initial scoping and execution, compounded by inter-state water disputes that halted progress.^[57]^[58] For Stage III, approved post-2000 with an early 2015 estimate of ₹17,000 crore, costs have escalated dramatically to projections of ₹87,818 crore (or up to ₹1.22 lakh crore including full land acquisition for 1.33 lakh acres), fueled by Supreme Court-mandated revisions, farmer agitations delaying surveys, and hiked compensations—such as ₹25-40 lakh per acre finalized in September 2025 for dry/irrigated lands. Overruns here, exceeding 70% from baseline estimates, reflect not only economic factors but also policy shifts prioritizing rehabilitation, with land acquisition now comprising over 45% of the budget. Karnataka's government has committed ₹18,000 crore annually from 2025 onward to accelerate completion, potentially reallocating from sectors like education and health, while seeking 25% central assistance (₹12,000 crore sought in July 2025 for UKP and related projects).^[56]^[40]^[37] Funding mechanisms evolved from multilateral loans in Phases I and II—where the World Bank/IDA covered 61% via US$165 million loan and US$160 million credit, supplemented by 38% from central/state governments and minor farmer contributions—to predominantly state-led financing via Krishna Bhagya Jala Nigam Limited (KBJNL), a government undertaking responsible for execution. KBJNL draws from Karnataka's annual budgets (e.g., ₹2,500 crore supplemental in 2021 for rehabilitation), internal accruals from hydropower tariffs, and ad-hoc central grants, though recoveries via water charges have lagged, covering only operational needs rather than capital repayment. This reliance exposes the project to state fiscal volatility, with criticisms of mismanagement in audits (e.g., irregularities in KBJNL's command area programs) amplifying overrun risks.^[57]^[59]^[60]

Engineering, Maintenance, and Technical Hurdles

The Upper Krishna Project has encountered significant engineering challenges, including siltation in reservoirs and canals that reduces storage and conveyance capacities. In the Indi Lift Canal, silt accumulation reaches 1-1.5 meters in deep cut sections, while the Shahapur Right Branch Canal experiences 0.7-0.8 meters of silt in initial reaches and 0.5 meters in distributaries.^[61] These deposits, exacerbated by upstream sediment loads and inadequate desilting, diminish designed discharge capacities across main canals, distributaries, and laterals, contributing to overall project inefficiencies.^[61] Seepage losses represent another persistent technical hurdle, primarily due to deteriorated concrete linings in canals such as the Indi Branch Canal, Jevargi Branch Canal, and Mudbal Branch Canal. Leakages at head regulators, escapes, and aqueducts—such as over 250 cusecs at the Mudbal Branch Canal head—further compound water wastage, with up to 69% of inputs unaccounted for in some assessments owing to seepage and lateral flows.^[61] This issue is aggravated by improper upkeep, leading to inequitable distribution where tail-end users receive deficits, as seen in distributary D-26 of the Mudbal Branch Canal delivering under 20-25 cusecs.^[61] Maintenance deficiencies, including damaged offtake gates (with only 60-75% functional in the Shahapur Branch Canal) and unchecked jungle growth obstructing inspections, hinder operational reliability.^[61] The absence of cross-regulators, automated monitoring systems, and proper flow measurement devices in secondary and tertiary canals exacerbates water level control problems, fostering unauthorized offtakes and perturbations from power shutdowns or rainfall ingress.^[61] Waterlogging emerges as a consequential engineering and management shortfall, particularly in undrained command areas like the Shahapur Branch Canal, where surplus irrigation and impermeable granite substrata cause shallow stagnation, salinity buildup, and vegetation proliferation.^[61] Subsurface drainage interventions have been piloted in sites such as Islampur/Devapur to mitigate these effects, but widespread implementation lags, perpetuating soil degradation and ecological issues like mosquito breeding.^[62] Efforts to address these hurdles through canal repairs and desilting, as demanded by farmers in 2015, underscore ongoing maintenance backlogs filling channels with silt.^[63] The Upper Krishna Project has displaced approximately 70,176 families, totaling around 468,000 individuals, primarily from 187 villages submerged due to reservoir filling and dam construction across its stages.^[12] This figure encompasses farmers, daily wage laborers, and joint family units that were largely self-sufficient through agriculture on 2.73 lakh acres of land, including 2.3 lakh acres of arable territory lost since displacement began in 1974.^[12] World Bank assessments indicate broader impacts, with the Almatti reservoir alone affecting 32,673 households (142,525 people) in 95 villages, plus additional canal and road-related displacements totaling over 150,000 individuals in Bank-financed components, and potential totals exceeding 376,000–426,000 people if dam heights reach projected levels.^[64] Rehabilitation efforts initially relied on cash compensation under the Land Acquisition Act of 1894, supplemented by ex-gratia payments such as house construction grants of about $629 per household and land development grants ranging from $571 to $1,714, though these were often inadequate for replacement costs.^[64] By the mid-1990s, policies evolved to include "consent awards" negotiated via Lok Adalats, raising rates to Rs 70,200 per acre for dry land and Rs 1.48 lakh per acre for irrigated land, avoiding prolonged court disputes.^[12] Displaced families were relocated to 136 resettlement centers (RCs) across five districts, with infrastructure provisions like roads, schools, and water supply; income restoration programs targeted agriculture, dairy, and fishing, while 124 RCs were transferred to local panchayats for management.^[12]^[64] Emergency relocations, such as during 1997 floods affecting 8,000 people, involved ad-hoc measures like boats and helicopters, highlighting reactive planning.^[64] Outcomes have been marked by persistent impoverishment and inadequate restoration of pre-project living standards, with World Bank evaluations noting initial mismanagement leading to two project suspensions and widespread income losses due to unreplaceable land and flawed schemes.^[64] In RCs like Ballur, residents—numbering around 3,000—face chronic shortages of potable water (relying on a single borewell and leaking tanks), absent sanitation facilities, dilapidated roads, and clogged drainage, exacerbating health risks; marginal farmers depleted compensation funds rapidly amid corruption siphoning 10–40% of payments.^[12] Household incomes stabilized at roughly $516 by 1997 post-1993 reforms, with 69% electrification achieved, but housing sizes shrank (from 696 to 414 square feet), and health deteriorated sharply, including a 15-fold malaria surge in affected areas from 1991–1996.^[64] No comprehensive government socio-economic assessment exists—flagged by the Comptroller and Auditor General in 2015—while second-generation displacees report cultural disconnection and ongoing grievances, underscoring failures in long-term integration despite some institutional gains like grievance mechanisms.^[12]^[64]

Controversies and Disputes

Inter-State Water Allocation Conflicts

The Upper Krishna Project (UKP) has been entangled in inter-state water allocation disputes primarily involving Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh, stemming from the Krishna River's shared basin. The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-I (KWDT-I), constituted in 1969 and issuing its final award in June 1976, allocated 734 thousand million cubic feet (TMC) of dependable Krishna water to Karnataka, intended to support projects like UKP utilizing the state's upper basin share.^[65] This allocation, with Maharashtra receiving 585 TMC and Andhra Pradesh 811 TMC, was based on historical use, irrigation needs, and basin hydrology, but Karnataka argued it underrepresented upper riparian entitlements, leading to ongoing contentions over project-specific implementations such as UKP's irrigation diversions.^[65] A focal point of conflict has been the height of the Almatti Dam, a key UKP component on the Krishna River, where Karnataka seeks to increase storage to maximize its tribunal-allocated share. Initially set at 518.2 meters full reservoir level by KWDT-I to balance downstream flows, Karnataka pursued elevations up to 524.25 meters, citing KWDT-II's 2010 award that permitted adjustments for siltation and additional allocations.^[66] Maharashtra has repeatedly opposed this, contending that higher storage reduces releases to its downstream regions like Sangli and Kolhapur, prompting threats of Supreme Court intervention; in September 2025, Maharashtra Chief Minister Devendra Fadnavis stated the state would approach the court if Karnataka proceeded with raising the height from 519 meters to 524 meters, potentially affecting 100 TMC of additional storage.^[67] Karnataka's cabinet approved land acquisition for this raise on September 17, 2025, underscoring persistent bilateral tensions despite tribunal directives.^[68] The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-II (KWDT-II), reporting on December 30, 2010, addressed further claims by allocating Karnataka an additional 130 TMC for UKP Stage-III, bringing its total share toward 911 TMC, but implementation has been stalled by objections from Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra over verification of unutilized waters and equitable division.^[3] Andhra Pradesh challenged the award in the Supreme Court, arguing it over-allocated to upstream Karnataka at downstream expense, while Karnataka has pressed the central government for gazette notification to operationalize UKP expansions as of May 2025.^[69] These disputes have delayed UKP's full potential, with Karnataka's utilization often contested amid claims of excess drawals during droughts, reflecting broader riparian inequities where upstream projects like UKP amplify downstream shortages without resolved return flow accounting.^[70]

Rehabilitation Shortcomings and Displacement Criticisms

The Upper Krishna Project has displaced approximately 70,176 families, totaling around 468,000 individuals, from 187 villages primarily in Bagalkot and Vijayapura districts, submerging 273,000 acres of land including 230,000 acres of arable farmland since land acquisition began in 1974.^[12] Rehabilitation efforts have involved relocating affected persons to 136 centers across five districts, but these sites often lack basic infrastructure such as adequate water supply—with some centers relying on a single borewell for thousands of residents—functional toilets, paved roads, and proper drainage systems, leading to persistent health and sanitation issues.^[12] A 2015 Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) report highlighted non-adherence to the Karnataka Resettlement Act of 1987 and the National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy of 2007, noting the absence of updated socio-economic assessments for displaced populations.^[12] World Bank evaluations of the project's phases underscore systemic failures in resettlement, particularly the inability to allocate sufficient agricultural land for livelihood restoration; in Phase I, affecting about 19,000 families, virtually no productive land was identified despite requirements for around 10,000 hectares, resulting in incomplete relocation and ongoing court cases as new villages lacked viable economic bases.^[71] Displaced farmers, many marginal or landless laborers, report widespread unemployment, with compensation funds—totaling over Rs. 2,414 crore spent on rehabilitation and resettlement by 2006—often depleted quickly without generating local employment or restoring pre-project incomes, exacerbating marginalization.^[72] The bank suspended funding twice due to these deficiencies, resuming only after government commitments to improved plans, though Phase II preparations remained weak per 1987 appraisals.^[12]^[71] Criticisms persist into recent years, with Karnataka Excise Minister R.B. Thimmapur in June 2025 publicly condemning delays in rehabilitating farmers displaced by the Almatti Dam's heightening under Phase III, attributing stagnation to administrative inaction despite allocated funds.^[73] Affected communities cite corruption in compensation claims, inadequate land quality in allotted plots, and social fragmentation from relocation to isolated centers, where access to original networks and resources remains limited even two decades post-displacement.^[12]^[72] While some centers have been transferred to local panchayats with enhanced compensation via consent awards—such as Rs. 70,200 per acre for dry land—rejections of at least 12 sites due to resource constraints indicate unresolved implementation gaps.^[12]

Political Protests, Delays, and Regional Neglect Claims

The Upper Krishna Project, initiated in 1964 to irrigate drought-prone regions in north Karnataka, has faced significant implementation delays spanning over six decades, primarily attributed to political apathy and inconsistent prioritization by successive state governments.^[8] As of 2025, key phases, including the third phase involving land acquisition and canal networks, remain incomplete despite allocations exceeding ₹75,000 crore in recent budgets, with critics pointing to bureaucratic hurdles and electoral politics diverting funds to other regions.^[41] These delays have exacerbated water scarcity in the Krishna basin, where intended beneficiaries have waited generations for promised irrigation benefits.^[74] Political protests have intensified in response to these delays, with farmers' groups staging relay hunger strikes and sieges against government offices. In December 2024, the UKP Affected Farmers Association launched protests in Bagalkot, accusing the Karnataka government of financial mismanagement and demanding immediate completion of basin projects alongside fair compensation for displaced landowners.^[75] ^[76] Demonstrators, supported by leaders from both Congress and BJP, renewed agitations starting December 3, 2024, highlighting unfulfilled land rights and stalled relief payments for the third phase, which risks further losses if not addressed timely.^[77] ^[74] Earlier in September 2025, farmers urged time-bound relief disbursements to mitigate acquisition-related hardships, warning of intensified unrest absent government action.^[43] Claims of regional neglect have fueled demands for separate statehood for north Karnataka, portraying the Krishna basin districts—such as Bagalkot and Vijayapura—as systematically sidelined in favor of southern and coastal areas. Protesters in December 2024 explicitly threatened a statehood movement if the government failed to expedite UKP completion, arguing that chronic underfunding reflects broader developmental disparities.^[78] Activists have criticized state planning bodies for lacking regional balance, with the Upper Krishna basin's irrigation woes cited as emblematic of north Karnataka's marginalization despite the project's multipurpose mandate for agriculture and power.^[79] These grievances underscore perceptions of political favoritism, where successive administrations have deprioritized arid northern districts, leading to persistent agrarian distress and heightened separatist rhetoric.^[8]

Recent Developments and Future Prospects

Ongoing Works and Policy Discussions (Post-2020)

In September 2025, the Karnataka Cabinet approved Phase-III of the Upper Krishna Project (UKP-III), estimated at ₹70,000 crore, which includes raising the height of the Almatti Dam from 519.6 meters to 524.256 meters to enhance storage capacity and facilitate irrigation for an additional 1.46 million acres across districts including Vijayapura, Kalaburagi, Raichur, Yadgir, Gadag, and Koppal.^[38] This phase requires the acquisition of 133,867 acres in total, comprising 75,563 acres for submergence (90% irrigated land), 51,837 acres for canal construction, and 6,469 acres for rehabilitation sites.^[38] ^[40] To expedite implementation, the state government announced plans in October 2025 to establish a dedicated land acquisition authority specifically for UKP-III, addressing delays in securing the required land while integrating canal network expansions and modernization efforts under the broader project framework.^[80] Policy discussions have centered on funding sustainability, with the government committing ₹18,000 crore annually toward the project, potentially necessitating budget reallocations from sectors like education and health to cover the ₹70,000 crore land acquisition costs alone.^[37] ^[46] Compensation policies for displaced farmers were revised in September 2025, offering up to ₹40 lakh per acre for affected irrigated land, alongside a new rehabilitation framework approved by the Cabinet to replace prior shortcomings, with Chief Minister Siddaramaiah urging farmers to forgo court challenges in favor of negotiated settlements finalized within weeks.^[81] ^[82] ^[83] Special Cabinet meetings in September 2025 resolved inter-party consensus on these measures, emphasizing the project's role in mitigating drought in northern Karnataka despite historical political delays spanning over 60 years.^[70] ^[84] The overall UKP cost has escalated to ₹1.22 lakh crore, reflecting cumulative overruns but underscoring commitments to complete irrigation infrastructure amid ongoing efficiency improvements like canal lining under earlier stages.^[40]

Farmer Agitations and Implementation Pushback

In late November 2024, farmers affected by the Upper Krishna Project (UKP) in Karnataka announced plans to renew agitations starting December 3, demanding government action on land rights, rehabilitation, and compensation for lands acquired under the project's third phase.^[74] This followed prolonged delays in project execution, with protesters citing stalled land acquisition and inadequate resettlement as key grievances. On December 4, 2024, farmers initiated a relay hunger strike in Bagalkot district, accusing the state government of financial mismanagement that had extended implementation timelines by years, exacerbating economic distress in the Krishna River basin region.^[75] Implementation pushback intensified under the previous BJP-led government in 2023, when proposed compensation rates—deemed too low by affected landowners—resulted in zero voluntary land surrenders, halting Phase III progress.^[85] Farmers withheld consent, leading to legal challenges and project stagnation despite allocations for canals and reservoirs intended to irrigate over 100,000 hectares in districts like Bagalkot and Vijayapura. By mid-2025, concerns over resettlement delays persisted, with Excise Minister R.B. Thimmapur publicly criticizing the Congress government for failing to provide timely housing and amenities to displaced families, affecting thousands in Bagalkot.^[86] In response, the Karnataka government under Chief Minister Siddaramaiah escalated efforts in September 2025, announcing enhanced compensation of ₹40 lakh per acre for irrigated land and ₹30 lakh for dry land, alongside a consent award mechanism to expedite acquisitions.^[81] ^[87] This package, covering an estimated 76,000 acres of submergence and additional construction land, aimed to unlock ₹75,000 crore in spending over four years following the October 2025 land acquisition notification.^[41] However, farmers conditioned acceptance on time-bound payments, warning of renewed protests if delays continued, as interim crop losses from withheld land use could undermine the relief's value.^[43] These agitations reflect broader implementation hurdles, including fragmented land parcels requiring over 50,000 individual consents and historical mistrust from prior phases where rehabilitation lagged, leaving some oustees without promised infrastructure like roads and schools. Government appeals urged farmers to avoid courts to prevent further delays, but skepticism persists amid accusations of bureaucratic inertia and funding shortfalls, with Phase III works—critical for drought-prone North Karnataka—remaining incomplete as of late 2025.^[87]

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