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Vacuum permeability

Vacuum permeability, denoted by the symbol μ₀, is a fundamental physical constant in electromagnetism that characterizes the magnetic properties of empty space, specifically the ratio of magnetic flux density (B) to magnetic field strength (H) in a vacuum, where B = μ₀ H.^[1] It quantifies how effectively a vacuum permits the propagation and support of magnetic fields generated by currents or changing electric fields.^[2] This constant plays a central role in Maxwell's equations, particularly in Ampère's law with Maxwell's correction, expressed as ∇ × B = μ₀ J + μ₀ ε₀ ∂E/∂t, where J is current density, ε₀ is vacuum permittivity, and E is the electric field.^[2] The numerical value of vacuum permeability is μ₀ = 1.25663706127(20) × 10⁻⁶ N A⁻², equivalent to henries per meter (H/m), as recommended by the CODATA 2022 adjustment and consistent with the 2019 revision of the International System of Units (SI).^[3] Prior to the 2019 SI redefinition, μ₀ was exactly 4π × 10⁻⁷ H/m, fixed by the definition of the ampere in terms of the force between current-carrying wires.^[4] In the revised SI, the ampere is defined by fixing the elementary charge e to exactly 1.602176634 × 10⁻¹⁹ C, making μ₀ an experimentally determined quantity derived from the fine-structure constant α and other fixed constants, with its value equal to 4π × 10⁻⁷ H m⁻¹ within the relative uncertainty of α. This change ensures greater consistency with measurements while maintaining the constant's role in defining electromagnetic units.^[4] Vacuum permeability is intrinsically linked to other fundamental constants, notably through the relation c = 1 / √(μ₀ ε₀), where c is the speed of light in vacuum, highlighting its connection to the unified nature of electric and magnetic fields in relativity.^[5] It also appears in the impedance of free space, Z₀ = √(μ₀ / ε₀) ≈ 376.73 Ω, which governs wave propagation in vacuum.^[6] In practical applications, μ₀ is essential for calculating inductances in circuits, magnetic forces in particle accelerators, and the design of electromagnetic devices, serving as the baseline for relative permeability (μ_r = μ / μ₀) in materials.^[2] Although vacuum has no material medium, μ₀ arises from quantum vacuum fluctuations in modern interpretations, though its classical value remains unchanged.^[7]

Definition and Value

Conceptual Definition

Vacuum permeability, denoted as \mu_0, is a fundamental physical constant that characterizes the intrinsic magnetic response of empty space to electric currents, serving as a measure of how vacuum permits the establishment of magnetic fields. It relates the magnetic flux density \mathbf{B}, which quantifies the strength and direction of the magnetic field in terms of flux per unit area (measured in teslas), to the magnetic field strength \mathbf{H}, which represents the magnetizing force produced by currents (measured in amperes per meter). In vacuum, this relationship is expressed concisely as

\mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \mathbf{H},

where no material influences alter the linkage between \mathbf{B} and \mathbf{H}.^[3] This distinction between \mathbf{B} and \mathbf{H} is essential in electromagnetic theory, as \mathbf{B} describes the observable effects of the magnetic field, such as forces on moving charges, while \mathbf{H} directly ties to the sources—namely, electric currents—without complications from material magnetization. The constant \mu_0 thus embeds the proportionality that governs magnetic field propagation in free space.^[3] The role of \mu_0 emerges from Ampère's circuital law in its differential form, which states that the curl of the magnetic field strength equals the current density in free space:

\nabla \times \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{J}.

Substituting \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \mathbf{H} yields \nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \mathbf{J}, illustrating how \mu_0 scales the magnetic flux density response to currents, thereby linking electric currents to the resulting magnetic fields in vacuum.^[8] The concept of vacuum permeability was introduced by James Clerk Maxwell as part of his seminal unification of electricity and magnetism in the 1860s, providing a foundational constant for the dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field.

Exact Value in SI Units

In the International System of Units (SI), the vacuum permeability \mu_0 has the recommended value \mu_0 = 1.25663706127(20) \times 10^{-6} H/m, where the number in parentheses indicates the standard uncertainty in the last two digits of the quoted value.^[9] This is equivalent to \mu_0 = 1.25663706127(20) \times 10^{-6} N A^{-2}. The value is conventionally expressed as \mu_0 = 4\pi \times 10^{-7} H/m \approx 1.2566370614 \times 10^{-6} H/m, reflecting its historical definition. The dimension of \mu_0 in terms of the SI base units is [\mu_0] = \mathrm{M L T^{-2} I^{-2}}, corresponding to kilograms, meters, seconds, and amperes.^[6] In terms of mass, length, and charge (where the coulomb C replaces the ampere via C = A s), it is \mu_0 = 1.25663706127(20) \times 10^{-6} kg m C^{-2}. Since the 2019 redefinition of the SI, which fixed the elementary charge e and speed of light c, \mu_0 is no longer defined exactly but determined experimentally with a relative standard uncertainty of $1.6 \times 10^{-10} (or about 0.16 parts per billion).^[10] This uncertainty, inherited from that of the fine-structure constant \alpha, was implicitly present pre-2019 in the consistency between measured constants and the exact definition of \mu_0; the redefinition explicitly incorporates it while ensuring universal reproducibility of the ampere without reliance on physical artifacts. Prior to 2019, the defined exactness of \mu_0 masked an effective uncertainty of similar magnitude in related measurements, now resolved through the fixed fundamental constants.

Historical Development

Origins in Electromagnetism

The origins of vacuum permeability trace back to the foundational work in electromagnetism during the early 19th century, particularly André-Marie Ampère's investigations into the interactions between electric currents. In 1820, inspired by Hans Christian Ørsted's demonstration that electric currents generate magnetic fields, Ampère rapidly developed a comprehensive theory of electrodynamics. He established that the force between two parallel current-carrying wires is proportional to the product of the currents and inversely proportional to the distance separating them, with the force acting along the line connecting the wires for attraction or repulsion depending on current directions.^[11] This relationship, initially formulated without a specific proportionality constant in Ampère's absolute units, provided the empirical basis for quantifying magnetic effects in vacuum.^[12] Ampère's force law for infinite straight parallel wires of length L separated by distance d is expressed in modern SI units as

F = \frac{\mu_0 I_1 I_2 L}{2\pi d},

where \mu_0 represents the vacuum permeability, a constant characterizing the magnetic response of free space. Although Ampère did not introduce \mu_0 explicitly—his work predated the need for such a medium-specific constant—his law necessitated a scaling factor when integrated into later unit systems to align magnetic forces with electric ones. In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell advanced this foundation by developing a unified theory of electromagnetism, incorporating permeability as an essential property of the medium through which electromagnetic disturbances propagate. Maxwell's 1861 paper "On Physical Lines of Force" drew on Ampère's results and introduced the concept of displacement current, while assigning permeability a role in relating magnetic induction to the curl of the electric field. By 1865, in his seminal "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field," Maxwell formalized the equations where vacuum permeability \mu_0 appears as the constant linking current density to magnetic field strength, enabling the prediction of electromagnetic waves traveling at the speed of light. He determined \mu_0's value indirectly from prior electrostatic measurements, setting it relative to the permeability of air (approximately unity) and using absolute units.^[13] A pivotal experimental contribution came in 1856 from Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch, who measured the ratio between the electrostatic and electromagnetic units of electric charge to bridge electric and magnetic phenomena. Using a ballistic galvanometer and the discharge of a Leyden jar through a resistive circuit, they determined this ratio to be approximately $3.107 \times 10^{10} esu/em (in cgs units), equivalent to a velocity of about $3.107 \times 10^8 m/s—remarkably close to the speed of light. This result implied that the product of vacuum permeability \mu_0 and permittivity \epsilon_0 equals the inverse square of this velocity, \mu_0 \epsilon_0 = 1/c^2, providing the first quantitative link between electric and magnetic constants in vacuum and inspiring Maxwell's theoretical synthesis.^[14] Before the adoption of the International System of Units (SI), vacuum permeability was defined operationally through the international ampere and ohm, standards established in the late 19th century via the force between current-carrying wires and resistance measurements. In 1948, the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) fixed \mu_0 = 4\pi \times 10^{-7} H/m exactly by defining the ampere such that the force per unit length between two parallel conductors carrying 1 A each, separated by 1 m, is precisely $2 \times 10^{-7} N/m; this value was thus measured indirectly through precision determinations of the ohm and current ratios rather than direct magnetic susceptibility.

Standardization and 2019 SI Redefinition

The definition of the ampere at the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1948, as part of the MKSA system that led to the adoption of the SI in 1960, marked the initial standardization of vacuum permeability. At that conference, the ampere was defined as the constant current that, maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible circular cross-section placed 1 m apart in vacuum, produces a force of 2 × 10^{-7} N/m between them. This Ampère-defined era fixed the vacuum permeability μ₀ exactly at 4π × 10^{-7} H/m, as the definition incorporated μ₀ directly into the force law between current-carrying wires.^[15]^[16] From the 1960s through the 2010s, refinements to the value of μ₀ were managed through periodic adjustments by the Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA), which recommended self-consistent sets of fundamental physical constants based on experimental measurements. These adjustments incorporated increasingly precise determinations of the elementary charge e, Planck's constant h, and speed of light c, enabling consistency checks between the fixed μ₀ and quantum-derived values. Although μ₀ remained exactly defined in the SI, the derived value from these measurements achieved growing precision, with relative uncertainty reducing to approximately 2 × 10^{-10} by the late 2010s, reflecting the high accuracy of quantum electrodynamics predictions.^[17] The 2019 redefinition of the SI, approved by Resolution 1 of the 26th CGPM in November 2018 and effective 20 May 2019, fundamentally altered this framework by anchoring base units to fixed numerical values of fundamental constants. The Planck constant was set to h = 6.62607015 × 10^{-34} J s exactly, while the ampere was redefined via the elementary charge e = 1.602176634 × 10^{-19} C exactly, such that one ampere corresponds to a flow of precisely one elementary charge per second (with the second defined by caesium hyperfine transition frequency). This quantum-based definition of the ampere decoupled μ₀ from mechanical current measurements like the wire force experiment, rendering μ₀ a derived measurable quantity with numerical value 4π × 10^{-7} H/m but relative standard uncertainty matching that of the 2018 CODATA fine-structure constant α (1.5 × 10^{-10}).^[18]^[10]^[19] These changes eliminated the prior implicit uncertainty in μ₀'s consistency with measured quantum constants (previously ~2 × 10^{-10}), transferring it explicitly to μ₀ itself while ensuring continuity in its numerical value. In metrology, this affects calibrations of inductors and magnetic standards, shifting reliance from classical force-based methods to quantum realizations like the Josephson and quantum Hall effects for precise current and inductance measurements.^[20]^[21]

Physical Role

In Maxwell's Equations

Vacuum permeability, denoted as \mu_0, plays a central role in Maxwell's equations by scaling the relationship between magnetic fields and their sources, particularly in the Ampère-Maxwell law. This law, in differential form, states that the curl of the magnetic field \mathbf{B} is proportional to the current density \mathbf{J} plus the displacement current density \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t}, with \mu_0 as the proportionality constant:

\nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \left( \mathbf{J} + \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t} \right).

Here, \mu_0 determines the strength of the magnetic field generated by steady currents and time-varying electric fields, fundamental to describing magnetic phenomena in vacuum.^[22] In conjunction with Faraday's law of induction, \nabla \times \mathbf{E} = -\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t}, the presence of \mu_0 in the Ampère-Maxwell law establishes a mutual dependence between electric and magnetic fields, enabling the propagation of electromagnetic waves. This interdependence highlights \mu_0's role alongside the vacuum permittivity \epsilon_0 in unifying electric and magnetic interactions. To derive the wave equation, taking the curl of Faraday's law and substituting from the Ampère-Maxwell law (assuming no currents, \mathbf{J} = 0) yields the wave equation for \mathbf{E}:

\nabla^2 \mathbf{E} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2 \mathbf{E}}{\partial t^2},

with the wave speed given by c = 1 / \sqrt{\mu_0 \epsilon_0}, assuming familiarity with vector calculus operations like the curl of a curl identity. This demonstrates how \mu_0 governs the magnetic contribution to wave dynamics.^[22] The integral form of the Biot-Savart law further illustrates \mu_0's scaling effect on magnetic fields produced by current distributions:

\mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \int \frac{I d\mathbf{l} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2},

where the integral is over the current path, showing \mu_0 as the factor that relates current elements to the resulting \mathbf{B} field in vacuum. This law underpins calculations of static magnetic fields from localized currents.^[23] In the Lorentz force law, the magnetic component \mathbf{F}_m = q (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}) depends on \mathbf{B}, which is scaled by \mu_0 through the field equations, thereby influencing the force on moving charges in magnetic fields. The full Lorentz force is \mathbf{F} = q (\mathbf{E} + \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}), where \mu_0's role in defining \mathbf{B} affects the magnetic deflection and dynamics of charged particles.^[24]

Relation to Speed of Light and Impedance

Vacuum permeability \mu_0 plays a fundamental role in determining the speed of light c in vacuum through its relation with vacuum permittivity \epsilon_0. The speed of light is given by the formula c = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0 \epsilon_0}}, where \mu_0 quantifies the magnetic response of vacuum and \epsilon_0 the electric response, together setting the propagation velocity of electromagnetic waves.^[25] This relation arises from the electromagnetic wave equation derived from Maxwell's equations in free space. Specifically, taking the curl of Faraday's law and substituting Ampère's law with Maxwell's correction yields the wave equation for the electric field: \frac{\partial^2 \mathbf{E}}{\partial z^2} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2 \mathbf{E}}{\partial t^2}, whose phase velocity is c = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0 \epsilon_0}}, confirming that \mu_0 contributes to the magnetic aspect of wave propagation.^[25] The characteristic impedance of free space Z_0, which relates the electric and magnetic field amplitudes in a plane electromagnetic wave, is expressed as Z_0 = \sqrt{\frac{\mu_0}{\epsilon_0}}. Substituting \epsilon_0 = \frac{1}{\mu_0 c^2} simplifies this to Z_0 = \mu_0 c, with a numerical value of approximately 376.73 \Omega.^[26]^[27] This impedance is crucial in applications such as transmission lines and antennas, where it represents the ratio of voltage to current for a traveling wave in vacuum, ensuring efficient power transfer without reflection when matched.^[26] In the 2019 revision of the International System of Units (SI), the speed of light c is defined exactly as 299 792 458 m/s, while \mu_0 is no longer fixed at exactly $4\pi \times 10^{-7} H/m but determined experimentally with a relative uncertainty tied to that of the fine-structure constant \alpha, 1.25663706127(20) × 10^{-6} H/m as of the 2022 CODATA recommended values.^[6]^[3] Consequently, \epsilon_0 is computed as \epsilon_0 = \frac{1}{\mu_0 c^2} = 8.8541878188(14) \times 10^{-12} F/m, and Z_0 inherits the uncertainty from \mu_0 since Z_0 = \mu_0 c.^[6]^[28] These relations maintain the exact product \mu_0 \epsilon_0 = 1/c^2, linking classical electromagnetism to special relativity by ensuring consistent wave propagation independent of measurement uncertainties in individual constants.^[6]

Unit Systems and Comparisons

SI versus Other Systems

In the International System of Units (SI), the vacuum permeability has the measured value \mu_0 = 1.25663706127(20) \times 10^{-6} H/m (CODATA 2022), equivalent to approximately $4\pi \times 10^{-7} H/m within its uncertainty, where the henry (H) is the SI unit of inductance, equivalent to kg m² s⁻² A⁻² and defined through the mutual inductance between two circuits carrying currents that produce a magnetic flux linkage.^[10] This value ensures consistency in electromagnetic calculations, particularly in engineering applications where magnetic fields are related to electric currents via Ampère's law.^[21] In contrast, the Gaussian and centimeter-gram-second (cgs) electromagnetic units (emu) treat vacuum permeability as dimensionless with \mu_0 = 1, because the units for magnetic fields like the gauss and oersted are scaled such that the permeability factor is absorbed into the definitions of these units, eliminating the need for an explicit constant in vacuum.^[29] This approach simplifies theoretical expressions in relativity and particle physics but requires scaling factors for conversions to mechanical units, as magnetic quantities in cgs emu incorporate a factor related to the speed of light c. The Heaviside-Lorentz units, a rationalized variant of the Gaussian system used in theoretical physics, set \mu_0 = 1 (dimensionless) and often \epsilon_0 = 1, incorporating the speed of light c (frequently set to 1) to simplify Maxwell's equations by removing $4\pi factors, with SI compatibility maintained through unit conversions.^[30] These differences pose conversion challenges, exemplified in the Biot-Savart law for the magnetic field \mathbf{B} due to a current element: in SI, it includes an explicit \mu_0 / 4\pi, but in cgs Gaussian units, the law simplifies to d\mathbf{B} = \frac{I d\mathbf{l} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}}{c r^2}, lacking \mu_0 because the emu current unit (1 emu = 10 A) and gauss incorporate the permeability implicitly, with c (in cm/s) providing the dimensional bridge. The SI system's explicit \mu_0 offers advantages in electrical engineering by unifying electric and magnetic units under a coherent framework, facilitating precise measurements and international standards, following the 2019 SI redefinition, which made \mu_0 a measured quantity while keeping its value effectively unchanged for practical purposes in global metrology.^[31]^[32]

Implications for Measurements

Prior to the 2019 SI redefinition, the vacuum permeability \mu_0 was fixed exactly at $4\pi \times 10^{-7} H/m, and the ampere was realized experimentally using current balances, such as the Kelvin current balance, which measured the mechanical force between current-carrying coils to link electrical units to base mechanical units like mass and length.^[33]^[34] These balances provided a practical realization of the ampere through Ampère's force law, with supporting measurements from the Josephson effect for voltage and the quantum Hall effect (via von Klitzing constant) for resistance to calibrate electrical instruments.^[32]^[35] This approach allowed feedback loops where discrepancies in measurements of \mu_0 from independent methods, like atomic spectroscopy, informed adjustments to the ampere definition for consistency across units.^[32] Following the 2019 redefinition, \mu_0 is no longer fixed but derived as a measured quantity from fundamental constants (\mu_0 = \frac{2\alpha h}{e^2 c}, where \alpha is the fine-structure constant), with the CODATA 2022 value $1.25663706127(20) \times 10^{-6} H/m, introducing a relative uncertainty of approximately $1.6 \times 10^{-10} (or 0.00016 parts per million) primarily from the measurement of \alpha.^[36]^[3] The ampere is now defined exactly via the elementary charge e = 1.602176634 \times 10^{-19} C, enabling current measurements by enumerating elementary charges over a time interval determined by cesium frequency standards, as realized in quantum devices like single-electron current sources.^[6]^[32] This shifts calibration practices so that electrical measurements, including those involving magnetism, are traceable directly to fixed constants e and h, rather than mechanical balances, reducing uncertainties in quantum-based realizations while propagating \mu_0's small uncertainty into magnetic quantities.^[32] In practical applications, such as calibrating inductors, the inductance L for a solenoid is given by

L = \mu_0 \frac{N^2 A}{l},

where N is the number of turns, A the cross-sectional area, and l the length; the revised SI introduces \mu_0's uncertainty into L, but this is offset by exact values of e and h enabling lower overall uncertainty in SI-traceable electrical calibrations compared to pre-2019 mechanical methods.^[32]^[37] Converting magnetic moments from cgs (electromagnetic units) to SI requires scaling by factors involving \mu_0, such as m_\text{SI} = m_\text{cgs} \times 10^{-3} A\cdotm² for emu to SI units, a common adjustment in particle physics where cgs conventions persist for atomic and nuclear magnetic moments to align with SI-derived quantities like the Bohr magneton.^[38]^[39] Emerging quantum metrology techniques, such as graphene-based quantum Hall resistance arrays, leverage the revised SI's fixed h and e for resistance standards with accuracies below 1 part per billion, supporting higher precision in magnetic flux and inductance calibrations by providing robust links to the ohm, while \mu_0's measured status is accounted for in uncertainty budgets.^[40]^[41]

Terminology and Distinctions

Notation and Common Terms

The vacuum permeability is denoted by the symbol \mu_0, where the Greek letter \mu (mu) signifies magnetic permeability and the subscript 0 specifies the vacuum condition.^[3]^[42] This notation is standard in electromagnetic theory, reflecting its role as a fundamental constant.^[43] Commonly referred to as the permeability of free space, magnetic constant, or permeability of vacuum, the term emphasizes its intrinsic value in empty space without material influences.^[21] These names highlight its distinction as a universal property in classical electromagnetism. In scientific literature, notation variations occasionally include boldface \boldsymbol{\mu_0} to represent tensor forms in contexts beyond isotropic media, though it remains a scalar quantity in the uniform vacuum.^[44] The International Organization for Standardization (ISO/IEC 80000) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) endorse \mu_0 as the preferred symbol, which helps prevent confusion with unrelated concepts like permeance.^[45]^[43]^[46] Typographically, \mu_0 is rendered in italic font within equations to denote it as a physical quantity symbol, while its numerical value appears in upright roman font for clarity.^[47]^[48] It is frequently paired with the vacuum permittivity \epsilon_0 in dual notation for electromagnetic formulations.^[42]

Differences from Relative Permeability

Vacuum permeability, denoted as \mu_0, serves as the fundamental constant characterizing magnetic permeability in free space, while relative permeability, \mu_r, quantifies how a material modifies this baseline response. Specifically, \mu_r is defined as the dimensionless ratio \mu_r = \mu / \mu_0, where \mu is the absolute permeability of the material.^[49] In vacuum, \mu_r = [1](/page/1) by definition, as there is no material present to alter the intrinsic magnetic properties of empty space.^[50] This distinction ensures that \mu_0 provides a universal reference, independent of any medium. A key difference lies in their nature and variability: \mu_0 is a fixed physical constant with units of henry per meter (H/m), whereas \mu_r is unitless and can vary widely depending on the material's magnetic susceptibility. For instance, ferromagnetic materials like iron exhibit high \mu_r values, often around 200 to several thousand, which greatly amplifies the magnetic field strength compared to vacuum.^[50] In non-magnetic media like air, \mu_r \approx 1, making its behavior nearly indistinguishable from vacuum.^[51] This variability in \mu_r arises from atomic-level interactions, such as electron spin alignment in ferromagnets, but \mu_0 remains unaltered as the core constant. In electromagnetic equations, the relationship manifests as the magnetic flux density B = \mu H = \mu_0 \mu_r H, where H is the magnetic field strength; in vacuum, it simplifies to B = \mu_0 H since \mu_r = 1.^[50] A frequent misconception is viewing vacuum as a "material" assigned a relative permeability; instead, \mu_0 defines the absolute baseline for free space, and \mu_r only applies when comparing materials to this standard.^[49] For weakly magnetic materials, diamagnetic or paramagnetic effects cause minor deviations in \mu_r from 1—for example, \mu_r \approx 0.99999 in diamagnets like copper—yet \mu_0 is unaffected and continues to underpin all calculations.^[51] This separation highlights \mu_0's role as an invariant in Maxwell's equations, while \mu_r accounts for material-specific enhancements or reductions in magnetic response.

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Ampere: History | NIST
May 15, 2018 · In 1820, he showed that you could make a compass needle deflect from north by putting it near an electric current. As Ørsted discovered, current ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Redefinition-of-the-SI.pdf
May 22, 2018 · Need for practical mass realisations derived from electrical quantities. Electrical measurements fully covered by the SI. • µ. 0 or ε.
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Review of quantum electrical standards and benefits and effects of ...
Aug 3, 2017 · In the Revised SI, the voltage and resistance will be redefined by setting exact numerical values for h and e, and the ampere can be redefined ...<|separator|>
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Units for Magnetic Quantities | NIST
Sep 28, 2021 · In 2019, the SI was redefined in terms of seven defining constants ... constant, the permeability of vacuum, is no longer fixed in the SI.
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Why was the ampere redefined in 2019? - Physics Stack Exchange
Dec 16, 2024 · The vacuum permeability is still well-defined, albeit not exactly: μ0=2αhe2c. The fine-structure constant is not known to perfect accuracy, ...
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The redefined SI and the electromagnetic quantities in detail – part II
Oct 4, 2021 · PDF | This paper describes the changes in the electromagnetic units due to the redefined SI and the details regarding how they are realized.
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[PDF] Units for Magnetic Properties
Gaussian units are the same as cgs emu for magnetostatics; Mx = maxwell, G = gauss, Oe = oersted; Wb = weber, V = volt, s = second, T = tesla, m = meter, A = ...Missing: vacuum | Show results with:vacuum
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[PDF] Conversion from CGS to SI system of units
Conversion from CGS to SI system of units. To convert an electromagnetic expression from CGS to SI, you need to substitute (→) or multiply (×) each CGS term ...
[41]
Accurate graphene quantum Hall arrays for the new International ...
Nov 14, 2022 · Graphene quantum Hall effect (QHE) resistance standards have the potential to provide superior realizations of three key units in the new ...
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Graphene quantum Hall resistance standard for realizing the unit of ...
Jan 13, 2025 · Graphene QHR standards, with accuracy of 2 nΩ/Ω, are used for the SI ohm under relaxed conditions, achieving 2 ± 3 nΩ/Ω accuracy.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 4th ... - IUPAC
... si-brochure/). [4] E. R. Cohen and P. Giacomo. Symbols, Units, Nomenclature ... permeability of vacuum, magnetic constant, ifc, 20, 24, 31. iB. Bohr ...
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[PDF] symbols, units, nomenclature and fundamental constants in physics
magnetic quantities, ǫ◦ and µ◦ must satisfy the condition ǫ◦µ◦c2 = 1. In SI the permeability of vacuum µ◦ is defined to have the value. µ◦ = 4π×10−7 N ...
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[PDF] An Introduction to Tensors for Students of Physics and Engineering
In such materials, the scalar permeability is then replaced by the tensor permeability μ, and we write, in place of the above equation, B = µ · H.
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NIST Guide to the SI, Chapter 7: Rules and Style Conventions for ...
Jan 28, 2016 · Note: μr is the quantity symbol for relative permeability. 7.10.2 %, percentage by, fraction. In keeping with Ref. [4: ISO 31-0], this Guide ...
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[PDF] On the use of italic and roman fonts for symbols in scientific text
Example: when the symbol µ is used to denote a physical quantity (such as mass or reduced mass) it should be italic, but when it is used in a unit such as the ...
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NIST Guide to the SI, Chapter 10: More on Printing and Using ...
Jan 28, 2016 · Running numbers and symbols for variables in mathematical equations are italic, as are symbols for parameters such as a and b that may be ...
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[PDF] Basic magnetic quantities and the measurement of the ... - GovInfo
Magnetic permeability, denoted by a symbol. H, with or without certain ... relative permeability. It is the ratio of the perme- ability of a material ...
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The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. II Ch. 36: Ferromagnetism
It is called the permeability of the iron. (It is also sometimes called the “relative permeability.”) The permeability of ordinary irons is typically several ...
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Magnetic Properties of Solids - HyperPhysics
Iron oxide (FeO). 720. Iron ... For ordinary solids and liquids at room temperature, the relative permeability Km is typically in the range 1.00001 to 1.003.