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Vantablack

Vantablack is a trademarked brand of super-black coatings developed by the British company Surrey NanoSystems, the original of which consists of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (CNTs) that absorb up to 99.965% of ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light, making it appear as a void-like black by trapping nearly all incident radiation rather than reflecting it. Subsequent non-CNT based variants, such as the VBx series, have also been developed.^[1]^[2] First created in 2012 through a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process that grows a dense forest of CNTs—each approximately 20 nanometers in diameter and up to 14 micrometers tall—on a substrate, Vantablack was publicly announced in 2014 as a breakthrough for eliminating stray light in high-precision applications.^[1]^[3] The CNTs function like a light trap: incoming photons enter the nanotube array and undergo multiple internal reflections off the nanotube walls, gradually converting the energy to heat with minimal escape, resulting in reflectance as low as 0.035% across a broad spectrum.^[4] Subsequent iterations, such as sprayable variants like Vantablack S-VIS and VBx2, were introduced to enable easier application on complex surfaces without specialized equipment, expanding its utility beyond initial CVD-limited forms.^[5]^[6] Vantablack's primary applications leverage its exceptional light absorption to enhance performance in demanding environments, including space technology where it coats satellites to reduce orbital reflectivity and protect astronomical observations from glare.^[7] In optics and metrology, it minimizes internal reflections in telescopes, cameras, and sensors, improving image clarity and measurement accuracy.^[2] Automotive and defense sectors use it for stray-light control in LiDAR and infrared systems, while aesthetic implementations appear in luxury goods like high-end watches and vehicle prototypes for dramatic visual effects.^[1] Surrey NanoSystems, founded in 2006 as a University of Surrey spin-out, holds over 30 patents related to these CNT-based technologies and maintains ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 accreditations for quality and environmental standards.^[7]

Overview and Composition

Definition and Naming

Vantablack is a trademarked super-black coating developed by the British company Surrey NanoSystems, classified as a vertically aligned nanotube array (VANTA) material designed to achieve exceptionally low reflectance across a broad spectrum of light.^[8]^[9] It features a total hemispherical reflectance (THR) below 1% in the visible spectrum, making it one of the darkest artificial substances known.^[8]^[10] This coating's structure enables near-total absorption of incident light, suppressing reflections and stray light in optical applications.^[2] The name "Vantablack" is a portmanteau derived from "VANTA," an acronym for vertically aligned nanotube arrays, combined with the word "black" to emphasize its unparalleled darkness.^[9]^[11] This nomenclature highlights the material's core technological foundation in nanoscale engineering while distinguishing it as a proprietary product of Surrey NanoSystems. In terms of light absorption, Vantablack can absorb up to 99.965% of ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light, representing a significant advancement over earlier versions that achieved 99.96% absorption.^[2]^[10] These metrics underscore its broadband performance, with THR values as low as 0.035% in optimized configurations.^[12] Vantablack was first unveiled to the public in July 2014 at the Farnborough International Airshow, marking its introduction as a groundbreaking nanomaterial.^[13]^[14]

Material Structure

Vantablack consists of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (VACNTs) forming a dense, forest-like array that serves as its core structure. These nanotubes, each approximately 20 nanometers in diameter and ranging from 14 to 50 micrometers in length, are packed at a density of about 10^9 tubes per square centimeter, creating an overall coating thickness of around 14 micrometers. This high-aspect-ratio architecture, grown directly on a substrate, enables the material's exceptional light-trapping capabilities by minimizing surface reflections and maximizing internal photon paths.^[15]^[16] The material is fabricated through a low-temperature chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process on a metal substrate, such as aluminum, where a thin catalyst layer—typically iron—nucleates the growth of the nanotubes from a carbon precursor gas like acetylene. The CVD occurs in a vacuum chamber under controlled conditions, allowing the nanotubes to self-assemble perpendicular to the substrate surface due to van der Waals interactions and optimized growth parameters, resulting in uniform alignment without the need for post-processing alignment. This method ensures the structural integrity and optical performance of the VACNT array.^[17]^[16] The light absorption in Vantablack stems from its nanotube architecture, which acts as an optical trap: incident photons enter the "forest" and undergo repeated scattering and internal reflections off the nanotube walls, progressively losing energy through interactions that convert light to thermal vibrations rather than permitting escape or specular reflection. This mechanism relies on the tubes' sub-wavelength spacing and high length-to-diameter ratio, which prevent direct transmission or bounce-back. Variants of Vantablack adapt this structure for broader usability; the original form is inherently fragile due to the delicate VACNT alignment and requires specialized vacuum deposition, whereas sprayable iterations like Vantablack S-VIS incorporate shorter, randomly oriented nanotubes in an aerosolized binder, enabling application to curved or irregular surfaces via conventional spraying techniques while retaining much of the absorption efficiency.^[15]^[18]^[16]

History and Development

Invention and Early Research

Vantablack was invented by Ben Jensen, chief technical officer at Surrey NanoSystems, a UK-based nanotechnology company founded in 2006 to develop advanced materials for electronics and optics. Jensen's breakthrough involved a patented low-temperature process (below 700°C) to grow vertically aligned carbon nanotube arrays directly on aluminum substrates, enabling the creation of an ultra-black coating compatible with lightweight, temperature-sensitive structures. This innovation stemmed from Surrey NanoSystems' expertise in carbon nanotube synthesis, initially aimed at microelectronics but adapted for optical applications.^[19] The material's development arose from a two-year collaboration between Surrey NanoSystems and the UK's National Physical Laboratory (NPL), initiated around 2012 under the UK Technology Strategy Board's Low Impact Materials 2.0 project, with additional input from ABSL Space Products. NPL researchers, including metrologist Theo Theocharous, provided expertise in validating the coating's reflectance through advanced spectrophotometry, confirming its superior light-trapping properties over existing blacks. Early prototypes, tested between 2009 and 2013, built on 2000s research into carbon nanotubes for stealth technology—such as space camouflage coatings that minimize infrared signatures—and optical baffles to reduce stray light in telescopes. These efforts extended prior vertically aligned nanotube array (VANTA) work, including NASA's development of nanotube-based absorbers in the early 2000s for aerospace, which achieved around 99.5% absorption but lacked scalability.^[19]^[20]^[21] Key milestones included a 2012 laboratory demonstration of Vantablack achieving 99.6% visible light absorption, later refined to 99.965% (0.035% reflectivity) by 2014, surpassing records like the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's 2008 nanotube forest (0.045% reflectivity). The NPL collaboration ensured rigorous metrology validation, essential for space-grade certification. Surrey NanoSystems filed patents for the growth process and coating method in 2013, securing intellectual property for what would become a benchmark in super-black materials. Driven primarily by demands for enhanced performance in space optics—such as stray light suppression in satellite sensors—and defense applications like radar-absorbing stealth surfaces, the research addressed limitations of traditional blacks like gold black or silicon carbide, which degrade under vacuum or high temperatures.^[19]^[22]

Commercial Production

Vantablack was commercially unveiled by Surrey NanoSystems in July 2014 as the world's darkest material, initially targeting applications in aerospace and defense.^[23] Full-scale production commenced by 2015 to meet demand from these sectors, with manufacturing facilities based in Newhaven, UK. The company operates a processing center where customer parts are coated, emphasizing controlled environments for high-precision applications.^[24] The core manufacturing process employs chemical vapor deposition (CVD) to grow vertically aligned carbon nanotube arrays on substrates, enabling the material's extreme light absorption.^[22] Early production focused on small-scale coatings for sensitive components, but by the mid-2010s, Surrey NanoSystems scaled operations to handle larger volumes for space-qualified variants like Vantablack S-VIS, which debuted on a satellite in 2016.^[25] Developments in sprayable formulations, such as Vantablack S-VIS introduced in 2016, allowed for easier application on complex geometries without the need for direct CVD, broadening commercial viability.^[24] Intellectual property for Vantablack is held by Surrey NanoSystems, including patents on carbon nanotube-based coatings and production methods, such as WO2017001406A2 for composite coatings achieving super-black properties.^[26] Initially, sales were restricted to vetted industries like aerospace to protect sensitive technologies, with access limited through direct coating services at the UK facility. In 2017, a sprayable version, Vantablack 2.0, was made available for artistic use under controlled licensing, marking the first expansion beyond industrial clients.^[27] By 2025, production has expanded to support satellite coatings, particularly Vantablack 310, a durable paint formulation aimed at reducing orbital reflectivity to mitigate light pollution from constellations like Starlink.^[28] This ultra-black coating is applied via licensed partners, such as Valence Surface Technologies in the US, enabling broader availability for space and terrestrial applications while maintaining quality standards.^[29]

Controversies and Rival Materials

In 2016, artist Anish Kapoor entered into an exclusive agreement with Surrey NanoSystems, the developers of Vantablack, granting him sole rights to use the material for artistic purposes. This deal restricted other artists from accessing Vantablack in creative applications, sparking widespread debate over intellectual property in art and access to innovative materials.^[30] The exclusivity fueled significant backlash in 2017, particularly on social media, where artists and the public criticized it as monopolistic and anti-collaborative. British artist Stuart Semple led the charge with the #ShareTheBlack campaign, releasing alternative pigments like the "Pinkest Pink" while explicitly banning Kapoor from using them, highlighting ethical concerns about hoarding technological advancements in the art world.^[31] The controversy amplified discussions on whether such agreements stifle creativity and equity among artists.^[32] In response to the uproar, rival super-black materials emerged as accessible alternatives. In 2017, NanoLab introduced Singularity Black, a carbon nanotube-based paint absorbing 98.5% of visible light, explicitly marketed to all artists without restrictions.^[33] Similarly, in 2020, Koyo Orient Japan released Musou Black, a water-based acrylic paint achieving 99.4% light absorption and designed for easy application in artistic and industrial contexts.^[34] These developments challenged Vantablack's dominance by prioritizing openness and practicality.^[35] Legal and ethical tensions persisted around patent enforcement, with Surrey NanoSystems defending their intellectual property while facing scrutiny over the Kapoor deal's implications for innovation. In 2019, researchers at MIT unveiled a carbon nanotube-based coating absorbing 99.995% of incident light—surpassing Vantablack's 99.965%—raising questions about ongoing claims of superiority and the need for broader material sharing in scientific communities.^[36] Although the Kapoor exclusivity remained in place as of 2021, the proliferation of alternatives effectively diminished its impact by 2018 through variants like Vantablack S-VIS, licensed more widely for non-exclusive uses.^[37]

Physical Properties

Optical Properties

Vantablack exhibits exceptionally low reflectance, achieving a total hemispherical reflectance (THR) of 0.035% at 700 nm in the visible spectrum, corresponding to near-total absorption of 99.965% of incident light.^[38] This performance surpasses traditional black coatings, such as carbon black paints, which typically reflect 3-5% of visible light.^[19] The material's nanotube morphology traps photons through multiple internal reflections and gradual absorption along the nanotube lengths, minimizing escape and resulting in minimal specular reflection below 0.1%.^[39] Reflectance measurements for Vantablack are conducted using spectrophotometry under hemispherical illumination conditions to capture total scattered light.^[38] The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in the UK validated these metrics with high-precision integrating sphere setups, which integrate diffuse and specular components over a full hemisphere, ensuring accurate THR determination with uncertainties below 0.005%.^[19] Bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) assessments further quantify angular dependence, confirming low off-specular scattering across incident angles up to 50°.^[38] Across the electromagnetic spectrum, Vantablack demonstrates uniform absorption from ultraviolet (300 nm) through visible and into near-infrared wavelengths up to 2500 nm, with THR remaining below 1% throughout.^[38] In the extended infrared (up to 16 μm for variants like S-IR), absorption efficiency approaches 99%, enabling applications in broadband stray light suppression.^[39] This broad spectral flatness arises from the aligned carbon nanotube arrays, which maintain consistent trapping efficiency without wavelength-specific resonances. Performance limitations include slight degradation in high-humidity environments for the original chemical vapor deposition (CVD) variant, where prolonged exposure above 50% relative humidity can lead to minor nanotube bundling and increased reflectance by up to 0.1%.^[40] Additionally, the CVD form exhibits reduced efficacy on curved surfaces due to alignment disruptions during growth, necessitating sprayable variants like Vantablack S-VIS for non-planar substrates to preserve THR below 0.2%.^[38]

Thermal and Mechanical Properties

Vantablack's thermal properties stem from its carbon nanotube structure, which efficiently converts absorbed light into heat due to its high emissivity exceeding 99% across mid- to far-infrared wavelengths. This near-complete absorption results in over 90% efficiency in transforming incident radiation into thermal energy, making it suitable for applications requiring precise blackbody calibration. In air, it is limited to 300°C long-term (and up to 350°C for short durations of 48 hours) due to oxidation risks.^[41]^[42] Mechanically, the original Vantablack coating is highly fragile, with its vertically aligned nanotube arrays susceptible to crushing under low pressures around 0.1 MPa, necessitating careful handling to avoid deformation. Its density is exceptionally low at approximately 0.02 g/cm³, contributing to minimal mass addition in applications. The Vantablack S-VIS variant addresses these limitations through a sprayable formulation that enhances adhesion to various substrates and provides greater flexibility, allowing application on curved or complex surfaces while resisting mechanical shock up to 80 grms random vibration across three axes without performance loss.^[17]^[41]^[43] In terms of environmental stability, Vantablack exhibits low outgassing, with total mass loss below 0.5% and collected volatile condensable materials under 0.005% per ASTM E-595 standards, making it ideal for vacuum environments like space. It demonstrates resistance to radiation, showing no degradation after exposure to 4 Mrad of gamma and proton radiation, as well as UV and atomic oxygen. However, without encapsulation, it can degrade in humidity levels exceeding 80%, though encapsulated or S-VIS variants resist water adsorption and damp heat aging with no detectable changes.^[41]^[17]^[44] Durability testing, including vacuum chamber simulations, confirms Vantablack's robustness, with variants retaining over 99% of performance after extensive thermal cycling from -196°C to +200°C, encompassing hundreds of cycles without measurable degradation in optical or structural integrity. These tests also verify stability under combined environmental stresses, such as thermal shock and vibration, underscoring its reliability in demanding conditions.^[45]^[42]^[17]

Visual and Perceptual Effects

Vantablack's exceptional light absorption produces striking visual and perceptual effects. It appears as a profound, void-like black that eliminates nearly all reflections and shadows, causing three-dimensional objects to look flat and two-dimensional to the human eye. This occurs because incoming light is trapped within the carbon nanotube array, preventing the typical cues for depth and form perception.^[46]^[47] The material can induce perceptual disorientation, distorting spatial judgments and making it challenging to discern shapes, distances, or surface details. For example, a deep cavity coated with Vantablack may appear as a featureless plane, creating an optical illusion of flatness.^[46]^[48]

Applications

Scientific and Industrial Uses

Vantablack coatings are employed in optical instruments to suppress stray light, particularly in telescope baffles where they absorb nearly all incident radiation, enhancing image clarity by minimizing reflections from internal surfaces.^[49] In infrared imaging systems, such as thermal cameras, Vantablack serves as a low-reflectance lining for housings and components, improving signal-to-noise ratios by reducing unwanted infrared emissions and stray light interference.^[50] In aerospace and defense applications, Vantablack provides high-emissivity surfaces for satellite thermal control, enabling efficient heat dissipation in space environments through its ability to act as a near-perfect blackbody radiator.^[51] For stealth technologies, the material's extreme light absorption—up to 99.965% in the visible spectrum—offers potential for reducing visual and infrared detectability in applications like aircraft and drone coatings, with its primary benefit in optical camouflage rather than radar evasion.^[49] A 2025 initiative by Surrey NanoSystems and the University of Surrey demonstrated this in low-Earth orbit, coating the Jovian-1 CubeSat with Vantablack 310 to minimize reflectivity and mitigate light pollution from satellites.^[7] Beyond aerospace, Vantablack finds use in solar energy systems as an absorber coating, where its near-total light entrapment potential enhances photovoltaic efficiency by capturing a broader spectrum of incident radiation compared to conventional black paints.^[52] In research settings, Vantablack has been integrated into quantum optics experiments, particularly as an infrared shielding layer in superconducting qubit systems to isolate devices from thermal noise at millikelvin temperatures.^[53] Studies show it achieves coherence times around 23 microseconds for transmon qubits, comparable to traditional coatings, though with ongoing refinements to lower residual excitation from absorbed infrared photons.^[54]

Artistic and Cultural Uses

Vantablack's introduction to the art world in the mid-2010s revolutionized sculptural practices by enabling artists to create works that absorb nearly all visible light, producing a profound void-like effect. British-Indian sculptor Anish Kapoor was the first to incorporate Vantablack into fine art, securing exclusive artistic rights from Surrey NanoSystems in 2016. His seminal exhibition at Lisson Gallery in London that year featured several untitled sculptures coated in the material, where everyday forms like spheres and voids appeared flattened and infinite, challenging viewers' perceptions of depth and space. These works, such as variations on his earlier pigment series, exemplified Vantablack's ability to render three-dimensional objects as two-dimensional silhouettes, drawing from Kapoor's longstanding interest in absence and the sublime.^[31] The exclusivity deal sparked immediate controversy within the global art community, igniting a viral backlash in 2017 that permeated social media and inspired widespread memes mocking Kapoor's monopoly on the "blackest black." Artists and critics decried the move as gatekeeping, with painter Christian Furr labeling it a "crime against the art world" for limiting access to a transformative material. In response, British artist Stuart Semple launched alternative super-black paints like Black 2.0 and Black 3.0, explicitly barring Kapoor from purchase, which fueled an ongoing feud and encouraged collaborative artist initiatives to democratize ultra-dark pigments. This cultural ripple extended to pop culture debates on creativity and ownership, with the rivalry becoming a symbol of artistic rebellion against elitism.^[55]^[30]^[31] Beyond sculpture, Vantablack influenced design and perceptual installations, notably in BMW's 2019 one-off VBX6 concept car, the first vehicle coated in Vantablack VBx2, a sprayable variant absorbing 99% of light. Unveiled at the Frankfurt Motor Show, the car's matte finish erased reflections, emphasizing its bold contours and evoking a sense of otherworldly stealth, while illuminated elements like the grille provided stark contrasts. This application blurred lines between automotive engineering and conceptual art, inspiring museum displays that explored light manipulation. By the mid-2020s, the material's legacy persisted in pop culture through debates over the "blackest black," amplified by Semple's 2024 satirical name change to "Anish Kapoor" and ongoing discussions in media about its role in challenging artistic norms. In November 2025, a major solo exhibition of Anish Kapoor's work was announced for the Hayward Gallery in London (16 June to 18 October 2026), featuring new sculptures made with Vantablack.^[56]^[37]^[57]

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