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Voiding cystourethrography

Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG), also known as micturating cystourethrography (MCU), is a fluoroscopic imaging procedure that utilizes real-time X-ray technology and iodinated contrast material to visualize the lower urinary tract, including the bladder and urethra, during bladder filling and voiding.^[1]^[2] Performed primarily in pediatric patients but applicable to adults, VCUG is the gold standard for detecting vesicoureteral reflux (VUR), a condition where urine flows backward from the bladder into the ureters and potentially the kidneys, which can cause recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs) and renal scarring if undetected.^[3]^[4] The procedure requires aseptic bladder catheterization to instill the contrast, followed by dynamic imaging to assess anatomy, function, and abnormalities such as urethral strictures, bladder diverticula, or neurogenic bladder dysfunction.^[1]^[2] Indications for VCUG typically include recurrent febrile UTIs, antenatal or postnatal hydronephrosis, voiding dysfunction, hematuria, and congenital urinary tract anomalies, with guidelines recommending its use when clinical suspicion of VUR or structural issues warrants detailed evaluation.^[3]^[4] In children, guidelines for VCUG after febrile UTIs vary by organization; for example, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends it if renal ultrasound shows abnormalities or after recurrent infections, while the European Association of Urology/European Society for Paediatric Urology suggests it after the first in infants under 12 months, helping to grade VUR severity from I (mild, ureter only) to V (severe, with tortuous ureter and calyceal dilatation) using the International Reflux Study classification, which informs treatment decisions ranging from observation to surgical intervention.^[2]^[5]^[6] The exam is usually outpatient, lasting 30-45 minutes, and involves minimal preparation such as informing providers of allergies or recent infections, though psychological preparation is emphasized to reduce anxiety, particularly in young patients.^[1]^[3] While VCUG provides high diagnostic accuracy for lower tract pathologies, it carries risks including low-dose radiation exposure (mitigated by pulsed fluoroscopy and ALARA principles), transient discomfort from catheterization, and a small chance of introducing infection, though benefits generally outweigh these in indicated cases.^[1]^[4] Alternatives like contrast-enhanced voiding urosonography (using ultrasound with microbubble contrast) are emerging for radiation-free assessment, but VCUG remains preferred for its comprehensive urethral evaluation, especially in males.^[2] Interpretation by a radiologist focuses on reflux grading, bladder capacity, and voiding mechanics, with results guiding follow-up imaging or management to prevent long-term renal complications.^[3]^[4]

Introduction and Background

Definition and Purpose

Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) is a dynamic fluoroscopic imaging procedure that utilizes radiocontrast material to visualize the lower urinary tract, specifically the bladder and urethra, during both the filling and voiding phases of micturition.^[2] This technique involves real-time X-ray imaging under fluoroscopy to capture the functional aspects of bladder emptying, allowing for the assessment of urine flow dynamics and potential abnormalities in the urinary pathway.^[3] Unlike static cystography, which provides only resting images of the bladder, VCUG incorporates the voiding phase to evaluate dynamic processes, offering a more comprehensive view of anatomical and functional integrity.^[2] The primary purpose of VCUG is to detect vesicoureteral reflux (VUR), a condition where urine flows retrograde from the bladder into the ureters and potentially the kidneys, which can lead to renal damage if untreated.^[7] It also identifies urethral abnormalities, such as strictures or posterior urethral valves, and evaluates bladder outlet obstructions that may impair normal voiding.^[8] By focusing on these diagnostic objectives, VCUG aids in the management of urinary tract disorders, particularly in pediatric populations where it plays a key role in evaluating recurrent urinary tract infections.^[9] Key anatomical structures visualized during VCUG include the urethra, bladder neck, and ureters, with reflux potentially revealing the ureterovesical junction and upper collecting system.^[2] This targeted imaging enables clinicians to assess the patency and coordination of the lower urinary tract, distinguishing normal from pathological patterns of micturition.^[3]

History and Development

Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) originated in the mid-20th century amid broader advancements in pediatric radiology for evaluating urinary tract disorders, particularly in children presenting with enuresis or suspected lower tract anomalies. In 1944, Brodny and Robins pioneered its application by demonstrating cystourethrography as a diagnostic tool to identify organic uropathies, emphasizing the need for safe contrast media to visualize the urethra and bladder during voiding. This marked a shift from earlier, less effective methods using toxic salts or oils, which often caused tissue irritation or inadequate opacification. By 1947, the development of Rayopake—an organic iodine compound mixed with polyvinyl alcohol—addressed these issues, providing better viscosity, clarity, and tolerability for pediatric use, thereby facilitating more reliable imaging of the lower urinary tract.^[10]^[11] By the 1960s, VCUG had become a cornerstone in pediatric urology, widely adopted as the standard for detecting vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) and urethral abnormalities through dynamic fluoroscopic imaging. A pivotal milestone arrived in 1985 with the International Reflux Study in Children, which introduced a unified radiographic grading system for VUR observed on VCUG. This system integrated prior classifications, grading reflux from I (ureter only) to V (gross dilation with tortuosity), to enable consistent diagnosis and comparison across clinical studies and institutions. The protocol outlined specific VCUG techniques to ensure reproducible results, significantly influencing global practices in pediatric nephrourology.^[12] Despite these advances, early protocols, including the 1985 framework, revealed limitations such as inconsistent imaging views and variable procedural techniques, as highlighted by institutional surveys showing wide discrepancies in practice among North American children's hospitals. To rectify this, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Sections on Radiology and Urology released a standardized VCUG protocol in 2016, prioritizing the ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) principle to minimize radiation exposure while enhancing diagnostic consistency. This update specified optimal fluoroscopy settings, mandatory views (e.g., oblique and post-void), and reporting elements, addressing prior nonuniformity and promoting safer, more efficient examinations in VUR diagnosis.^[13]

Clinical Indications

Primary Uses

Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) is primarily indicated for evaluating vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) in pediatric patients, particularly those presenting with recurrent febrile urinary tract infections (UTIs), where it helps identify reflux as a contributing factor to recurrent infections and potential renal damage.^[14] According to the 2025 EAU/ESPU guidelines, VCUG is recommended for infants under 1 year with febrile UTIs, atypical or recurrent infections, or ultrasound abnormalities suggestive of VUR, emphasizing its role in risk-stratified diagnosis rather than routine use after every UTI.^[15] Similarly, the 2025 AAP clinical report on perinatal urinary tract dilation advises against routine VCUG for low- or intermediate-risk cases but recommends it for high-risk scenarios, such as bilateral high-grade hydronephrosis, ureteral dilation ≥7 mm, or febrile UTI in children with known dilation, to assess for VUR and guide management.^[16] In children with prenatal hydronephrosis or abnormal voiding patterns, VCUG is used to detect VUR and associated anomalies, aiding in the differentiation of obstructive versus non-obstructive causes and informing decisions on surveillance or intervention.^[14] The procedure also plays a key role in assessing congenital conditions like posterior urethral valves (PUV), where it visualizes urethral obstruction and secondary VUR, which occurs in approximately 50% of cases, often bilateral.^[17] For bladder diverticula, VCUG confirms the diagnosis by demonstrating outpouchings during filling and voiding, outperforming ultrasound, CT, or MRI in accuracy for this indication.^[18] Additionally, it evaluates post-surgical bladder integrity, such as after PUV ablation, to check for residual obstruction or reflux resolution, typically performed 3 months postoperatively.^[19] While predominantly a pediatric tool, VCUG extends to adult populations with neurogenic bladder or incontinence, where it assesses detrusor-sphincter dyssynergia, reflux, or outlet obstruction in conditions like spinal cord injury or multiple sclerosis.^[20] Overall, current guidelines from AAP, EAU, and ESPU stress selective application in high-risk cases—such as dilated ureters on ultrasound or recurrent febrile UTIs—to balance diagnostic yield against radiation exposure, avoiding routine use in uncomplicated first-time UTIs.^[16]^[15]

Contraindications and Precautions

Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) has several absolute contraindications to prevent potential harm from the procedure's invasive nature and radiation exposure. An active urinary tract infection (UTI) is an absolute contraindication, as catheterization can exacerbate the infection or lead to bacteremia; urine analysis must be performed beforehand, and any significant bacteriuria treated prior to proceeding.^[21]^[1] Pregnancy is also contraindicated due to the risks of ionizing radiation to the fetus, necessitating alternative non-radiating imaging modalities like contrast-enhanced voiding urosonography when possible.^[22]^[23] Hypersensitivity to iodinated contrast media represents another absolute contraindication, requiring premedication or avoidance if severe.^[21] Relative contraindications include a recent UTI, where guidelines recommend delaying the procedure for 4-6 weeks after resolution to minimize reinfection risks and ensure accurate results, particularly in pediatric patients.^[24] Uncorrected coagulopathy is a relative contraindication due to the bleeding risk associated with urethral catheterization, warranting correction of coagulation parameters or careful risk assessment beforehand.^[25] Severe anxiety or uncooperativeness in young children may also be relative, though not prohibitive, as it can complicate voiding during the study.^[23] Precautions are essential to mitigate risks, especially in high-risk pediatric populations. Prophylactic antibiotics are advised for patients with known vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) or other predisposing factors during the procedure to reduce post-catheterization bacteriuria incidence from approximately 12% to 4%, with variable effects on symptomatic UTI.^[23] For uncooperative or anxious children, non-pharmacological techniques like play therapy or pharmacological sedation (e.g., midazolam) should be considered to facilitate completion without general anesthesia unless necessary.^[23] Informed consent must emphasize the psychological impact on children, including potential distress from catheterization, and discuss alternatives to promote shared decision-making.^[23] The 2024-2025 EAU/ESPU guidelines underscore a risk-benefit assessment to avoid unnecessary VCUGs, recommending selective use based on factors like abnormal ultrasound or recurrent febrile UTIs while prioritizing patient safety in VUR evaluation.^[23]^[26]

Preparation

Patient Preparation

Patient preparation for voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) begins with comprehensive informing of patients and parents or guardians to alleviate anxiety and ensure cooperation. The procedure, which involves bladder catheterization and contrast instillation, may cause discomfort during catheter insertion, so explanations should emphasize its diagnostic purpose, typically for evaluating vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) or urinary tract anomalies, while highlighting that it is brief and non-surgical. Age-appropriate discussions, supported by educational pamphlets from initiatives like Image Gently, help reduce psychological trauma, particularly in children, by describing steps in simple terms and addressing fears of pain or privacy invasion. Parents are encouraged to accompany their child during non-radiation phases for reassurance, with pregnant guardians advised to step out during fluoroscopy to minimize exposure.^[27] Physical preparation focuses on ensuring patient safety and image quality without routine fasting or dietary restrictions, as normal eating and drinking are permitted to maintain hydration and comfort. Patients should arrive with an empty bladder, which is confirmed and drained if necessary upon arrival to facilitate catheterization, though excessive pre-procedure voiding is avoided to allow adequate contrast filling. In cases where bowel gas or stool might obscure pelvic visualization, mild bowel cleansing with laxatives may be recommended selectively, though this is not standard. Screening for allergies to iodinated contrast media is essential, with premedication or alternative imaging considered for those with prior reactions.^[1] For pediatric patients, who comprise the majority of VCUG cases, preparation emphasizes minimizing distress through non-pharmacologic and pharmacologic means. Distraction techniques, such as toys, videos, or child life specialist involvement, are routinely used to promote calm during catheterization and voiding phases. Sedation is rarely required but may be offered for highly anxious or uncooperative children, with options like oral midazolam (0.5-1 mg/kg) providing anxiolysis and amnesia without significantly impairing voiding dynamics. In infants, feeding immediately prior to or during the procedure can stimulate natural voiding reflexes, aiding completion of the study. Laboratory evaluation includes a urine culture to exclude active urinary tract infection, a relative contraindication that could risk bacteremia during catheterization.

Equipment and Materials

The performance of voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) requires specialized imaging equipment and materials to ensure diagnostic accuracy while adhering to radiation safety principles. The core imaging system is a fluoroscopy unit equipped with pulsed fluoroscopy capabilities, which reduces radiation exposure by limiting continuous X-ray beam activation compared to conventional fluoroscopy.^[28] This setup allows real-time visualization of contrast flow in the lower urinary tract during bladder filling and voiding. Additionally, the unit should incorporate radiation reduction features such as last-image-hold functionality, which captures and displays the final fluoroscopic image without ongoing exposure, and tight collimation to restrict the X-ray beam to the region of interest, as recommended in standardized VCUG protocols to minimize dose while maintaining image quality.^[29] Aseptic catheterization is essential for introducing contrast into the bladder, necessitating a dedicated catheterization tray containing sterile gloves, antiseptic solutions (such as povidone-iodine), gauze pads, a sterile syringe, and a small feeding tube or catheter (typically 5-8 French for children).^[30] The tray ensures compliance with infection control standards during urethral insertion. Supporting materials include sterile drapes to maintain a clean field around the catheterization site and a water-soluble lubricant (e.g., sterile surgical jelly) applied to the catheter to facilitate smooth insertion and reduce patient discomfort.^[2] The primary contrast agent is a low-osmolar iodinated medium, such as iohexol (e.g., Omnipaque) or iopamidol, preferred over high-osmolar agents like diatrizoate due to lower risk of osmotic side effects in pediatric patients.^[2]^[31] The concentration is typically a 12%-18% w/v solution (approximately 120-180 mgI/mL after dilution) to reduce irritation.^[4] The volume instilled is to reach estimated bladder capacity, calculated as weight (kg) × 7 mL for children under 2 years or (age in years + 2) × 30 mL for older children, or until reflux is observed or the patient feels full, without overfilling.^[4]^[2] Positioning during the procedure utilizes a fluoroscopy-compatible table or voiding chair, often with adjustable supports to facilitate the frog-leg or oblique positions needed for optimal urethral and bladder imaging under dynamic conditions.^[1]

Procedure

Step-by-Step Process

The voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) procedure begins with aseptic catheterization of the bladder. A lubricated catheter, typically 5 French for infants and up to 8 French for older children and adolescents, is inserted through the urethra after thorough cleaning of the genital area with an antiseptic such as chlorhexidine to minimize infection risk.^[2]^[1] The catheter is secured with tape to the skin, and any residual urine is drained from the bladder using gravity or gentle syringe aspiration.^[2] Next, the bladder is filled with a water-soluble iodinated contrast medium, diluted if necessary (e.g., 30 mL contrast mixed with 100 mL saline), instilled via the catheter under low pressure or gravity from a bag suspended approximately 1 meter above the table to simulate physiological filling.^[2]^[1] Filling continues until the patient experiences a strong urge to void or reaches estimated capacity—calculated as 7 mL per kg for infants or (age in years + 2) × 30 mL for older children—while avoiding manual pressure to prevent artifactual reflux.^[2] During this phase, static fluoroscopic images are acquired in the anteroposterior projection at early and full filling to evaluate bladder capacity, contour, and any initial vesicoureteral reflux.^[2] Oblique views may be used to better visualize the ureterovesical junctions.^[2] The voiding phase follows, with the patient positioned supine or in oblique views to capture urethral dynamics during urination.^[1]^[2] The child is encouraged to void naturally around or through the catheter onto an absorbent pad or container while continuous fluoroscopy records the flow, assessing for reflux, urethral abnormalities, and post-void residual volume via a final anteroposterior image.^[1]^[2] In boys, a lateral view may be added to evaluate the posterior urethra.^[2] Finally, the catheter is removed, often during voiding to facilitate complete emptying, and additional post-void images of the bladder and renal fossae are obtained to confirm resolution of any reflux.^[2] The entire procedure typically lasts 15 to 30 minutes, depending on patient cooperation and voiding efficiency.^[1] In pediatric cases, smaller catheters (e.g., 5 French) are prioritized for comfort, and parental presence or involvement, such as holding the child, is encouraged to reduce anxiety and promote relaxation during voiding.^[1]^[2]

Imaging Techniques

Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) employs fluoroscopy as the primary imaging modality to dynamically visualize the lower urinary tract during bladder filling and voiding phases. Fluoroscopic monitoring is conducted intermittently to minimize radiation exposure, adhering to the ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) principle, with pulsed fluoroscopy typically operating at frame rates of 2-4 frames per second to balance image quality and dose reduction.^[28] Digital subtraction techniques may be applied in select cases to enhance contrast visibility by subtracting background structures, though last-image-hold methods are more commonly used for static assessments during filling. The procedure begins with anteroposterior (AP) views during bladder filling to evaluate for early reflux or structural anomalies like ureteroceles, capturing images at low contrast volumes before full distension.^[32] During the voiding phase, oblique projections at 15-30 degrees are essential, particularly for male patients, to profile the urethra and detect posterior urethral valves by avoiding superimposition of anterior and posterior structures.^[33] These views, often right and left obliques, also assess the ureterovesical junctions bilaterally for reflux, with boys positioned slightly oblique from lateral to optimize urethral visualization. For females, frontal projections suffice during voiding, supplemented by obliques if needed for junction profiling. Cyclic voiding protocols involve multiple fill-void cycles, typically 2-3 repetitions, especially in infants under 1 year or those at high risk for vesicoureteral reflux, as initial cycles may miss intermittent reflux detected in subsequent ones.^[34] Bladder filling continues to estimated capacity (e.g., 7 mL/kg for infants or (age in years + 2) × 30 mL for older children) before each voiding attempt, with spot images acquired fluoroscopically.^[32]^[2] Special considerations include repositioning from supine to prone positions to facilitate complete ureteral assessment and enhance reflux detection in the upper tracts, particularly if initial supine imaging is inconclusive.^[35]^[36] This maneuver aids in gravitational filling of ureters and is performed judiciously to maintain procedural efficiency.^[35]

Interpretation of Results

Normal Findings

In a normal voiding cystourethrography (VCUG), the bladder appears as a smooth, rounded structure with uniform wall thickness and no intraluminal filling defects on anteroposterior projections during filling and voiding phases.^[37] The bladder capacity is age-appropriate, typically estimated at 90-150 mL in toddlers (ages 1-3 years) using formulas such as (age in years + 2) × 30 mL, with conical filling observed without evidence of vesicoureteral reflux into the ureters or kidneys.^[1] ^[32] ^[38] The male urethra demonstrates a symmetrical, patent configuration, with the posterior urethra appearing conical and the verumontanum visible as a small posterior elevation during voiding; the anterior urethra maintains a normal caliber without dilatation or strictures.^[37] ^[39] In females, the urethra is short and straight, exhibiting uniform patency without narrowing or abnormal contours.^[2] During the voiding phase, normal dynamics include smooth funneling of the bladder neck, uninterrupted contrast flow through the urethra, and complete bladder emptying with post-void residual urine typically less than 10% of capacity.^[40] ^[41] Common artifacts that must be distinguished from pathological findings include air bubbles introduced via the catheter, which may appear as lucent filling defects mimicking calculi or polyps, and catheter overlap on images that can simulate urethral narrowing or reflux.^[42] ^[43]

Pathological Findings and Grading

Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) reveals several key pathological findings, with vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) being the most common abnormality detected, characterized by the retrograde flow of contrast from the bladder into the ureters and potentially the renal collecting system.^[22] VUR is graded using the International Reflux Grading System, established by the International Reflux Study in Children, which categorizes severity from I to V based on the extent and degree of dilation observed during imaging.^[44] Grade I involves reflux limited to the ureter without intrarenal extension; grade II shows reflux into the renal pelvis and calyces without dilation; grade III features mild dilation and tortuosity of the ureter and pelvis; grade IV demonstrates moderate dilation with tortuosity and calyceal blunting; and grade V exhibits gross dilation, tortuosity of the ureter, and significant renal pelvic and calyceal dilation with loss of papillary impressions.^[44] These grades guide risk stratification, with higher grades (IV-V) associated with increased potential for renal scarring and recurrent infections.^[22] Other significant pathologies identified on VCUG include posterior urethral valves (PUV), a congenital obstruction in males causing dilatation and elongation of the posterior urethra proximal to the valve, often appearing as a "keyhole" sign due to the dilated posterior urethra and decompressed anterior urethra.^[45] Urethral diverticula manifest as contrast-filled outpouchings along the urethral wall, potentially leading to stasis and infection risk.^[46] Urethral strictures present as focal narrowings of the urethral lumen, impeding contrast flow and detectable during the voiding phase.^[17] In cases of neurogenic bladder, trabeculation appears as irregular thickening and ridging of the bladder wall, reflecting chronic outlet obstruction or detrusor overactivity, with VCUG sensitivity for detecting such changes validated against cystoscopic findings.^[47] Reporting of VCUG findings emphasizes precise documentation of reflux characteristics, including timing—such as early filling reflux occurring before 50% bladder capacity versus voiding-phase reflux—as this influences clinical outcomes like resolution rates.^[48] Laterality (unilateral or bilateral) is noted, as bilateral VUR occurs in 30-58% of cases and affects management decisions.^[22] ^[49] Follow-up VCUG assesses resolution or progression, with spontaneous resolution more common in lower grades (I-III), often documented at intervals of 1-3 years depending on initial severity.^[50] The 2025 EAU/ESPU guidelines and the AUA guidelines (2010, amended) stress integrating VCUG grading with clinical correlation, including history of febrile urinary tract infections and renal ultrasound findings, rather than relying solely on isolated grade for management choices like prophylactic antibiotics or surgery, to optimize outcomes and reduce unnecessary interventions.^[51]^[52]

Risks and Complications

Procedural Risks

Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) carries several immediate procedural risks, primarily related to catheterization and contrast administration. Common minor complications include dysuria and hematuria following catheter insertion, reported in up to 33% of pediatric patients in some cohorts, often resolving within 24 to 48 hours.^[53] Bladder spasms and urinary retention may also occur transiently due to irritation from the procedure.^[3] Catheter-related urinary tract infections (UTIs) represent a more significant but still uncommon risk, with post-procedural incidence ranging from 1% to 12%, particularly in patients with preexisting vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) or without antibiotic prophylaxis.^[46] Rare serious complications include bladder perforation or urethral trauma from improper catheterization, occurring in less than 0.1% of cases, as documented in isolated reports.^[46] Vasovagal reactions, such as syncope or bradycardia, can arise during bladder filling or catheter manipulation, though these are infrequent and typically managed by pausing the procedure.^[21] In pediatric patients, VCUG often induces significant psychological distress, including anxiety and pain during catheterization, which may lead to long-term aversion to medical interventions in some children.^[54] Parental anxiety can exacerbate child distress, highlighting the need for supportive measures during the exam.^[55] These risks are mitigated through strict aseptic catheterization techniques to prevent infection and post-procedure monitoring for 30 to 60 minutes to assess for immediate symptoms like retention or vasovagal effects.^[21] Antibiotic prophylaxis may be considered in high-risk cases, though its routine use remains debated.^[46] Radiation exposure, while a separate concern, is minimized via optimized fluoroscopy protocols but does not directly contribute to these acute procedural issues.^[3]

Radiation Exposure and Long-term Effects

Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) involves ionizing radiation primarily from fluoroscopy and spot radiographs, with typical effective doses ranging from 0.01 to 1.0 mSv (median ~0.04 mSv) per procedure using modern pulsed fluoroscopy and optimization techniques as of 2025, though doses can reach up to 3.2 mSv in cases with prolonged imaging.^[56]^[57]^[58] This dose is equivalent to approximately 4 days to 4 months of natural background radiation exposure, based on an average annual background of about 3 mSv.^[59] Recent advancements, including digital detectors and collimation, have further reduced exposures compared to earlier estimates.^[8] Long-term risks from VCUG radiation are primarily stochastic effects, including a slight increase in cancer incidence later in life, particularly in the genitourinary system. A nationwide cohort study of over 31,000 pediatric patients (procedures from 1997-2008) found an overall 1.92-fold increased cancer risk (95% CI 1.34-2.74) following VCUG, with urinary system cancers elevated 5.8-fold (95% CI 1.54-21.9) and genital cancers 6.19-fold (95% CI 1.37-28.0), attributed to radiation sensitivity in pelvic organs.^[60] These risks are dose-dependent and cumulative, though the absolute probability remains low for isolated procedures, with lifetime cancer mortality risk estimated at about 0.005% per mSv in children.^[61] Pediatric patients are particularly vulnerable due to greater tissue radiosensitivity and longer post-exposure lifespan, amplifying potential oncogenic effects compared to adults.^[57] Current guidelines, including those updated in 2024 by the European Association of Urology and reflected in 2025 radiology practices, emphasize the ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) principle to minimize exposure through optimized protocols like pulsed fluoroscopy and last-image-hold techniques.^[23]^[8] For patients requiring serial VCUGs, such as those in VUR follow-up, monitoring cumulative radiation dose is essential to assess ongoing risk and justify continued imaging.^[62] This tracking helps balance diagnostic benefits against long-term hazards in high-risk cohorts.

Alternatives and Future Directions

Non-invasive Alternatives

Contrast-enhanced voiding urosonography (ceVUS) serves as the primary non-invasive alternative to VCUG for detecting vesicoureteral reflux (VUR), employing microbubble ultrasound contrast agents instilled into the bladder via catheterization to visualize urine flow without ionizing radiation.^[63] This technique achieves a sensitivity of over 90% and specificity of approximately 89% for VUR detection when compared to VCUG as the reference standard, making it a reliable radiation-free option particularly suited for pediatric screening after urinary tract infections.^[64] Unlike VCUG, ceVUS avoids fluoroscopic exposure, thereby eliminating radiation-related risks while maintaining comparable diagnostic accuracy for reflux grading.^[65] Other non-invasive options include color Doppler ultrasound, which assesses ureteral jets—streams of urine entering the bladder—to screen for high-grade VUR by measuring jet angles and flow patterns, offering a quick, bedside method without contrast or catheterization.^[66] This approach demonstrates high specificity for detecting significant reflux but is less sensitive for low-grade cases, positioning it as an adjunct rather than a standalone diagnostic tool.^[67] For complex cases involving detailed anatomical evaluation, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) voiding cystography provides radiation-free imaging of the urinary tract during voiding, though it requires longer scan times and is generally reserved for scenarios where ultrasound is inconclusive.^[68] In comparison to VCUG, ceVUS reduces procedural trauma by forgoing fluoroscopy and lowers overall costs, with total expenses approximately $800 less per examination due to shorter procedure times and no radiation safety measures.^[69] However, ceVUS availability remains limited outside specialized centers, and it is less effective for evaluating urethral anatomy, where VCUG remains the gold standard.^[70] MRI voiding cystography, while comprehensive, incurs higher costs—often several times that of ultrasound-based methods—due to equipment and sedation requirements, restricting its routine use.^[71] Adoption of ceVUS is increasing in Europe, particularly for low-risk VUR screening, as endorsed in the 2024 European Association of Urology (EAU) guidelines, which highlight its high sensitivity with second-generation contrast agents as a viable substitute to minimize invasive procedures in children.^[14]

Advances in Guidelines

Recent guideline updates from major pediatric organizations emphasize a more selective approach to voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) to minimize unnecessary invasive procedures and radiation exposure in children evaluated for urinary tract infections (UTIs) and vesicoureteral reflux (VUR). The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) 2011 clinical practice guideline for the initial UTI in febrile infants and children aged 2-24 months, which remains the current standard as of 2025, maintains that VCUG should not be performed routinely after a first febrile UTI, recommending it instead only when renal-bladder ultrasound shows abnormalities such as hydronephrosis or scarring, or in cases of recurrent febrile UTIs.^[72]^[73] Similarly, the 2024 updated European Association of Urology (EAU) and European Society for Paediatric Urology (ESPU) guidelines recommend contrast-enhanced voiding urosonography (ceVUS) as an alternative to VCUG for VUR diagnosis in children with prenatal hydronephrosis or dilation, with VCUG preferred for confirmation of higher-grade (III-V) reflux due to its superior anatomical detail in severe cases.^[23] Broader trends in these guidelines reflect a shift toward shared decision-making, where clinicians incorporate family preferences regarding procedural invasiveness and risks, particularly for low-risk patients, alongside integration of dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) scintigraphy to assess renal scarring and guide whether VCUG is warranted.^[72]^[51] Looking to future directions, emerging recommendations highlight the potential of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted tools for standardizing VCUG interpretation, reducing interobserver variability in VUR grading, and improving diagnostic efficiency through automated image analysis.^[74]

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Neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction (NLUTD) refers to abnormal function of either the bladder, bladder neck, and/or its sphincters related to a ...
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Cystography Technique: Contrast Examination of Bladder ...
Sep 6, 2024 · Contraindications and Considerations · Active clinical urinary tract infection (UTI) · Pregnancy · Allergy or sensitivity to contrast medium.Missing: precautions EAU ESPU
[20]
Vesicoureteral Reflux - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
To ensure optimal VCUG imaging quality with minimal discomfort and risk to the patient, it is advisable to adhere to the 2016 protocol outlined by the American ...
[21]
[PDF] EAU guidelines on paediatric urology - Cloudfront.net
In contrast, a normal DMSA scan with no VCUG avoids unnecessary VCUG in. > 50% of ... Practical recommendations of the EAU-ESPU guidelines committee for.
[22]
Pediatric Urinary Tract Infection Workup - Medscape Reference
Jan 28, 2024 · Some clinicians recommend waiting 4-6 weeks after febrile UTI is treated to perform VCUG. If the child is given suppressive antibacterial ...
[23]
[PDF] ACR Appropriateness Criteria: Urinary Tract Infection - Child
The NICE guidelines do not recommend VCUG for infants AMAB <6 months of age with first febrile UTI who respond well to treatment within 48 hours. If there is ...
[24]
Update and Summary of the European Association of Urology ...
Jan 5, 2024 · The aim of these guidelines is to provide a practical approach to the treatment of VUR that is based on risk analysis and selective indications ...Missing: VCUG 2025
[25]
ALARA: Impact of Practice Quality Improvement Initiative on Dose ...
The radiation dose during VCUG comes from a combination of fluoroscopy and digital-spot images. We can reduce fluoroscopy dose by using pulsed fluoroscopy, ...
[26]
The ABCs of Voiding Cystourethrography
Jan 31, 2020 · Pulsed fluoroscopy with last image hold technique and adjustment of collimators are key strategies to avoid unnecessary exposure to radiation (9) ...
[27]
Cystography Periprocedural Care: Equipment, Patient Preparation
Sep 6, 2024 · Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) can cause considerable anxiety, especially in children; the procedure can be done with sedation on a case-by-case basis.<|control11|><|separator|>
[28]
Iodinated contrast media | Radiology Reference Article
Sep 29, 2025 · Low osmolality contrast media in use include the following: iopamidol (Isovue). iohexol (Omnipaque). iopromide (Ultravist). ioversol (Optiray).Missing: VCUG | Show results with:VCUG
[29]
Voiding cystourethrography | Radiology Reference Article
Jul 3, 2025 · Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG), also known as a micturating cystourethrography (MCU), is a fluoroscopic study of the lower urinary tract.
[30]
https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1893772-periprocedure
[31]
Voiding cystourethrogram: Who gets a cyclic study and does it matter?
Conclusion: Younger children are more likely to undergo cyclic VCUG. While most reflux is detected with the initial filling-voiding cycle, 26 (21.2%) patients ...Missing: void | Show results with:void
[32]
Enhanced detection of vesicoureteral reflux in infants and children ...
Prone positioning did not enhance detection of VUR to the same degree as did multiple studies performed with the patient supine. Article History. Published in ...
[33]
Voiding urosonography with ultrasound contrast agents for the ...
Jul 6, 2007 · A scan in the supine position may suffice if adequate visualization of the renal pelves on both sides is possible, even though scanning the ...
[34]
Normal voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) | Radiology Case
Oct 30, 2015 · Normal VCUG: normal opening of the posterior urethra; normal-appearing anterior urethra; no filling defect in the bladder; no vesicoureteral ...
[35]
Urethral Imaging | Radiology Key
Aug 11, 2016 · The voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) is the most effective method to dynamically image the urethra. Clinicians also use the VCUG to evaluate the upper tracts.
[36]
Technique of Voiding Cystourethrography (VCUG) and Normal ...
Detailed examination technique and normal findings of voiding cystourethrography (VCUG), from the online textbook of urology by D. Manski.
[37]
[PDF] Chapter 7 - Urodynamics - International Continence Society
The normal voiding phase is cha- racterized by the voluntary initiation of micturition fol- lowed by forceful and continuous flow with no residual urine.
[38]
Cystourethrography - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG): Voiding images ... The only caveat to this method is the fact that it can introduce air bubbles and thus image artifacts.
[39]
Imaging of the adult male urethra, penile prostheses and artificial ...
Dec 13, 2019 · Gas bubbles inserted through the catheter can mimic filling defects or polyps. Short pseudo strictures may result from urethral kinking due ...
[40]
https://www.urology-textbook.com/vcug.html
[41]
Posterior urethral valves | Radiology Reference Article
Nov 27, 2024 · Voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) is the best imaging technique for the diagnosis of posterior urethral valves. ... Urinary bladder diverticula ( ...Keyhole sign · Antenatal ultrasound · Prune belly syndrome
[42]
Voiding cystourethrography for the pediatric nephrologist: clinical ...
Sep 9, 2025 · To standardize VCUG performance, the American Academy of Pediatrics published a protocol in 2016 emphasizing the ALARA (“as low as reasonably ...
[43]
Detection of bladder trabeculation by voiding cystourethrography ...
Jun 7, 2021 · This study aimed at investigating the reliability of voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) and sonography in predicting the presence of trabeculation on endoscopy.Patients · Figure 2 · DiscussionMissing: strictures | Show results with:strictures
[44]
The VCUG for VUR: Looking Beyond the Reflux - AUANews
Nov 1, 2021 · The international system of radiographic grading of VUR was described by Lebowitz in 1985 and is used in current voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) ...
[45]
Timing of follow-up voiding cystourethrogram in children ... - PubMed
Conclusions: Delaying the schedule of VCUG from yearly to every 2 years in children with mild VUR and every 3 years in children with moderate/severe VUR yields ...
[46]
Vesicoureteral Reflux Guideline - American Urological Association
This clinical guideline covers assessment, initial management, surgical treatment, and follow-up management of pediatric patients with such disorders.
[47]
[PDF] Evolving Approaches to Pediatric Vesicoureteral Reflux
Jul 31, 2025 · This review aims to summarize current concepts and evolving approaches to the diagnosis and management of pediatric VUR in 2025, incorporating ...
[48]
Urinary bladder rupture during voiding cystourethrography - PMC
May 21, 2012 · Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) is a commonly performed diagnostic procedure for the evaluation of vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) in children ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
VCUG and the recurring question of sedation
Dec 30, 2011 · The VCUG examination requires transurethral catheterization (excluding suprapubic puncture), instillation of contrast agent for bladder filling, and voiding ...Missing: feeding | Show results with:feeding
[50]
Is parental anxiety and coping associated with girls' distress during a ...
There was a trend toward parental anxiety being related to their child's distress during VCUG. Parental coping strategies resulted in less distress among ...
[51]
Cumulative Effective Doses From Radiologic Procedures for ...
Oct 1, 2010 · The effective dose of a pediatric chest radiograph is the order of 0.01 to 0.02 mSv, that of a voiding cystourethrogram 0.5 to 1 mSv, that of a ...
[52]
The role of voiding cystourethrography in the investigation of ... - NIH
Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) is the radiographic test of choice to diagnose VUR. Due to its invasive nature and questionable benefit in many cases,Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[53]
Radiation Dose from X-Ray and CT Exams - Radiologyinfo.org
According to recent estimates, the average person in the U.S. receives an effective dose of about 3 mSv per year from natural radiation, which includes cosmic ...
[54]
Subsequent cancer risk of children receiving post voiding ... - PubMed
Conclusions: Pediatric VCUG is associated with increased subsequent cancer risk, especially in the genitourinary system.
[55]
Pause and Pulse: Radiation Dose in Pediatric Fluoroscopy
Sep 1, 2011 · ... collimation, use of lowest magnification needed, and use of last image hold and fluoroscopy store. (15)(17). The last image hold feature ...
[56]
The cumulative radiation dose paradigm in pediatric imaging - PMC
Efforts directed at the paradigm of cumulative effective dose in children should take into account specific populations involved (age and disorder), the ...
[57]
Contrast-enhanced voiding urosonography (ceVUS) with ... - PubMed
Detection of VUR with Optison™ ceVUS was comparable to VCUG without exposure to ionizing radiation. CeVUS with Optison™ is a well-tolerated diagnostic ...
[58]
Comparison of Contrast-Enhanced Voiding Urosonography (Cevus ...
Compared to VCUG, ceVUS had a sensitivity for detection of VUR of 90% and a specificity of 89%. Conclusions CeVUS with Optison is easily performed and well ...
[59]
https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/safety-xray
[60]
Color Doppler Ultrasound Evaluation of Ureteral Jet Angle to Detect ...
Color Doppler ultrasound measurement of ureteral jet angle represents a simple and noninvasive method that is applicable as a screening tool to detect high ...
[61]
Color Doppler Ultrasound Evaluation of Ureteral Jet Angle to Detect ...
Jan 22, 2016 · We evaluated color Doppler ultrasound measurement of ureteral jet angle as a noninvasive screening tool for detecting reflux. Materials and ...
[62]
MR Voiding Cystography for Evaluation of Vesicoureteral Reflux | AJR
OBJECTIVE. The purpose of our study is to present a real-time interactive continuous fluoroscopy MRI technique for vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) diagnosis.
[63]
Contrast‐enhanced voiding urosonography (CEVUS) as a safe ...
Nov 7, 2022 · The total cost of CEVUS was $800 less than that of VCUG. Conclusion. CEVUS can provide an alternate means of safely evaluating VUR in kidney ...
[64]
Evaluation of the Diagnostic Value of Contrast-Enhanced Voiding ...
Compared to VCUG, ceVUS shows excellent diagnostic sensitivity of up to 100% in detecting VUR [18,19,20]. In order to visualize and diagnose VUR, contrast ...<|separator|>
[65]
Magnetic resonance voiding cystourethrography for vesicoureteral ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The potential drawbacks include a lower sensitivity as compared to VCUG, higher costs, and the need for sedation or anesthesia to perform the ...<|separator|>
[66]
AAP report outlines risk-stratified approach to perinatal urinary tract ...
Jun 16, 2025 · A new AAP clinical report provides a framework for pediatricians to understand and educate parents on UTD in the context of recommendations for surveillance.
[67]
Consensus Guidelines for Management of Pediatric Urinary Tract ...
Feb 11, 2025 · Urine cultures should be sent for all children < 12-year-old with urinary symptoms and a positive UA (+LE and/or +nitrites), and all who are ...