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Stool

"Stool" most commonly refers to a type of furniture, but the term can also denote feces in biology and medicine or the basal shoots of plants in botany and horticulture. A stool is a backless and armless seat designed for one person, typically elevated on three or four legs and serving as one of the most ancient and versatile forms of furniture, with origins dating back at least 5,000 years.^[1] Stools first appeared in ancient Egyptian society around 2980–2476 BCE, where they were crafted in both folding styles with skin or fabric seats and solid frames using wood or rush, accessible across social classes from commoners to pharaohs.^[1] Their design evolved through Greek, Roman, and Viking eras, adapting to cultural needs such as portability and multifunctionality—often doubling as low tables or footrests.^[1] In medieval and early modern Europe, stools symbolized social hierarchy; for instance, in the 17th- and 18th-century French court at Versailles, folding stools known as pliant or tabouret were reserved for nobility below royal rank, reflecting strict etiquette protocols where seating privileges denoted status.^[2] By the 17th century in colonial America, joint stools—simple, turned wooden seats made by joiners—were ubiquitous in households, taverns, and churches, comprising a significant portion of probate inventories (e.g., 21.3% in Hampshire County, Massachusetts, from 1665–1680) due to their durability and affordability in space-constrained homes.^[3] In the 20th century, stools gained prominence in modern design, exemplified by Alvar Aalto's stackable three-legged model (1933, revised 1954) and Charles and Ray Eames's walnut stool (c. 1960), emphasizing ergonomic versatility for bar, lounge, and domestic use.^[1] Today, stools continue to embody practicality and aesthetic innovation, from kitchen counters to contemporary interiors, underscoring their enduring role in human seating culture.^[1]

Furniture

Definition and overview

A stool is an armless and backless seat designed for one person, typically supported by three or four legs or a central pedestal.^[4] It provides a basic, minimalist form of seating suitable for short-term use or as a portable support.^[5] In contrast to chairs, which generally feature a backrest and armrests for prolonged comfort, stools prioritize simplicity and mobility.^[6] Stools serve primary functions in diverse environments, such as providing elevated seating at kitchen counters or bar areas, practical support in workshops, and lightweight portability for outdoor settings like camping or events.^[4] They also commonly act as footrests, offering a low platform to elevate the feet or knees while seated on other furniture.^[5] The typical height of a stool's seat ranges from 12 to 30 inches (30 to 76 cm), with lower measurements of 12 to 18 inches accommodating footrest applications and higher ones around 24 to 30 inches suiting bar or counter use.^[7]^[8] The term "stool" originates from the Old English stōl, denoting a seat or chair, which derives from the Proto-Germanic *stōla- and the Proto-Indo-European root *sta-, meaning "to stand" or "to make firm."^[9] This etymology reflects its foundational role as stable seating, with the word evolving in Middle English to emphasize simpler, backless variants over more structured chairs.^[5]

Types and variations

Stools are classified by height and intended use to ensure compatibility with surrounding furniture and activities. Counter stools typically feature seat heights of 24 to 27 inches, designed for use at kitchen counters or islands measuring 35 to 36 inches high.^[8] Bar stools, suited for taller bar counters of 41 to 42 inches, have seat heights ranging from 28 to 32 inches.^[10] Footstools, intended as low supports for elevating the feet or as extra seating, generally measure under 18 inches in height, with many models around 13 to 16 inches to pair with sofas or chairs.^[11] Piano stools often incorporate adjustable mechanisms, allowing seat heights to vary from approximately 19 to 23 inches to accommodate different players and keyboard setups.^[12] Specialized stools adapt to specific functions and environments. Milking stools, historically used in agricultural settings, employ a three-legged design that provides stability on uneven terrain by ensuring all legs contact the ground without rocking.^[13] Step stools include treads or platforms for safe elevation, enabling users to reach higher shelves or surfaces in kitchens or workshops.^[14] Camp stools prioritize portability, featuring lightweight, folding frames that collapse for easy transport during outdoor activities.^[15] Variations in leg configuration influence stability and versatility. Three-legged stools offer self-leveling properties, ideal for irregular floors as they form a stable tripod base.^[16] Four-legged designs provide broad support on even surfaces, distributing weight evenly to prevent tipping.^[17] Swivel-based stools, common in bar settings, incorporate a rotating mechanism at the base for fluid movement without shifting position.^[18] Contemporary innovations enhance stool utility beyond basic seating. Many modern stools integrate storage compartments beneath the seat, offering concealed space for remotes, books, or small items in compact living areas.^[19] Others feature built-in footrests, particularly in bar and counter models, to improve user comfort during extended use by supporting leg positioning ergonomically.^[20]

History and cultural significance

The history of the stool as furniture traces back to ancient civilizations, where it served practical and symbolic purposes. In ancient Egypt, low stools dating to the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BCE) were commonly depicted in tombs and used by servants and commoners for everyday seating, often featuring simple three-legged designs or folding mechanisms for portability.^[21] These artifacts, found in burial sites like those from the Old Kingdom, highlight the stool's role in daily life and its inclusion in funerary goods to ensure comfort in the afterlife. In ancient Greece and Rome, three-legged stools known as tripods were prevalent, valued for their stability on uneven terrain and ease of transport; they were used in both domestic settings and religious contexts, such as sacrificial altars, underscoring their multifunctional utility. During the medieval and Renaissance periods in Europe, stools evolved to reflect rural and agrarian lifestyles. Three-legged milking stools, known since Roman times (c. 100 CE), were essential tools for dairy work, symbolizing the simplicity and stability of farm life; their angled legs ensured balance on uneven barn floors, making them a staple in pastoral communities.^[22] Concurrently, in African cultures such as the Ashanti people of Ghana, stools held profound regal significance; the Golden Stool, established as a throne symbol in the late 17th century but rooted in earlier traditions, represented the soul of the nation and the unity of its people, never sat upon by rulers but revered as a sacred emblem of authority and ancestry.^[23] The Industrial Revolution marked a shift toward mass production and democratization of stool design in the 19th century. Michael Thonet's innovation of bentwood techniques in the 1850s enabled the affordable manufacture of sturdy, curved-leg stools, with models like the No. 14 becoming icons of modern furniture through steam-bending processes that allowed for scalable assembly using minimal parts.^[24] By the 20th century, in American diners emerging from the late 19th-century lunch wagon era, tall bar stools rose in prominence, facilitating quick service at counters and embodying the social hub of urban and roadside eateries during the post-Prohibition boom.^[25] Beyond utility, stools have carried deep cultural weight in rituals and as status symbols across societies. In various African traditions, such as among the Luba people of the Democratic Republic of Congo, stools feature prominently in investiture ceremonies, linking leaders to ancestral heroes and serving as platforms for communal rites that reinforce social hierarchies.^[26] The three-legged stool, in particular, often symbolizes stability in folklore due to its self-leveling design, evoking balance on life's uneven paths.^[27]

Design, materials, and ergonomics

Stools are constructed using a variety of materials selected for their durability, aesthetics, and functionality. Wood remains a primary choice, with hardwoods like oak valued for its strength and resistance to wear in high-use environments, while pine offers a more affordable option with sufficient durability for lighter applications.^[28]^[29] Metal, particularly steel, is commonly employed in industrial-style stools for its robustness and ability to support heavy loads without deformation.^[30] Plastic provides lightweight alternatives in modern designs, enabling easy portability and resistance to moisture, though it may require reinforcement for longevity.^[31] Upholstered fabrics, such as performance weaves or leather, are often applied to seats for added comfort, with selections prioritizing stain resistance and ease of cleaning in contemporary pieces.^[32] Design elements in stools emphasize both form and structural integrity. Seat shapes vary between round profiles, which promote even weight distribution and a compact footprint, and square forms that align with angular aesthetics in minimalist settings.^[33]^[34] Leg styles frequently incorporate tapered configurations to enhance visual elegance while maintaining balance, creating a sleek transition from seat to floor.^[35] Joint methods like mortise-and-tenon provide exceptional strength by interlocking components securely, capable of withstanding forces up to 172 pounds in testing on spruce wood, outperforming alternatives like dowels.^[36] Dovetail joints offer similar robustness through their interlocking pins and tails, ensuring resistance to pulling apart and suitability for load-bearing stool frames.^[37] Ergonomic considerations focus on user comfort and safety during brief seating periods. Optimal seat heights are calibrated to achieve a knee angle of 90-110 degrees, allowing thighs to remain parallel or slightly angled to the floor for reduced pressure on the lower back and improved circulation.^[38]^[39] Backless designs encourage active posture by preventing slouching, benefiting short-duration sits like those at counters where users engage core muscles for spinal alignment.^[40] Stability is enhanced through a favorable base width-to-height ratio, where wider bases relative to overall height—often approaching 1:3 in dynamic load scenarios—minimize tipping risks and support secure positioning.^[41] Contemporary stool design increasingly incorporates sustainability, with FSC-certified wood ensuring sourcing from responsibly managed forests to minimize environmental impact, as seen in oak-based models that maintain structural integrity.^[42] Recycled materials, such as post-consumer plastics or beverage cartons, are utilized in modern prototypes for lightweight, eco-friendly construction without compromising durability.^[43] These trends reflect a shift toward circular economy principles, prioritizing renewable resources in both residential and commercial applications.^[44]

Biology and Medicine

Feces as stool

In biology and medicine, stool, also known as feces, refers to the solid or semi-solid waste material expelled from the digestive tract through the anus, consisting primarily of undigested food residues, bacteria, mucus, and sloughed intestinal cells.^[45] This waste product represents the remnants of the digestive process after nutrient absorption in the stomach and small intestine.^[46] Stool formation begins in the large intestine, where liquid chyme—partially digested food from the small intestine—enters and undergoes significant modification. The colon absorbs water and electrolytes from the chyme, gradually concentrating it into a more solid, semisolid consistency suitable for elimination, while also harboring beneficial bacteria that aid in further breakdown and vitamin production.^[47] This water absorption process, which can reduce the material's water content to about 75%, is essential for transforming the incoming fluid into compact feces that can be stored and expelled efficiently.^[48] On average, a healthy adult human produces 100–200 grams of wet stool per day, though this output varies based on factors such as total food intake, dietary composition, body weight, and hydration levels, with higher fiber diets typically increasing volume and dehydration potentially reducing it.^[49]^[50] Deviations from typical stool patterns, such as unusual consistency or volume, can signal underlying health concerns.

Human stool composition and formation

Human stool, also known as feces, consists primarily of water, which comprises about 75% of its total mass, with the remaining 25% made up of solid matter.^[48] The solid fraction includes undigested dietary components such as fiber, proteins, and fats, alongside cellular debris and a substantial bacterial biomass that represents 25–54% of the dry weight.^[50] Bacteria dominate the organic solids, reflecting the dense microbial population in the gut, while pigments like bilirubin—derived from heme breakdown and oxidized to urobilin—provide the typical brown coloration.^[51] Stool formation occurs mainly in the large intestine, where chyme from the small intestine enters the colon. Haustral segmentation, involving localized contractions of the colon's sac-like haustra, mixes contents to facilitate water and electrolyte absorption, gradually compacting the material into semisolid form.^[47] Peristaltic waves then propel this forming stool distally through the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon segments toward the rectum, where it is stored until the defecation reflex is triggered.^[52] Throughout this process, the gut microbiome ferments undigested carbohydrates and fibers, producing short-chain fatty acids that nourish colonocytes and contribute to stool volume and consistency.^[53] Several factors influence stool composition and formation. Dietary intake plays a key role; high-fiber consumption adds bulk by incorporating indigestible plant material that absorbs water and accelerates transit.^[54] Medications, particularly antibiotics, disrupt the gut microbiome's bacterial balance, potentially reducing fermentation efficiency and altering stool texture or odor.^[55] Age-related differences are evident, as newborns pass meconium—a thick, tar-like first stool composed of amniotic fluid, mucus, and lanugo hairs with minimal bacteria—contrasting with the microbiome-dominated composition of adult feces.^[56] Stool typically exhibits a pH range of 5.5 to 7.0, reflecting colonic microbial activity and dietary influences, with a median value around 6.6.^[50] Its characteristic odor arises mainly from volatile sulfur compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide and methanethiol, generated by bacterial putrefaction of sulfur-containing amino acids in proteins.^[57]

Medical analysis and stool tests

Medical analysis of stool involves laboratory examination of fecal samples to diagnose various gastrointestinal conditions, infections, and systemic diseases. These tests detect abnormalities such as hidden blood, pathogens, parasites, inflammatory markers, and digestive enzyme levels, providing non-invasive insights into health status. Stool tests are particularly valuable for screening, confirming diagnoses, and monitoring treatment efficacy in conditions like colorectal cancer, infectious diarrhea, and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).^[58]^[59] One common diagnostic tool is the fecal occult blood test (FOBT), which identifies hidden (occult) blood in stool that may indicate colorectal cancer or other gastrointestinal bleeding. The guaiac-based FOBT (gFOBT) involves applying small stool samples from three separate bowel movements to a test card, while the fecal immunochemical test (FIT) uses a single sample and antibodies to detect human hemoglobin specifically. A positive result prompts further evaluation, such as colonoscopy, as blood in stool can signal polyps or malignancy.^[58]^[60]^[61] Another established stool-based screening method for colorectal cancer is the multitarget stool DNA test, which analyzes stool for altered DNA associated with cancer cells and occult blood. Performed every three years, it involves collecting an entire bowel movement in a kit for lab analysis and has higher sensitivity for detecting advanced precancerous lesions compared to FIT alone (83% vs. 23%). Like other positive tests, it requires follow-up colonoscopy.^[62] Stool culture is a standard method to identify bacterial pathogens causing diarrhea, such as Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter. The sample is inoculated onto selective media and incubated to grow and identify organisms, with antimicrobial susceptibility testing if needed. This test is recommended for patients with severe, prolonged, or bloody diarrhea, or those at risk for invasive infections.^[63]^[64]^[65] For parasite detection, the ova and parasite (O&P) examination uses microscopy to identify eggs, cysts, or trophozoites from protozoa like Giardia or helminths. Multiple stool samples, typically three collected on separate days, improve sensitivity; polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assays offer faster, more specific molecular detection of parasitic DNA. Preservatives like formalin or polyvinyl alcohol fix samples for transport, preventing degradation.^[59]^[66] Other key analyses include measurement of fecal calprotectin, a protein released by neutrophils during intestinal inflammation, which helps differentiate IBD from non-inflammatory conditions like irritable bowel syndrome. Elevated levels (>50 μg/g) indicate active disease in ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease, guiding therapy adjustments. Fecal elastase-1 testing assesses pancreatic exocrine function; low levels (<200 μg/g) suggest insufficiency, as in chronic pancreatitis, by quantifying this stable enzyme resistant to degradation.^[67]^[68]^[69] Stool sample collection varies by test to ensure accuracy. Random single samples suffice for most routine analyses like FOBT, culture, calprotectin, and elastase, collected in clean containers and transported promptly at room temperature or refrigerated. For comprehensive assessments, such as quantitative fecal fat (related to pancreatic function), a 72-hour collection is used after a high-fat diet, weighing total output to detect malabsorption. Parasite exams often require multiple samples over days with preservatives to capture intermittent shedding. Patients should avoid contamination with urine or water and follow kit instructions for at-home kits.^[58]^[59]^[70]

Abnormalities and health implications

Abnormalities in stool characteristics can indicate underlying health issues, ranging from benign digestive disturbances to serious pathological conditions. The Bristol Stool Scale (BSS) is a widely used diagnostic tool to classify stool form into seven categories based on shape and consistency, aiding in the identification of deviations from normal. Type 1 represents separate hard lumps like nuts, indicative of severe constipation; type 2 is sausage-shaped but lumpy; type 3 is sausage-like with cracks on the surface; type 4 is smooth and soft like a sausage or snake, considered ideal; type 5 consists of soft blobs with clear edges; type 6 is fluffy pieces with ragged edges; and type 7 is entirely watery with no solid pieces, signaling diarrhea. Stools classified as types 1 and 2 are associated with constipation, while types 6 and 7 suggest diarrhea.^[71] Common stool abnormalities include constipation, defined as fewer than three bowel movements per week with hard, dry, or lumpy stools that are difficult to pass.^[72] In contrast, diarrhea involves three or more loose or watery stools per day, often leading to dehydration if prolonged.^[73] Steatorrhea, characterized by fatty, pale, foul-smelling, and greasy stools that may float, results from fat malabsorption in the small intestine and is a hallmark of conditions impairing lipid digestion or absorption.^[70] Specific stool appearances can signal gastrointestinal bleeding or inflammation. Black, tarry stools known as melena indicate upper gastrointestinal bleeding, where blood is digested and mixed with stool, often from sources like peptic ulcers.^[74] Bright red blood in or on the stool, termed hematochezia, typically arises from lower gastrointestinal sources such as hemorrhoids or colonic bleeding.^[75] The presence of excess mucus in stool is commonly linked to irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), where it accompanies abdominal pain, bloating, and altered bowel habits.^[76] Persistent or chronic stool abnormalities may point to serious health implications. Changes in bowel habits, such as ongoing diarrhea, constipation, or narrowing of stool caliber, along with rectal bleeding, are warning signs of colorectal cancer, necessitating prompt evaluation.^[77] Chronic diarrhea can stem from infections like Clostridium difficile or Giardia, which disrupt gut flora or mucosa and require targeted antimicrobial treatment.^[78] Dietary intolerances, such as lactose intolerance, manifest as watery diarrhea, gas, and bloating following dairy consumption due to deficient lactase enzyme activity.^[79] These abnormalities often warrant confirmatory diagnostic tests to identify and address the underlying cause.

Botany and Horticulture

Botanical definition

In botany, a stool is defined as the basal stump or root crown of a woody plant, especially trees or shrubs, that persists after the stems are severed near ground level, serving as the origin for multiple regenerative shoots known as suckers or coppice shoots.^[80] This structure enables vigorous regrowth from the plant's base, a trait particularly pronounced in species adapted to periodic disturbance.^[81] Stools occur naturally in coppicing species such as willows (Salix spp.) and hazels (Corylus avellana), where the process is triggered by trauma like stem damage or severing, prompting the activation of dormant buds embedded in the stump.^[82] This regenerative capacity is more common in angiosperms than gymnosperms, reflecting evolutionary adaptations to environmental stresses in temperate woodlands.^[83] Anatomically, stool formation relies on adventitious or dormant buds located at the root crown or low trunk, which develop into shoots from tissues in the cambium layer or callus tissue formed post-injury; these buds are typically shielded by protective layers of thick bark or overlying soil, enhancing survival against desiccation and herbivores.^[83]^[81] The term "stool" specifically describes this basal regenerative structure, in contrast to "coppice," which denotes the silvicultural practice of systematic cutting to promote such growth, and "pollard," involving cuts at 1.5–3.5 meters above ground to create an elevated head of shoots protected from grazing.^[84] This distinction underscores stool's role as a morphological feature rather than a management technique.

Stooling in plants and trees

Stooling in plants and trees involves the regenerative growth of multiple shoots from a persistent basal structure, known as a stool, following the severe pruning or cutting back of the above-ground parts. This process is primarily triggered by the disruption of apical dominance, where the removal of the main stem or shoots eliminates the source of inhibitory hormones, particularly auxin produced at the shoot tips, which normally suppresses the outgrowth of lateral and basal buds. The reduction in auxin concentration allows dormant buds on the stool to break dormancy and develop into vigorous shoots, often facilitated by a relative increase in cytokinins that promote cell division and branching. This hormonal balance shift enables the plant to redirect stored carbohydrates from roots and the stool to support rapid resprouting, typically resulting in a multi-stemmed form that can be repeated over multiple cycles.^[85]^[86] Various tree species exhibit stooling as an adaptive response, with examples including willows (Salix spp.), which are often stool-coppiced annually or biennially to produce high biomass yields through fast regrowth from adventitious buds. Oaks (Quercus spp.), such as pedunculate oak, demonstrate longer rotation stooling for timber production, where cutting every 20-40 years yields straight poles from the stool's basal shoots, leveraging the species' strong resprouting capacity.^[87]^[88] In some fruit trees like plums (Prunus spp.), stooling-like severe pruning is applied for rejuvenation, cutting back old, unproductive wood to stimulate new shoots from the base, thereby extending productivity.^[89] These examples highlight how stooling exploits species-specific physiological traits, such as bud density and carbohydrate reserves, to achieve repeated harvests. Environmental factors significantly influence the success and vigor of stooling. Soil fertility, particularly nutrient availability like nitrogen and phosphorus, supports robust root systems and carbohydrate storage essential for shoot initiation, while poor soils can limit regrowth height and survival rates. Light exposure plays a key role, as increased sunlight post-cutting enhances photosynthesis in emerging shoots, promoting faster elongation compared to shaded conditions that may favor fewer but taller stems. Cutting timing is critical, with dormant season pruning (late winter to early spring) minimizing stress and disease entry points, avoiding sap flow and active growth periods that could lead to higher mortality. Optimal timing aligns with low physiological demand, allowing energy redirection to buds without competing foliage.^[86]^[90]^[91] Despite its benefits, stooling presents challenges, including increased disease susceptibility in the tender regrowth shoots, which lack the protective bark of mature stems and are prone to fungal infections like Armillaria root rot or canker diseases entering through cut surfaces. Over-stooling, or excessive repeated cutting without adequate recovery periods, can deplete root reserves, leading to progressively weaker stems, reduced sprout vigor, and eventual stool decline or death after several rotations. These issues underscore the need for balanced management to maintain long-term stool health.^[86]^[92]

Applications in propagation and cultivation

Stool layering, also known as mound layering, is a vegetative propagation technique that leverages the regrowth of shoots from a plant's stool base to produce rooted clones. The process begins by cutting the parent plant back to near ground level during dormancy, stimulating the emergence of multiple basal shoots in the following spring. Soil, sawdust, or other media is then progressively mounded around the lower portions of these shoots to encourage adventitious root development while the shoots remain nutritionally connected to the parent. Once roots form—typically after one to two growing seasons—the layered shoots are severed from the stool and transplanted as independent plants. This method is highly effective for species that naturally branch from the base, minimizing transplant shock and ensuring high survival rates compared to cuttings.^[93]^[94]^[95] In forestry, stooling via coppice systems supports sustainable wood harvesting by allowing repeated cutting of shoots from established stools without felling entire trees, thereby maintaining long-term productivity. Coppicing cycles, often 5 to 20 years depending on species and purpose, yield materials for firewood, fencing, and crafts; for instance, hazel (Corylus avellana) has been coppiced across Europe since Roman times to produce flexible rods for hurdles, thatching spars, and fuel. This practice originated in ancient civilizations, including Celtic and Roman eras, and was widespread in medieval woodlands for its renewable output, reducing pressure on mature timber while preserving soil and habitat structure.^[96]^[92] Horticulturally, stool layering enables rapid clonal reproduction of ornamentals, generating numerous genetically uniform plants from a single parent to preserve desirable traits like flower color or form in species such as magnolia, cotoneaster, Cornus, and Cotinus. The technique's efficiency stems from the parent plant's ongoing support, achieving rooting success rates often exceeding 80% in commercial settings. Beyond propagation, dense stool-derived shoots contribute to erosion control in sloped or riparian areas; for example, coppiced willows develop extensive fibrous roots that bind soil and reduce runoff, stabilizing banks in agroecosystems.^[97]^[94]^[98] Contemporary practices emphasize genetic selection to breed high-stooling varieties with traits like vigorous resprouting and high shoot biomass, particularly in willows (Salix spp.) and poplars (Populus spp.) for bioenergy crops, where progeny testing identifies superior coppicing performers. Such selections enhance yield predictability and resilience to harvesting stress. Furthermore, stooling integrates into agroforestry to bolster biodiversity, as coppice rotations create structural diversity—mixing age classes of shoots—that supports pollinators, birds, and understory flora in agricultural matrices, outperforming monocultures in habitat provision.^[99]^[100]^[101]

Other Uses

Stool in games and tools

In specialized professional contexts, stools serve as essential tools beyond general seating. Drafting stools for artists typically feature adjustable heights ranging from 19 to 26 inches and 360-degree swivel mechanisms to facilitate precise movements during drawing or design work at elevated surfaces.^[102] Similarly, photographers in fieldwork often use portable stools like the Compass 360° model, which weighs just 1 pound, packs to 11 x 3 x 3 inches, and rotates fully for unobtrusive positioning during shoots in varied terrains.^[103] In games, stools have featured prominently in traditional and recreational play. Stoolball, originating in 15th-century Sussex, England, is a bat-and-ball sport considered a precursor to cricket, where a low stool acts as the wicket to be defended against a bowled ball using a paddle-like bat.^[104] Small stools also function as workbenches or holders in workshops, particularly for tasks like shoe repair. Cobbler stools, often constructed from cast iron or wood with padded seats, provide stable, low-height platforms for securing footwear during stitching, soling, or polishing, enabling craftsmen to work efficiently at knee level.^[105] For safety in controlled environments, laboratory stools prioritize sterility with non-porous, chemical-resistant surfaces such as stainless steel or medical-grade vinyl to prevent contamination and facilitate easy disinfection in cleanrooms adhering to ISO 5 standards.^[106]

Idiomatic and historical expressions

The idiom "fall between two stools" refers to a failure resulting from indecision or an attempt to pursue two incompatible options simultaneously. Its origins trace back to a medieval English proverb first recorded in 1390, evolving from the literal image of someone collapsing while trying to sit on two separate stools.^[107] By the mid-16th century, the phrase had entered common usage to describe strategic or practical missteps.^[108] Another notable expression is "stool pigeon," which denotes an informant or decoy, particularly in law enforcement contexts. The term originated in the early 19th century from hunting practices where a live pigeon was tethered to a stool or low perch to lure other birds into traps, later extending metaphorically to human betrayers by the 1850s.^[109] In historical ecclesiastical contexts, the "stool of repentance" served as a raised seat in Scottish churches, primarily during the post-Reformation period, where offenders underwent public shaming for moral or religious infractions such as adultery or Sabbath-breaking.^[110] Often a simple, low-cutty stool positioned conspicuously in the kirk, it symbolized humility and communal judgment, with records from the 16th to 19th centuries documenting its use in Presbyterian discipline.^[111] Similarly, the "king's stool" or close stool was a portable commode used by European royalty from the late medieval era onward, consisting of a boxed chamber pot upholstered for comfort and privacy during travel or court life.^[112] This item, attended by the Groom of the Stool—a trusted privy chamber official—highlighted the intimate vulnerabilities of monarchs, as seen in Tudor England where the role involved not only sanitation but also medical observations of the ruler's health.^[113] In literature, William Shakespeare frequently employed stools in domestic scenes to evoke themes of humility and everyday life, such as in Romeo and Juliet where joint-stools represent unpretentious seating amid noble interactions.^[114] These references, appearing in plays like Romeo and Juliet and King Lear, underscore stools as symbols of lowly status or restorative modesty, contrasting with thrones or high seats of power.^[115]

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Have you ever wondered about the history and evolution of the bar stool? Read this article to find our why these seats are still so popular today.
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Art: Stool - Annenberg Learner
Stools came to feature prominently in investiture ceremonies, providing a tangible link between the new king and the great Luba culture hero.
[27]
Pine Vs Oak at Home: Which Wood Is Better? | Grain & Frame
Feb 9, 2023 · Pine is more affordable and good for budget or environmental reasons, while oak is more durable, longer-lasting, and better for long-term ...
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[29]
Types of Bar Stool Materials | Wayfair
4.6 798 · Free delivery over $35Jan 5, 2023 · Metal: Metal frame bar stools range from lightweight aluminum to heavier steel but always offer a durable and stable seat. They are easy to ...
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Pros and Cons of Furniture Materials - Wood, Metal & Plastic
Wood, metal, and plastic are three of the most commonly used materials in furniture production, each with its unique features, advantages, and disadvantages.
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Round Counter Stools - Amazon.com
4.5 17K · 30-day returns24" Modern Backless Bar Stools, Ideal for Kitchen Counter, Kitchen Island, Boucle Sherpa Padded Cover, with Round Soft Seat and Foot Rest, White
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Square Bar Stools - Designer Picks & 153 Real Photos - Foter.com
30-day returnsThe backless, square seat design paired with a functional footrest promotes comfort during extended use. Many appreciate the no-assembly feature and the ...Missing: shapes | Show results with:shapes
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How tapered legs helped define mid-century design - Case Furniture
Sep 9, 2019 · Tapering is a gradual thinning in thickness as legs get closer to the floor, often round in shape which creates a very elegant, yet strong design.
[35]
Wood joint strength testing - Woodgears.ca
The mortise and tenon joints averaged 172 pounds, whereas the dowel joint averaged 135 pounds.
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Types of Mortise and Tenon Joints | Wood Joinery Guide
Aug 19, 2025 · Mortise and tenon joints are one of the strongest mechanical joints in woodworking. When properly cut and glued, they can withstand tension, ...
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Office Chair Height Guide: Perfect Fit for Comfort & Health
Knee Angle (90-120 degrees): Your knees should bend at approximately 90-120 degrees, with your thighs roughly parallel to the floor or sloping slightly ...Missing: stool | Show results with:stool
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Backless Office Chair: Pros, Cons & Ergonomic Guide - Autonomous
Aug 14, 2025 · Improves Posture Awareness: A backless ergonomic chair makes slouching difficult, keeping your spine in a more upright position. Many users ...
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https://www.superiorseating.com/blog/what-type-of-table-bases-are-best-for-restaurants
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https://us.audocph.com/products/passage-stool-upholstered
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12 Furniture Designs Made From Recycled Materials - gb&d magazine
Apr 7, 2025 · From Humanscale's Path chair to the COAST Bench by Vestre, here are 12 furniture designs made from recycled materials.Story At A Glance · 1. Path Chair · 5. Coast Bench<|control11|><|separator|>
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Definition of feces - NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms
The material in a bowel movement. Feces is made up of undigested food, bacteria, mucus, and cells from the lining of the intestines. Also called stool.Missing: encyclopedia | Show results with:encyclopedia
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Bowel Movements | BM - MedlinePlus
May 24, 2023 · Your stool passes out of your body through the rectum and anus. Another name for stool is feces. It is made of what is left after your digestive ...
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Physiology, Large Intestine - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The large intestine has 3 primary functions: absorbing water and electrolytes, producing and absorbing vitamins, and forming and propelling feces toward the ...Introduction · Function · Mechanism · Pathophysiology
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Physiology, Defecation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Nov 13, 2023 · Feces are composed of 75% water and 25% solid material. Fecal solid components include the following: Undigested food components like ...
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Colonic transit time - Human Homo sapiens - BNID 112986
An adult human is reported to produce on average 100–200 grams of wet stool per day [primary source 18]. The colonic transit time is negatively correlated with ...Missing: hydration | Show results with:hydration
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The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature ...
Human stools contain approximately 25% undigested plant matter, not including any nitrogenous material (Volk and Rummel, 1987). Fiber is present in stools due ...
[50]
Comparative Digestive Physiology - PMC - PubMed Central
... feces, thus protecting the animal from either damage to the gut epithelium, true digestibility reduction, or toxicity (11). But, this response leads to ...
[51]
Unraveling differences in fecal microbiota stability in mammals - NIH
Nov 4, 2021 · We found significant differences in the fecal microbial composition between herbivore and carnivore species. The most dominant bacterial ...
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Physiology, Bilirubin - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
These substances are colorless but turn orange-yellow after oxidation to urobilin, giving stool its distinctive color.
[53]
Your Digestive System & How it Works - NIDDK
Your large intestine absorbs water, and the waste products of digestion become stool. Nerves and hormones help control the digestive process.
[54]
[PDF] Intestinal gas production by the gut microbiota: A review
Dec 8, 2022 · These foods have unabsorbed residues that can be fermented in the colon by gut bacteria and lead to gas production as a by–product of microbial ...
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High Fiber Diet - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Soft stool is easier to pass, thus preventing constipation. They also add bulk to the stools hence prevent the formation of loose stools. [11] Improved bowel ...
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Aug 16, 2019 · Diet, antibiotics, and age can change gut microbiota, and many studies have shown the relationship between disorders of the microbiota and several diseases.
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Apr 29, 2021 · Meconium is the first stool sample passed after birth. The meconium metabolome reflects a wide range of fetal exposure as it begins forming in ...
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Air Pollution Aspects of Odorous Compounds - epa nepis
These odors probably result from breakdown of proteins. Amines and sulfur compounds are considered to be the most disagree- ably odorous breakdown products.
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Fecal occult blood test - Mayo Clinic
Jul 12, 2024 · A fecal occult blood test is used to look for blood in a sample of stool. It's one option for colon cancer screening. It may be used if you have ...
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Diagnosis of Parasitic Diseases - CDC
Apr 9, 2024 · A fecal (stool) exam, also called an ova and parasite test (O&P). This test is used to find parasites that cause diarrhea, loose or watery ...Missing: PCR | Show results with:PCR
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Definition of guaiac fecal occult blood test - National Cancer Institute
A guaiac fecal occult blood test (FOBT) checks for occult (hidden) blood in the stool. Small samples of stool are placed on a special card and returned to a ...
[62]
Screening for Colorectal Cancer - CDC
Feb 26, 2025 · The guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (gFOBT) uses the chemical guaiac to detect blood in the stool. It is done once a year. For this test, ...
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Clinical Overview of Salmonellosis | Salmonella Infection - CDC
Oct 7, 2024 · Culture (e.g., stool, urine, blood) is the gold standard for diagnosis. · Antimicrobial susceptibility testing is recommended to guide the choice ...
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Bacterial Diarrhea - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jan 21, 2025 · A routine stool culture is the ideal test for identifying Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Shigella. E. coli requires a different medium, but ...Bacterial Diarrhea · History And Physical · Treatment / Management
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CDC DPDx: Stool Specimens – Molecular Diagnosis
The stool specimen can be analyzed using molecular techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR amplified fragments can be analyzed by using ...Missing: O&P | Show results with:O&P
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The Use of Fecal Calprotectin in Inflammatory Bowel Disease - PMC
The amount of calprotectin in feces provides a noninvasive quantitative measure of neutrophil flux to the intestine.
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Fecal calprotectin assay performs well as biomarker ... - Mayo Clinic
Aug 22, 2024 · Fecal calprotectin (FC) has recently emerged as a promising noninvasive biomarker for assessing disease activity in UC.
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Faecal elastase 1: a novel, highly sensitive, and specific ... - PubMed
Faecal elastase 1 determination proved to be a highly sensitive and specific tubeless pancreatic function test.
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Steatorrhea - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
For evaluation of EPI, fecal elastase may be utilized instead of the 72-hour fecal fat testing. A value of more than 200 mcg/g of stool is considered normal ...
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The Bristol Stool Scale and Its Relationship to Clostridium difficile ...
1, Separate hard lumps, like nuts ; 2, Sausage-shaped but lumpy ; 3, Like a sausage but with cracks on the surface ; 4, Like a sausage or snake, smooth and soft.
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Constipation - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Apr 15, 2025 · Constipation is a problem with passing stool. Constipation generally means passing fewer than three stools a week or having a difficult time passing stool.
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Diarrhea - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Nov 21, 2022 · Acute diarrhea is the onset of 3 or more loose or watery stools a day lasting 14 days or less. However, chronic or persistent diarrhea is ...
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Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Aug 17, 2024 · Melena refers to black, sticky, and tarry-appearing stools with a distinctive odor. Hematochezia is the passage of bright red blood or clots ...
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Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Massive bleeding usually occurs in patients older than 65 years with multiple medical problems, and this bleeding presents as hematochezia or bright red blood ...
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Irritable bowel syndrome - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) ... Other symptoms that are often related include sensation of incomplete evacuation and increased gas or mucus in the stool.
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Colon cancer - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Dec 19, 2024 · A change in bowel habits, such as more frequent diarrhea or constipation. · Rectal bleeding or blood in the stool. · Ongoing discomfort in the ...
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Chronic Diarrhea - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Chronic diarrhea is defined as loose/watery stools, which occur three or more times within 24 hours and lasts for 4 or more weeks.Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Etiology · Evaluation
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Lactose intolerance - Symptoms & causes - Mayo Clinic
People with lactose intolerance often have diarrhea, gas and bloating after eating or drinking foods containing lactose. The condition is usually harmless, but ...Overview · When to see a doctor
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Coppicing - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Stool sprouts Coppice shoots can also grow from adventitious buds that develop from tissues not closely associated with suppressed buds. Although many woody ...Missing: botanical | Show results with:botanical
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[PDF] Coppice in Brief - CABI Digital Library
'Stool shoots' grow from adventitious buds that develop from plant tissue growing in the callus wound at the cut wood surface. These buds develop into shoots in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0121451607002301
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Auxin-independent effects of apical dominance induce changes in ...
The inhibition of shoot branching by the growing shoot tip of plants, termed apical dominance, was originally thought to be mediated by auxin.
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[PDF] REGENERATION OF COPPICE - openjournals ugent
Several factors influence the formation of new shoots, among them the physiological characteristics of the species, the cutting season, the cutting method, age ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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A physiological and biophysical model of coppice willow (Salix spp ...
Fast-growing willow (Salix spp.) within short rotation coppice (SRC) has considerable potential as a renewable biomass source, but performance over wider ...
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Oct 4, 2017 · However, depending on the harvesting method and the specie used, rotations can be reduced to 3 year-cycles due to the ability to coppice.
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The full sunlight treatment increased percentage of stumps sprouted but reduced height of the tallest sprout. The 0 cm cut height decreased percentage of stumps ...
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The effects of cutting season on stump mortality and resprouting in ...
Jun 1, 2025 · Coppicing during the vegetative season can lead to several ecosystem disruptions. First, it may interfere with fauna reproductive activities, ...Missing: regrowth weak
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Coppicing in a Nutshell
When cut at ground level some species of tree don't die but instead respond by sending up new shoots from the cut stump (often called a stool). This is the case ...
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Mound or Stool Layering - PropG - University of Florida
Mound layering (also called stooling) is the most important commercial form of layering. · Illustration showing three steps of a plant stem growing, branching, ...
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[PDF] Plant Propagation by Layering
Jan 31, 1999 · The development of roots on a stem while the stem is still attached to the parent plant is called layering. A layer is the rooted stem following ...<|separator|>
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Layering | UC Marin Master Gardeners
Mound (stool) layering · 1. Cut plant back almost to the ground · 2. Mound · 3. Dig · 4. Cut off the rooted layers · 5. Transplant.
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Coppicing: A Time-Honoured Practice for Sustainable Forestry
Mar 5, 2024 · Coppicing is an ancient forestry technique that has been practiced for centuries, dating back to medieval times and even earlier.Missing: firewood | Show results with:firewood
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Layering Plants | RHS Advice
### Summary of Stool Layering (Mound Layering)
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Genetic strategies for dissecting complex traits in biomass willows ...
Nov 9, 2013 · These advances were made by selecting for stem characteristics (height and diameter) and coppicing response (shoot number and shoot vigour), as ...
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Enhancing biodiversity while capturing carbon in short rotation ...
Jul 10, 2024 · Poplar Short Rotation Coppice plantations serve as crucial carbon reservoirs. SRCs play a vital role in boosting biodiversity within agricultural landscapes.
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Nov 15, 1999 · The continuous cutting of small blocks of coppice creates a mosaic of environments that offers much more diverse habitat for game animals and ...
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https://www.grandtrunk.com/pages/compass-360-stool-a-photographers-tool
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Chronology:Stoolball - Protoball
"Stoolball is a ball game that dates back to the 14th century, originating in Sussex [in southern England]. It may be an ancestor of cricket (a game it ...
[105]
9 Self Help Groups Celebrate Haldi Kumkum at the Community ...
Jan 27, 2010 · Musical Stools ( an adaptation of the game Musical Chairs). Haldi Kumkum, or theHaldi Kumkum ceremony, is a social gathering in India in ...<|separator|>
[106]
Vintage Cobbler Shoe Stand for sale - eBay
4.5 3K · Free deliveryVintage Cast Iron 3 Shoe Cobbler Anvil Shoemaker Repair Stand Antique Blacksmith · $94.77 ; Set of 2 Shoemaker Tool Cobbler Shoe Repair Stand Anvil Cast Iron VTG.
[107]
The Ultimate Guide to BioFit Lab Stools and Chairs
Mar 24, 2025 · Laboratory seating must be clean-friendly and resistant to chemicals and contaminants in order to maintain a sterile workspace. BioFit science ...
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fall between two stools meaning, origin, example, sentence, history
Feb 26, 2024 · The idiom “caught between two stools” or “fall between two stools” finds its roots in an ancient proverb dating back to 1390: “Between two ...
[109]
What is the meaning of Fall between two stools - The Fluency App
Origin Mid-16th century, from the literal sense of falling between two stools when trying to sit on both. How to use Fall between two stools. Example Sentence:.
[110]
Why Is an Informant Called a 'Stool Pigeon'? - Mental Floss
Oct 31, 2023 · The phrase stool pigeon first appeared sometime during the early 1800s, with Noah Webster using it to describe a pigeon hunting tactic.Missing: idiom | Show results with:idiom
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https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/cutty-stool-edinburgh
[112]
'The Cutty Stool' - Atlas Obscura
Oct 11, 2023 · A cutty stool is a small three-legged chair with a leather seat, often referred to as a "Stool of Repentance." Because of its low position ...
[113]
Groom of the King's Stool - The Toilet Guru
The Groom of the King's Stool was a man's position, serving a male ruler. Neither Mary I (ruled 1553-1558) nor Elizabeth I (ruled 1558-1603) had a Groom of the ...
[114]
The History of the Flush Toilet — Toilets of the World - The Toilet Guru
See the Groom of the King's Stool page for more on that specific position. The toilet was a close stool, a box containing an earthenware or pewter chamber pot.
[115]
Shakespeare in 100 Objects: Joint-stool
Sep 19, 2011 · Elizabeth Sharrett explores the humble joint stool, which would have proved useful as a prop on the Renaissance stage.
[116]
Excerpt: "Shakespeare's House: A Window Onto His Life and ...
Jan 19, 2024 · In Elizabethan folklore, witches and ghosts disguised themselves as humble joint stools, the better to go about in secret their unearthly ...