Tape
Tape is a long, narrow, flexible material composed of substances such as fabric, plastic, metal, or paper, serving purposes from binding and fastening to measuring lengths and storing information.[1] Adhesive tape, the most ubiquitous form, comprises a backing material coated with a pressure-sensitive adhesive that bonds surfaces upon contact without requiring heat or solvent activation.[2] Its origins trace to 1845, when surgeon Horace Day devised the first pressure-sensitive version using rubber, isinglass, and shellac for medical dressings.[3] Commercial advancements followed, including Richard G. Drew's 1925 invention of crepe-paper masking tape at 3M to address automobile painters' needs for clean paint edges, and his 1930 development of transparent cellulose acetate tape for general office and packaging use.[4] During World War II, a waterproof variant—later known as duct tape—was engineered for sealing ammunition cases, demonstrating tape's role in military logistics and postwar consumer applications like repairs and bundling.[5] Other notable types include magnetic tape, a plastic strip coated with ferromagnetic particles for recording audio, video, or digital data via magnetization patterns. Invented in 1928 by Fritz Pfleumer in Germany using paper coated with iron oxide, it enabled portable sound recording and became foundational for computing storage in the 1950s, with early drives processing data at rates up to 90,000 characters per second by the 1960s.[6][7] Tape measures, featuring a marked, coiled steel or fiberglass ribbon housed in a compact case with a retraction mechanism, originated with James Chesterman's 1829 patent for a steel-band version tailored for surveyors and builders, later refined with spring-loading for portability.[8] These innovations underscore tape's enduring utility in enabling precise adhesion, archival preservation, and quantification across industries, though modern variants face scrutiny for environmental persistence due to synthetic polymers.[9]Adhesive Tapes
Historical Development
The earliest known adhesive tapes emerged in 1845, when American surgeon Horace Day developed surgical bandages by applying a rubber-based adhesive derived from natural rubber, isinglass, and turpentine to strips of fabric, marking the first commercial form of adhesive tape for medical purposes.[10] These tapes relied on natural gums and resins, building on ancient adhesives like tree sap used for binding materials, but lacked the pressure-sensitive properties of modern variants.[11] Modern pressure-sensitive adhesive tapes originated in the 1920s at the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company (3M), driven by needs in the automotive industry. In 1925, engineer Richard Drew, observing difficulties faced by auto body painters in masking off areas without damaging fresh paint, invented the first masking tape: a 2-inch-wide crepe paper strip coated with a low-tack adhesive that allowed clean removal.[12] This innovation addressed the limitations of earlier adhesives, which often required solvents or heat and left residues, by introducing a formulation that adhered under light pressure without activation.[13] Building on masking tape's success, Drew refined the technology in 1930 by developing the world's first transparent adhesive tape, using cellophane backing with a stronger adhesive for office and packaging applications, commercially known as Scotch Cellulose Tape.[4] This advancement expanded adhesive tapes beyond specialized uses, enabling versatile, waterproof bonding that spurred mass production and consumer adoption.[14] Subsequent iterations, including waterproof variants by 1930 and dispenser designs by 1932, further entrenched tapes in industrial and everyday contexts, with 3M's patents laying the foundation for diverse pressure-sensitive formulations.[4]Materials and Adhesive Chemistry
Adhesive tapes primarily consist of a flexible backing material coated with a thin layer of pressure-sensitive adhesive (PSA), which enables bonding upon light applied pressure without requiring heat, solvents, or water for activation.[15] The backing provides structural integrity, conformability, and protection to the adhesive, while its material selection influences properties such as tensile strength, tear resistance, and environmental durability.[16] Common backing materials include plastic films, which dominate due to their versatility and cost-effectiveness. Biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) films are widely used for packaging tapes because of their high gloss, clarity, tensile strength (typically 50-100 MPa), and resistance to moisture and chemicals.[17] Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) backings offer superior conformability and abrasion resistance, making them suitable for electrical and duct tapes, though they can release plasticizers over time, affecting long-term adhesion.[18] Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) provides exceptional dimensional stability and heat resistance up to 150°C, ideal for high-performance applications like mounting tapes.[18] Other options include paper for masking tapes, valued for its paint compatibility and biodegradability; cloth or fabric for duct tapes, offering high tensile strength (often reinforced with filaments); metal foils like aluminum for thermal conductivity and barrier properties; and foams for gap-filling and vibration damping.[16][19] The adhesive chemistry centers on PSAs, viscoelastic polymers that balance cohesive strength (internal bonding) and adhesive tack (surface wetting) through molecular entanglement, van der Waals forces, and interfacial diffusion.[20] The three primary PSA chemistries are rubber-based, acrylic-based, and silicone-based, each tailored for specific performance trade-offs. Rubber-based PSAs, formulated from natural rubber (polyisoprene) or synthetic variants like styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), deliver rapid initial tack and strong peel adhesion (often 20-40 N/25mm) on irregular surfaces but degrade under UV exposure, oxidation, and temperatures above 80°C due to chain scission and cross-linking instability.[21][22] Acrylic-based PSAs, derived from monomers like 2-ethylhexyl acrylate and acrylic acid via free-radical polymerization, exhibit enhanced shear strength (up to 1000+ minutes hold time under load) and resistance to aging, chemicals, UV light, and temperatures from -40°C to 150°C, attributed to their polar functional groups enabling hydrogen bonding and steric hindrance against degradation.[23][20] Silicone-based PSAs, composed of siloxane polymers (e.g., polydimethylsiloxane) with reactive silanol groups, provide unmatched thermal stability (-60°C to 260°C) and chemical inertness, particularly against solvents and oils, though at higher cost and lower cohesive strength without reinforcement.[24][22] Adhesive performance is further tuned by additives like tackifiers (e.g., rosins for rubber PSAs), plasticizers, and cross-linkers, applied via hot-melt, solvent, or emulsion coating processes to achieve thicknesses of 20-50 micrometers.[21][25]Common Types and Everyday Applications
Transparent office tape, often known as Scotch tape, consists of a thin cellophane or polypropylene backing coated with a pressure-sensitive acrylic adhesive, enabling it to adhere to paper, plastic, and other smooth surfaces for mending documents, wrapping small packages, and crafting lightweight items in home and office settings. Masking tape, typically made from crepe paper with a rubber-based adhesive, is designed for temporary adhesion during painting projects to protect surfaces from overspray, as well as for labeling storage boxes and light bundling of materials without leaving residue upon removal.[26] Duct tape features a polyethylene-coated cloth backing with a strong rubber adhesive, providing high tensile strength for everyday repairs such as sealing leaks in hoses, securing loose parts on furniture, and temporary fixes on outdoor gear, though it is not recommended for long-term ductwork sealing due to potential failure in high-heat or moist environments.[27] [28] Packing tape, usually a clear polypropylene film with a hot-melt or acrylic adhesive, is primarily applied to seal cardboard boxes for shipping household goods, preventing tampering and ensuring contents remain secure during transit.[29] Electrical tape, commonly vinyl-based with a rubber adhesive, insulates exposed wires and cables in low-voltage household applications like lamp repairs or extension cord fixes, offering protection against moisture and abrasion while conforming to irregular shapes.[30] Double-sided tape, available in foam or film carriers with acrylic or rubber adhesives on both sides, facilitates mounting posters, hooks, or decorations on walls without nails, ideal for renters seeking damage-free adhesion in living spaces.[31] These tapes are staples in toolkits for their versatility, with annual global consumption of pressure-sensitive tapes exceeding 30 billion square meters, reflecting widespread household reliance on them for quick, non-permanent solutions.[32]Industrial and Specialized Uses
Adhesive tapes serve critical roles in industrial manufacturing processes, including bonding components, masking surfaces during painting or coating, sealing joints, and providing temporary protection. In automotive assembly, high-temperature masking tapes resist paint overspray and solvents while maintaining adhesion up to 250°F (121°C), enabling precise application in multi-layer finishes.[33] Similarly, in electronics production, conductive and ESD-control tapes prevent electrostatic discharge during component handling and circuit board assembly, with formulations designed for cleanroom compatibility.[34] Packaging operations rely on reinforced filament tapes for securing heavy loads, offering tensile strengths exceeding 300 pounds per inch in width to withstand shipping stresses.[35] Electrical insulating tapes, typically polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-based, provide primary insulation for wire splices, terminations, and motor connections, meeting standards such as ANSI/CAN/UL 510 for thicknesses from 7 to 9 mils and voltage ratings up to 69 kV.[36] [37] These tapes operate in temperature ranges of 0°F to 220°F (-18°C to 104°C), shielding against moisture and abrasion in harsh environments like HVAC systems and industrial machinery.[38] Industrial-grade duct tapes, constructed with polyethylene-coated cloth backings and rubber adhesives, facilitate heavy-duty repairs, bundling pipes, and sealing ducts, adhering to irregular surfaces such as metal, concrete, and plastics with peel strengths around 30 ounces per inch.[39] [40] In aerospace and high-performance applications, polyimide films like Kapton tape enable masking during thermal spraying and composite bonding, enduring continuous exposure to 500°F (260°C) and short-term peaks beyond 700°F (371°C) without degradation.[41] These tapes insulate flexible circuits and protect components in space-qualified assemblies, where low outgassing and radiation resistance are essential for satellite and avionics systems.[42] Double-sided acrylic foams and transfer tapes bond structural panels in aircraft interiors, providing shear strengths over 100 psi while conforming to curved surfaces and dampening vibrations.[43] Specialized cleanroom tapes minimize particle generation in semiconductor fabrication, ensuring contamination-free splicing of films and foils.[44]Recording and Data Storage Tapes
Origins and Early Magnetic Technology
Magnetic recording principles trace back to the late 19th century, with American engineer Oberlin Smith proposing in 1888 the use of steel wire or tape magnetized by electrical signals to store audio, though he did not build a prototype. Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen demonstrated practical magnetic wire recording in 1898 using a steel wire moving past electromagnetic heads to capture and reproduce sound, achieving basic functionality but limited by the wire's mechanical fragility and low fidelity.[45][46] In 1928, German engineer Fritz Pfleumer patented the first magnetic tape, consisting of a thin strip of paper coated with iron oxide particles dispersed in a binder, designed to be magnetized by audio signals for sound recording; the patent was filed and granted on December 1, 1928. Pfleumer's innovation replaced brittle wire with a flexible, manufacturable medium, enabling easier handling and longer recording durations, though initial prototypes suffered from high noise and distortion due to reliance on direct current (DC) biasing. Licensing the patent to companies like AEG and IG Farben in the early 1930s spurred development, leading to the Magnetophon K1 recorder demonstrated at the 1935 Berlin Radio Exhibition, which used cellulose acetate as a more durable base material instead of paper and incorporated alternating current (AC) bias—pioneered by AEG engineer Walter Weber—to linearize the recording curve and reduce distortion, achieving broadcast-quality audio fidelity of up to 50 kHz bandwidth in professional models.[47][48] Early magnetic tape technology emphasized oxide particle orientation and head design for signal retention; the iron oxide (Fe2O3 or Fe3O4) particles, typically 0.5–1 micrometer in size, were randomly oriented initially but aligned during recording via the recording head's fringing fields, with playback relying on the hysteresis loop of the magnetic material to detect modulated remanence. World War II accelerated refinements in Germany for propaganda broadcasts, producing tapes with speeds of 76 cm/s and dynamic ranges exceeding 50 dB, but post-war export restrictions delayed widespread adoption until Allied seizures of Magnetophon equipment enabled U.S. firms like Ampex to commercialize reel-to-reel systems by 1948. For data storage, magnetic tape's sequential access suited early computers; Remington Rand's UNIVAC I in 1951 employed vacuum-column tape drives storing up to 8 megabytes per reel at 120 inches per second, marking the shift from punched cards to high-capacity, removable media, though error rates necessitated redundant tracks and checksums.[49][50][51]Audio and Video Recording Formats
Magnetic tape formats for audio recording primarily encompassed reel-to-reel systems, compact cassettes, and cartridge-based designs like the 8-track. Reel-to-reel recording, which emerged commercially in the late 1940s after German wartime innovations, used 1/4-inch-wide tape spooled between open reels, with standard speeds of 7.5 inches per second (ips) for consumer use and up to 30 ips or higher for professional multitrack applications, enabling high-fidelity stereo or mono capture with frequency responses extending beyond 20 kHz at faster speeds.[49] [52] These systems dominated studio production through the 1970s, supporting up to 24 tracks on wider tapes like 1-inch or 2-inch variants for orchestral and rock recordings.[53] The Philips Compact Cassette, released in 1963, standardized consumer audio on enclosed 3.81 mm-wide tape cassettes running at 1 7/8 ips (4.76 cm/s), providing about 45-90 minutes of stereo playback per side depending on length (C-60 to C-120).[54] [55] Tape formulations evolved from Type I (ferric oxide, basic frequency response of 30-12,500 Hz) to Type II (chromium dioxide, improved high-end extension) and Type IV (metal particles, dynamic range up to 70 dB), with noise reduction like Dolby B enhancing signal-to-noise ratios by 10 dB.[56] By the 1970s, cassettes outsold vinyl in some markets due to portability and ease of use in boomboxes and car stereos.[6] The 8-track cartridge, pioneered by Bill Lear in 1965 and adopted by automakers, featured an endless-loop 1/4-inch tape in a plastic housing, advancing at 3 3/4 ips across four stereo programs (each 15-20 minutes), totaling around 80 minutes per cartridge before auto-reverse limitations.[57] [58] Its continuous playback suited vehicles but suffered from dropout errors and poorer fidelity compared to cassettes, leading to decline by the early 1980s as compact cassettes offered rewritability and finer track separation.[59] Video recording on magnetic tape began with professional formats like U-matic, introduced by Sony in 1971, which used 3/4-inch tape in cassettes threaded in a U-shape around the drum, supporting 20-60 minutes of NTSC color video at helical scan speeds for broadcast editing and institutional use.[60] [61] Consumer adoption followed with Betamax in 1975, employing 1/2-inch tape in compact cassettes for 1-hour SP recordings with superior horizontal resolution (around 250 lines) and lower noise via Sony's design, though limited runtime hindered home taping of full movies.[62] [63] VHS, launched by JVC in 1976, competed directly using the same 1/2-inch tape width but prioritized longer playtimes—up to 2 hours in standard play and 6-8 hours in extended play (EP/SLP) modes via slower linear tape speeds—facilitating full-length TV broadcasts and rentals, which propelled it to 95% market dominance by 1988 despite Betamax's edge in picture quality (VHS offered about 240 lines resolution).[60] [64] Variants like S-VHS (1987) improved luminance bandwidth to 400 lines with separate chroma recording, while compact VHS-C and 8mm formats (Video8 from 1985) enabled camcorder portability with 120-240 minutes on smaller tapes.[65] Both audio and video tapes relied on oxide or later metal-particle coatings for signal retention, though degradation from print-through and demagnetization limited archival life to decades without controlled storage.[66]Data Backup and Archival Systems
The Linear Tape-Open (LTO) format, introduced in 2000 by the LTO Consortium comprising Hewlett-Packard Enterprise, IBM, and Quantum, dominates contemporary data backup and archival applications for magnetic tape. LTO employs linear serpentine recording on cartridges that support high capacities and backward compatibility for up to two prior generations, enabling reliable data migration. By 2021, LTO-9 cartridges achieved native capacities of 18 terabytes (TB) and compressed capacities up to 45 TB at a 2.5:1 ratio, with sustained transfer rates of 400 megabytes per second (MB/s).[67] As of 2025, LTO-10 extends this to 36 TB native and 90 TB compressed, with the consortium's roadmap projecting exponential growth through LTO-14 at up to 576 TB native by the mid-2030s, driven by advancements in strontium ferrite (Strontium Ferrite) barium ferrite particle technology for higher areal density.[68][69]| LTO Generation | Approximate Release Year | Native Capacity (TB) | Compressed Capacity (TB, 2.5:1) |
|---|---|---|---|
| LTO-8 | 2017 | 12 | 30 |
| LTO-9 | 2021 | 18 | 45 |
| LTO-10 | 2025 | 36 | 90 |
| LTO-11 | 2028 | 72 | 180 |
| LTO-12 | ~2031 | 144 | 360 |
| LTO-13 | ~2034 | 288 | 720 |
| LTO-14 | ~2037 | 576 | 1,440 |
Technological Evolution and Modern Resurgence
The evolution of magnetic tape for data storage progressed from open-reel formats in the 1950s, which relied on oxide-coated polyester substrates and achieved initial capacities of around 2 MB per reel with transfer rates under 10 KB/s, to cartridge-based systems in the 1980s that improved reliability and handling through enclosed designs like IBM's 3480, offering 200 MB native capacity and up to 3 MB/s transfer speeds via start-stop-start linear recording.[7] By the 1990s, advancements in metal particle media and error-correcting codes enabled higher densities, with formats like Digital Linear Tape (DLT) reaching 40 GB native by 1997, but fragmentation across proprietary standards prompted the formation of the Linear Tape-Open (LTO) Consortium in 1998 by Hewlett-Packard, IBM, and Seagate to standardize open formats.[51] LTO-1, introduced in 2000, marked a shift to linear multi-channel serpentine recording with backward compatibility for two prior generations, delivering 100 GB native capacity and 20 MB/s transfers using advanced servo tracking for precise head positioning.[68] Subsequent LTO generations doubled capacities approximately every 2-3 years through refinements in recording heads, thinner substrates, and barium ferrite (BaFe) particles introduced in LTO-7 (2015), which enhanced coercivity and signal-to-noise ratios for areal densities exceeding 10 Gb/in². LTO-8 (2017) achieved 12 TB native per cartridge with partitioning for up to 4 datasets, while LTO-9 (2020) scaled to 18 TB native and 45 TB compressed at 2.5:1 ratio, incorporating dynamic power-down for energy efficiency and AES-256 encryption. Transfer rates evolved from 20 MB/s in LTO-1 to 400 MB/s in LTO-9, supported by 32-track parallel heads and Reed-Solomon error correction reducing uncorrectable bit error rates to 1 in 10^19. Beyond LTO, research into vacuum-deposited media has demonstrated prototypes with over 100 Gb/in² densities, potentially enabling 100 TB+ cartridges.[77][68] Tape storage experienced a resurgence in the 2010s amid exploding data volumes from AI, genomics, and cloud services, where its total cost of ownership—under $0.01/GB for archival versus $0.02+/GB for disk—proved advantageous for infrequently accessed "cold" data, alongside near-zero power draw when offline and media longevity of 30+ years under controlled conditions. Global LTO shipments hit a record 176.5 exabytes (compressed) in 2024, up 15.4% from 2023, driven by hyperscale providers like Google and AWS integrating tape libraries for petabyte-scale backups immune to ransomware via air-gapping. LTO-10, specified in 2025 with 30-36 TB native capacity, 75-90 TB compressed, and 400-1200 MB/s transfers, extends the roadmap to LTO-12 (projected 115 TB native by 2030), emphasizing sustainability as tape's carbon footprint remains 1/10th that of equivalent disk over lifecycle due to minimal refresh cycles. This revival counters earlier disk dominance, as tape's sequential access suits bulk ingest while libraries automate scaling to exabytes in single racks.[78][79][77]Measuring Tapes
Mechanical Design and Precision
Measuring tapes, particularly retractable steel models, feature a compact housing enclosing a coiled ribbon of tempered steel blade, typically 12 to 35 mm wide, wound around a central spool attached to a flat spiral retraction spring. This spring, often a constant-force mechanism formed from high-carbon steel strip, provides controlled rewind tension to prevent blade slack while enabling smooth extension up to 10 meters or more. A thumb-operated locking lever engages a brake pawl against the blade to halt extension and maintain position, minimizing measurement drift from tension variations.[80][81] Precision in mechanical design centers on the blade's graduations, etched or laser-printed with lines narrower than 0.03 mm on a polished, flat surface to ensure readability and reduce parallax errors. The end hook, a riveted L-shaped tang of stamped steel, incorporates deliberate play—typically equal to the hook's thickness (around 0.7-1 mm)—allowing it to pivot outward for external measurements (where the full length registers) and inward for internal ones (subtracting the thickness for true zero). This compensatory mechanism, present since early 20th-century designs, maintains accuracy across measurement modes without user adjustment, though wear from impacts can degrade it over time.[82][83][84] Accuracy standards, governed by international frameworks like OIML R 35-1, classify steel tapes into categories based on maximum permissible error over 10 meters: Class I at ±1.1 mm for high-precision applications, Class II at ±2.3 mm for general trade and construction use, and Class III at ±4.6 mm for less demanding tasks. These tolerances account for factors such as thermal expansion (steel coefficient ~11.7 × 10⁻⁶/°C), requiring calibration at standardized temperatures like 20°C, and manufacturing variances in blade flatness under 50-100 N tension. Professional models often bear EC verification marks confirming compliance, with NIST-traceable calibration ensuring errors below 0.0001 m over 100 m for metrology-grade tapes.[85][86][87] Design innovations enhance precision by incorporating blade coatings, such as nylon for abrasion resistance without altering dimensions, and reinforced rivets to stabilize the hook against bending. However, inherent limitations include sag in longer extensions and hook deformation from drops, necessitating periodic verification against reference standards to sustain reliability in surveying or machining contexts.[88][89]Material Choices and Durability
Measuring tapes are primarily constructed from steel or fiberglass, with material selection influenced by requirements for rigidity, flexibility, corrosion resistance, and resistance to environmental factors. Steel blades, often 1/2 to 1 inch wide and coated with materials like nylon for added protection, provide high tensile strength and minimal elongation under load, making them suitable for precise measurements up to 100 feet.[90] However, uncoated steel is susceptible to rust in humid or outdoor conditions, reducing longevity unless protective coatings are applied, which can wear over time with repeated retraction and extension.[91] Fiberglass blades, typically embedded in a vinyl or PVC matrix for reinforcement, offer greater flexibility and are non-conductive, preventing electrical hazards during use near power lines or in wet environments.[92] These tapes resist corrosion and tearing, maintaining integrity when twisted, stepped on, or exposed to moisture, though they exhibit higher susceptibility to stretching—up to 0.1% under tension—potentially compromising accuracy over extended lengths or repeated use.[93] Fiberglass construction also results in lighter weight for tapes exceeding 100 feet, enhancing portability for surveying tasks, but it yields lower overall durability compared to steel in high-abrasion scenarios.[94] Durability testing in practical applications reveals steel tapes outperforming fiberglass in resistance to abrasion and shape retention, with service life often doubling in controlled indoor settings, whereas fiberglass excels in non-corrosive, flexible applications like outdoor topography mapping.[91] Hybrid designs, such as fiberglass-reinforced plastic, combine tensile strength with moisture impermeability, extending usability in variable climates without the conductivity risks of steel.[95] Material choice thus balances precision needs against exposure risks, with steel favored for short-range, high-accuracy work and fiberglass for longer, hazard-prone measurements.[96]Applications in Construction and Surveying
In construction, measuring tapes serve as fundamental tools for linear measurements during site layout, material estimation, and quality verification. Workers use them to determine distances for framing, foundation setting, and installing fixtures, with 25-foot steel tapes being standard for handling lumber lengths up to 33 feet without electronic aids.[97] [98] These tapes enable double-checking of cuts and alignments, reducing errors that could compromise structural integrity, as inaccuracies exceeding 1/32 inch (0.79 mm) in short spans violate NIST tolerances for reliable fieldwork.[99] [100] Steel variants excel in demanding environments, measuring large spans for concrete forms and ensuring precise spacing in masonry or roofing, where durability against abrasion and tension maintains accuracy over repeated use.[101] For tasks involving irregular surfaces, such as around corners or obstacles, flexible tapes coated in nylon or vinyl allow extension without kinking, supporting applications like electrical conduit routing or HVAC ductwork sizing.[102] Compliance with EC Class II standards, permitting ±2.3 mm error over 10 meters, suffices for most construction tolerances, though Class I tapes (±1.1 mm over 10 m) are selected for high-stakes framing to minimize cumulative deviations.[103] [89] In surveying, measuring tapes facilitate baseline chaining, boundary demarcation, and topographic profiling, particularly for distances under 100 meters where portability trumps laser instruments.[104] Surveyors deploy steel or invar tapes— the latter with low thermal expansion coefficients—for horizontal, vertical, and slope measurements, applying corrections for sag, temperature (typically standardized at 20°C), and pull tension to achieve precisions as fine as 100 parts per million in legal or boundary disputes.[105] [106] Fiberglass tapes, resistant to stretching, suit rough terrain for offset measurements or wetland traverses, while vinyl-over-steel hybrids balance weight and readability for extended fieldwork.[107] Graduations at 1-2 mm intervals on tapes up to 30 meters ensure verifiable readings, often tensioned via hand cranks or weights to counteract elongation under gravity.[108] Despite advancements in total stations, tapes remain indispensable for verification and low-tech redundancy in remote or power-limited settings.[109]Medical Tapes
Composition for Skin Contact
Medical tapes formulated for skin contact primarily employ pressure-sensitive adhesives that balance adhesion strength with biocompatibility to minimize irritation and trauma upon removal. Acrylic-based adhesives, derived from acrylate polymers, are widely used due to their low sensitization potential, reliable tack on moist or dry skin, and compatibility with diverse backing materials; these adhesives typically comprise copolymers of acrylic acid esters with modifiers for enhanced peel resistance and residue-free removal.[110] [111] Silicone adhesives, often polydimethylsiloxane-based, provide gentler adhesion for fragile or compromised skin, exhibiting lower peel forces and reduced epidermal stripping, as evidenced by in vitro studies comparing silicone to acrylate tapes on forearm skin models.[112] [113] Synthetic rubber adhesives offer high initial tack but are less common in hypoallergenic formulations due to potential for higher residue and sensitization risks compared to acrylics.[114] Backing materials in skin-contact tapes are selected for breathability, flexibility, and low occlusion to prevent maceration; common substrates include non-woven paper or cloth for porous, hypoallergenic options that allow moisture vapor transmission, polyethylene films for waterproofing and conformability, and woven polyester (silk-like) for durability in high-tension applications.[115] [116] These backings are often coated thinly (e.g., 20-50 micrometers) to optimize adhesive transfer without compromising mechanical integrity, with paper backings particularly favored in latex-free, dermatologist-tested tapes to reduce allergic contact dermatitis incidence.[117] Foam or foam-reinforced backings enhance cushioning for sensitive areas but may incorporate additives like zinc oxide for antimicrobial effects, though such inclusions have been linked to irritant dermatitis in case reports involving 20% zinc oxide concentrations.[116] Hypoallergenic compositions prioritize latex-free adhesives and substrates, with acrylic tapes on saturated paper backings demonstrating minimal residue and irritation in clinical evaluations; for instance, acrylate adhesives in porous rayon taffeta backings achieve high tensile strength (up to 30 N/cm) while maintaining skin-friendliness through controlled monomer residues below 0.5 wt%.[118] Silicone variants further reduce trauma by design, with adhesive layers often limited to 20-50 g/m² to limit shear forces on stratum corneum layers, supported by peer-reviewed analyses showing lower corneocyte disruption versus traditional rubber tapes.[112] Overall, formulations adhere to biocompatibility standards like ISO 10993, emphasizing empirical testing for cytotoxicity and sensitization over unverified claims of universal gentleness.[119]Types and Clinical Uses
Medical tapes are categorized primarily by their backing materials—such as paper, cloth, or silk—and adhesive formulations, including acrylate, silicone, or rubber-based, each tailored to specific adhesion needs and skin tolerances in clinical environments. Paper tapes, characterized by their microporous and breathable structure, deliver hypoallergenic, low-tack adhesion ideal for fragile or sensitive skin, commonly employed to secure lightweight dressings, monitor electrodes, or ostomy pouches where frequent removal is required without causing trauma.[110][120] Cloth tapes, woven for enhanced durability and breathability, provide robust adhesion to both dry and moist skin surfaces, making them suitable for immobilizing joints, anchoring intravenous tubing, or retaining bulky dressings in postoperative or trauma care settings.[110][121] Silk-like tapes, offering a smooth, conformable backing with strong initial tack, are frequently used in surgical applications to approximate incisions, support wound edges, and promote scar minimization by reducing tension, as evidenced in studies showing improved aesthetic outcomes over traditional sutures in certain closures.[122][110] Silicone adhesive tapes represent a specialized type with soft, cohesive properties that enable painless removal by adhering primarily to itself rather than skin proteins, thereby minimizing medical adhesive-related skin injury (MARSI) in vulnerable populations such as neonates, elderly patients, or those with compromised barrier function.[112][123] These tapes are applied in chronic wound management, securing endotracheal tubes during anesthesia—where they demonstrate non-inferiority to conventional tapes in preventing dislodgement while reducing skin stripping—and for devices like central lines or drains in intensive care.[124] Empirical comparisons reveal silicone tapes preserve skin integrity better than acrylate counterparts, with lower transepidermal water loss and erythema post-removal even in healthy subjects.[112] Across types, clinical applications emphasize balancing secure fixation against infection risks and skin trauma; for instance, tapes must resist microbial colonization during multi-patient handling, prompting protocols for single-use in high-risk procedures.[125] Selection hinges on factors like moisture exposure, removal frequency, and patient comorbidities, with silicone options preferred for repeated applications to at-risk skin to mitigate complications like blistering or dermatitis.[126][123]Adhesion Performance and Safety Considerations
Adhesion performance of medical tapes is evaluated through standardized tests such as peel adhesion per ASTM D3330/D3330M, which measures the force required to remove the tape at 90° or 180° angles, and shear adhesion per ASTM D3654/D3654M, assessing resistance to slippage under constant load.[127][128] These metrics quantify initial tack, long-term hold, and removal ease, influenced by adhesive chemistry—acrylate-based tapes often provide higher initial adhesion but may weaken over time, while silicone adhesives maintain consistent bonding up to 24 hours in comparative skin response studies.[112] Key factors affecting performance include skin moisture, where tapes like Elastoplast and Mefix exhibit reduced adhesiveness under wet conditions (P < 0.001), whereas zinc oxide variants remain stable; surface properties such as roughness, energy, and viscoelasticity; and patient variables like body hair, which can impair contact if not shaved prior to application.[129][130][131] Emerging designs, such as temperature-sensitive high-adhesion tapes, aim to balance secure attachment with minimal trauma by modulating peel strength based on application heat, reducing dislodgement risks classified as medical errors in low-adhesion scenarios.[127] Hydrogel-based tapes further enhance wet adhesion through rapid physical interactions transitioning to covalent bonds, achieving shear strengths suitable for dynamic tissue interfaces.[132] Safety considerations center on medical adhesive-related skin injury (MARSI), encompassing blisters, tears, erosions, and contact dermatitis from improper selection, application, or removal, with silicone adhesives showing lower MARSI rates than acrylates post-surgery.[133][134] Incidence varies by setting: 45% within 10 days post-spinal surgery (41.4% contact dermatitis), 14.7% in general hospitalized patients, and up to 42% in intensive care with 8.64 MARSIs per 100 patient-days.[133][135][136] Risk factors include advanced age, dry or fragile skin, prolonged hospital stays, repetitive adhesive use, and mechanical tension from swelling under rigid tapes, while true allergic contact dermatitis to adhesives remains rare at approximately 0.033% among patch-tested patients, though irritant reactions predominate.[136][137][138] Mitigation strategies emphasize risk assessment, adhesive selection (e.g., foam or silicone for fragile skin), barrier films to protect epidermis, and gentle removal techniques at low angles to minimize shear forces, thereby reducing infection vulnerability and healing delays.[139][140][141] In clinical trials, silicone tapes irritated skin in only 1 of 11 patients versus 11 of 11 with standard tapes, underscoring formulation impacts on outcomes.[142]Geographical References
Hydrological Features
Tape Lake in Manitoba, Canada, is located at 58° 56′ 12″ N latitude and 99° 22′ 54″ W longitude within the Canadian Shield region.[143] This small, unnamed-in-scale water body lies in a remote boreal forest area, typical of northern Manitoba's glaciated terrain featuring numerous kettle lakes formed during the Pleistocene deglaciation.[143] A separate Tape Lake exists in northwestern Ontario, Canada, near the Junior Lake area in the Thunder Bay District at approximately 50° 28' N latitude and within the Superior Province geological setting.[144] [145] The lake serves as a geographical reference for nearby mineral exploration sites, including spodumene-bearing pegmatite dikes prospective for lithium, indicative of the region's Precambrian bedrock hydrology influenced by glacial till and fractured granitic aquifers.[146] [144] These lakes exhibit standard boreal hydrological traits, such as seasonal water level fluctuations driven by precipitation, snowmelt, and minimal outflow, though specific metrics like surface area, maximum depth, or discharge rates remain undocumented in public geological surveys.[147]Toponymic Locations
Tape is the name of several small settlements and localities scattered across multiple countries, primarily in Africa and Asia, with eight documented instances identified in geographical databases.[148] In Myanmar, Tape denotes two villages: one in Homalin Township, Sagaing Region, situated along a river in the northwestern part of the country, and another in Shan State. The Sagaing location, at approximately 25°38′N 94°55′E, functions as a rural riverside community within Hkamti District.[149][148] Liberia hosts a Tape in Bong County, Kokoyah District, at coordinates 6°44′N 9°17′W, characteristic of the region's rural, forested terrain.[150] In Indonesia, a Tape exists in Central Sulawesi province, reflecting localized naming conventions in the island's interior.[148] Cameroon features a Tape in Sud-Ouest Region, while neighboring Côte d'Ivoire has Tapé in Savanes Region, both indicative of West African toponymic patterns possibly linked to local languages or historical settlements.[148] Brazil records a Tape in Bahia state, distinct from the nearby municipality of Tapes in Rio Grande do Sul, which has a population of 18,108 as of the 2022 census and lies near Porto Alegre in the southern pampas region.[148][151] In Europe, variants include Tápé, a district of Szeged in Hungary, and Tapes, a small village in Lasithi prefecture on Crete, Greece, at 35°11′N 25°37′E, known for its rural, mountainous setting amid olive groves and springs.[148][152] These toponyms lack a unified etymological origin in available records, varying by linguistic context—potentially from indigenous terms, colonial influences, or phonetic adaptations—though empirical mapping confirms their distinct geographical identities without overlap in major urban centers.[148]Personal Names
Surname Origins and Distribution
The surname Tape has multiple attested origins across regions. In England, it derives from the Old English term "taeppa," denoting a peg or tap, likely originating as an occupational name for a maker or marker of barrel taps or as a nickname for a tall, thin individual resembling a tap.[153] It is also recorded as a variant of Tapp, particularly in Cornwall, with early instances linked to placenames such as Taplow in Buckinghamshire and Tapton in Derbyshire.[154][153] Historical records include John Tappe in the Dorset Pipe Rolls of 1194 and Roger Tappe in the Worcestershire Subsidy Rolls of 1327.[153] Additionally, Tape appears as an Americanized form of the German surname Tepe.[154] In West Africa, particularly Ivory Coast where the variant Tapé is common, the surname's etymology remains unexplained in available records, potentially indicating an independent indigenous development distinct from European roots.[154] Globally, Tape ranks as the 14,299th most common surname, borne by approximately 38,985 individuals across 66 countries as of recent estimates.[155] It is predominantly found in Africa, accounting for 70% of bearers, with the highest concentration in West Africa (68%).[155] In the United States, incidence is low at about 450 bearers, or roughly 0.17 per 100,000 people, with early census data showing small clusters in Ohio in 1840.[155][156][154]| Country | Incidence | Frequency | Rank |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ivory Coast | 32,957 | 1 in 700 | 75 |
| Papua New Guinea | 963 | 1 in 8,467 | 650 |
| Iran | 958 | 1 in 80,149 | 8,179 |
| India | 921 | 1 in 832,861 | 36,960 |
| United States | 450 | 1 in 805,464 | 62,023 |