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Western Schism

The Western Schism, spanning 1378 to 1417, was a protracted division within the Roman Catholic Church characterized by competing papal claimants, initially two and later three, which fractured ecclesiastical unity and allegiance across Western Europe.^[1] It originated from the disputed election of Urban VI as pope in Rome following the death of Gregory XI, prompting dissatisfied cardinals to elect Clement VII in Avignon amid grievances over Urban's authoritarian reforms and the influence of secular powers like France.^[2] The ensuing rivalry entrenched national divisions, with kingdoms such as France, Scotland, and Spain backing the Avignon line, while England, the Holy Roman Empire, and Italy supported Rome, exacerbating political tensions and eroding papal prestige through scandals and mutual excommunications.^[3] Attempts at reconciliation, including the Council of Pisa in 1409, inadvertently worsened the crisis by installing a third claimant, Alexander V, but the schism concluded with the Council of Constance (1414–1418), which secured resignations and depositions of rivals, culminating in the uncontested election of Martin V and restoring singular papal authority.^[4] This episode not only highlighted the interplay of ecclesiastical and monarchical interests but also fueled debates on conciliar supremacy over papal primacy, influencing later Church reforms.^[3]

Background and Causes

The Avignon Papacy (1309–1377)

The relocation of the papal court to Avignon commenced under Pope Clement V, who, as a French native elected in 1305 amid tensions with King Philip IV of France following the Anagni outrage against Boniface VIII in 1303, established the curia there on March 9, 1309, to escape Italian factionalism and French political pressures.^[5]^[6] This move, initially temporary, lasted until 1377, during which seven popes— all French—resided primarily in Avignon: Clement V (1305–1314), John XXII (1316–1334), Benedict XII (1334–1342), Clement VI (1342–1352), Innocent VI (1352–1362), Urban V (1362–1370), and Gregory XI (1370–1378).^[7]^[8] The Avignon period marked administrative centralization, with the papal curia expanding from a modest entourage to a large bureaucracy employing hundreds in roles for governance, diplomacy, and finance, enhancing efficiency but increasing dependence on French protection.^[9]^[10] Key innovations included codification efforts in canon law, notably Clement V's Clementines (1313–1317), a supplement to the Corpus Juris Canonici compiling conciliar decrees from Vienne (1311–1312) and papal decretals to standardize ecclesiastical discipline.^[11]^[12] Financially, the papacy developed sophisticated revenue streams, including annates—the first year's income from benefices reserved for papal appointees—and systematized indulgences tied to donations, which funded the court and crusades but multiplied taxes on clergy, straining relations with local churches.^[13]^[14] These measures professionalized papal administration, enabling broader influence over European Christendom despite geographic displacement. Criticisms centered on perceived Gallican bias, with cardinals overwhelmingly French (e.g., 72% under John XXII), favoring French interests in diplomacy and benefice distribution, eroding universal credibility.^[15] Prolonged absenteeism from Rome fueled Italian resentment, as vicars mismanaged Papal States, leading to revolts and administrative decay in central Italy.^[16] Intellectuals like Petrarch decried the era as a "Babylonian Captivity," portraying Avignon's luxury and fiscalism as spiritual prostitution under secular dominance, amplifying calls for return to Rome.^[15]^[17] This French entwinement and curial remoteness heightened legitimacy vulnerabilities, priming ecclesiastical fractures without immediate schism.

Pressures Leading to the 1378 Election

The prolonged Avignon Papacy, spanning from 1309 to 1377, engendered widespread resentment in Italy due to the popes' perceived subjugation to French monarchical influence and neglect of Roman and Italian interests, culminating in violent unrest that pressured Pope Gregory XI to relocate the papal court.^[18] Recurring riots in Rome and rebellions in cities such as Florence, where anti-papal guilds seized control in 1378 amid economic grievances tied to papal fiscal policies, underscored the temporal vulnerabilities of a papacy detached from its traditional seat.^[19] St. Catherine of Siena, a Dominican tertiary, exerted significant personal influence through repeated diplomatic missions to Avignon and fervent letters imploring Gregory XI to restore the papacy to Rome as a divine mandate, contributing decisively to his arrival there on January 17, 1377.^[20] ^[21] Gregory XI's tenure in Rome proved unstable, marked by ongoing factional strife between Roman baronial clans and the intrusion of secular politics into ecclesiastical affairs, which eroded papal authority and highlighted the papacy's entanglement with temporal powers lacking clear institutional safeguards for succession.^[7] His death on March 27, 1378, at age 48 or 49, from complications possibly exacerbated by the city's unhealthy climate and political turmoil, precipitated an immediate crisis.^[22] ^[23] The College of Cardinals totaled 23 members at the time, with 16 present in Rome—predominantly French-appointed by Gregory XI and his Avignon predecessors—and 7 remaining in Avignon, fostering inherent divisions along national lines that prioritized geopolitical loyalties over unified spiritual governance.^[24] French cardinals, constituting the effective majority in the conclave, leaned toward selecting a pontiff amenable to relocating back to Avignon under French protection, while Italian cardinals and elements within the curia advocated retaining the papacy in Rome to appease local powers and prevent further Italian alienation.^[25] As the conclave convened on April 7, 1378, in the Vatican amid these fissures, a Roman mob—fearing the papacy's exodus and galvanized by communal demands for an Italian pope—encircled the proceedings, shouting threats of violence and insisting on a Roman or at least non-French candidate to safeguard the city's primacy.^[26] This external coercion, blending mob intimidation with the cardinals' internal hesitations and the absence of codified norms to insulate papal elections from secular interference, compelled a rushed process vulnerable to undue influence, as later reflected in chronicles documenting the era's causal interplay of spiritual authority and political expediency.^[27]

Outbreak of the Schism

Election of Urban VI and Rival Claim of Clement VII

The death of Pope Gregory XI on March 27, 1378, prompted the convening of a papal conclave in Rome starting April 7, consisting of 16 cardinals, predominantly French appointees from the Avignon era. Amid explicit threats from an armed Roman mob demanding an Italian pope to end the Avignon residency and restore the papacy to its traditional Roman seat, the cardinals unanimously elected Bartolomeo Prignano, the Neapolitan Archbishop of Bari and apostolic chancellor, on April 8; he assumed the name Urban VI.^[28]^[29] Prignano's selection reflected a compromise to appease the crowd while adhering to conclave secrecy rules modified by Gregory XI's recent bull of March 19, which limited external influence but proved insufficient against the siege-like conditions.^[28] Urban was crowned at St. Peter's Basilica on April 18, with the cardinals initially affirming the election in a letter to their Avignon colleagues on April 19.^[28] Urban VI's pontificate quickly alienated his electors through aggressive reforms, including demands for cardinal residencies, financial audits, and public rebukes in consistory meetings, which the cardinals perceived as despotic. Fleeing Rome for safety amid ongoing unrest, the cardinals assembled at Anagni by late July. On August 9, 1378, thirteen of them issued a formal manifesto ("Cum subito et ex abrupto") declaring Urban's election null and void, arguing it occurred under "impressio" (compulsion) from the mob's violence, which vitiated free consent as mandated by canon law traditions like Gratian's Decretum; they cited the crowd's armed encirclement of the Vatican as empirical duress, rendering the vote simulacrum rather than valid act.^[30]^[28] This declaration, signed at Anagni, framed Urban as an "intruder" unfit for office due to his manifest cruelty post-election, invoking papal election norms requiring moral probity and liberty. On September 20, 1378, these dissenting cardinals convened at Fondi and elected Robert of Geneva, a French cardinal with military experience, as pope; he adopted the name Clement VII and was crowned on October 31 at Anagni.^[29]^[28] Clementines substantiated their rival claim by reiterating the coercion narrative in encyclicals, such as the September 20 notification to the Church, and emphasized Urban's uncanonical behavior as evidence of divine rejection, drawing on precedents where elections under fear were annulled.^[28] Urbanists countered by upholding the April election's procedural integrity under conclave oaths, stressing Rome's apostolic primacy and the absence of formal coercion at the moment of acclamation; Urban issued bulls like the "Casus" narrative to King of Castile, excommunicating Clement and the rebels, with originals preserved in Vatican registers confirming mutual anathemas by late 1378.^[28]^[29] These dueling rationales hinged on interpretive disputes over canon law's "metus" (fear) threshold, lacking unified adjudication until later councils.

National and Political Alignments

Following the elections of Urban VI in Rome on April 8, 1378, and his rival Clement VII in Anagni (later Avignon) on September 20, 1378, European states rapidly aligned with one obedience or the other, driven primarily by geopolitical rivalries, dynastic connections, and opposition to French dominance rather than doctrinal disputes.^[31]^[29] The Roman obedience under Urban VI garnered support from the Holy Roman Empire, England, Portugal (which formally recognized him in 1381 amid its alliance with England against Castile), most Italian states, Flanders, Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, and the Scandinavian kingdoms.^[31]^[29] In contrast, the Clementine obedience aligned with France—which provided Clement VII's core support due to the French nationality of most Avignon cardinals and the lingering influence of the prior Avignon Papacy—along with Scotland (as France's traditional ally against England), Spain's kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, and territories under Valois influence such as Luxembourg and parts of the Low Countries.^[29]^[31] These divisions reflected pragmatic state interests: England's adherence to Rome stemmed from anti-French sentiment exacerbated by the Hundred Years' War, while Portugal's choice reinforced its Anglo-Portuguese alliance formalized in the 1386 Treaty of Windsor; conversely, France's backing of Avignon preserved perceived national control over ecclesiastical appointments and revenues.^[31]^[29] Initial attempts at neutrality, such as by the Crown of Aragon in the early 1380s—which sought to avoid entanglement through diplomatic overtures to both popes—ultimately failed amid pressure from French alliances and internal clerical divisions, leading Aragon to tilt toward Clement VII by mid-decade.^[29] Similarly, some German princes and Italian city-states wavered briefly due to local power dynamics but consolidated behind Urban VI, as diplomatic correspondence and royal declarations from 1379 onward reveal alignments hardening along existing rivalries rather than emerging ideological lines.^[31] By June 1379, these obediences had stabilized across most of Western Christendom, with states leveraging papal legitimacy to advance territorial and fiscal claims, as evidenced in contemporary royal bulls and conciliar appeals.^[29]

Period of Dual Papacies (1378–1409)

Governance and Conflicts Under Urban VI and Successors

Urban VI, elected on April 8, 1378, initiated governance in Rome amid hostility from Roman mobs and defecting cardinals, who soon elected his rival Clement VII in Anagni on September 20, 1378. His administration emphasized stringent curial reforms, including curbs on cardinal privileges and clerical abuses, but his abrasive temperament prompted the cardinals' flight and declaration of his election invalid under duress.^[32] Urban responded by excommunicating the dissenters and reorganizing the curia from scratch, appointing new cardinals loyal to him, such as six Italians in 1378 and further elevations by 1382.^[33] Militarily, he allied with Charles of Durazzo, invading the Kingdom of Naples in 1381 to oust Queen Joanna I after her support shifted to Clement VII, resulting in Joanna's capture and execution in 1382, though Urban's forces faced ongoing resistance.^[34] Boniface IX, elected November 2, 1389, prioritized territorial recovery in the Papal States, which had fragmented under Urban's instability. Employing financial incentives like indulgences and Jubilee extensions in 1390 and 1400 to fund campaigns, he recaptured Rome from noble factions, secured Ostia in 1392, and by 1400 controlled Assisi, Perugia, and other central Italian strongholds through sieges and pacts with local lords.^[35] His policies included fiscal innovations, such as taxing annates and creating new offices for revenue, while convening Roman synods to condemn Avignon claimants and bolster his legitimacy via decrees against schismatics.^[36] Inter-papal hostilities escalated with mutual excommunications; Boniface denounced Clement VII's adherents, mirroring Avignon's propaganda efforts. Innocent VII (1404–1406) inherited Boniface's gains but confronted renewed threats from King Ladislaus of Naples, who seized Rome in 1404, prompting Innocent's brief flight and reliance on imperial aid from Rupert of Germany.^[32] His short pontificate featured attempts at administrative continuity, including curial appointments, but ended amid stalled unity negotiations. Gregory XII (1406–1415) continued Roman governance with cautious diplomacy, fortifying alliances in northern Italy and issuing calls for cession talks with Avignon, though conflicts persisted via proxy support for anti-Avignon forces; he ultimately resigned at the Council of Constance on July 4, 1415, to end the schism.^[34] On the Avignon side, Clement VII (1378–1394), based in Avignon from 1379, governed through a reestablished curia, appointing French-dominated cardinals and securing French royal backing via subsidies and territorial claims in the Comtat Venaissin. He pursued Italian footholds, crowning Louis II of Anjou as Naples' king in 1382, but military failures against Roman forces limited gains to Naples' temporary allegiance until 1383.^[34] Benedict XIII (1394–1417), elected November 28, 1394, despite French opposition, maintained Avignon administration with obstinate assertions of legitimacy, convening local synods to excommunicate Roman popes and dispatching legates to contest Italian territories. French conflicts intensified when Charles VI withdrew obedience in 1398 over Benedict's refusal to resign, leading to a siege of Avignon from 1398 to 1403; Benedict fled to Peñiscola in Aragon, persisting in claims amid isolated support.^[37] Both lines' hostilities involved reciprocal condemnations, legatine missions to undermine rivals, and exploitation of secular alliances for temporal assertions, prolonging dual administrations until conciliar intervention.^[38]

Ecclesiastical and Temporal Consequences

The schism induced splits within religious orders, notably among mendicants such as the Franciscans, who divided into separate factions aligned with the Roman and Avignon obediences by 1378, resulting in dual hierarchies and administrative fragmentation.^[39] This division weakened ecclesiastical discipline, as centralized enforcement of monastic rules became untenable amid competing papal directives, leading to inconsistent governance across convents and priories. Taxation practices grew erratic under dual authorities, disrupting revenue streams for monasteries; for instance, certain Roman-aligned houses experienced financial losses by 1394 due to schism-induced conflicts and disputed collections.^[39] On the temporal plane, the schism reinforced national fissures, particularly exacerbating alignments in the Hundred Years' War, where England backed the Roman pontiffs while France adhered to the Avignon claimants, intertwining ecclesiastical loyalty with military hostilities and complicating diplomatic resolutions.^[40] Monarchs exploited the papal rivalry to enhance state oversight of church institutions; in France, this fostered early assertions of autonomy, as rulers temporarily withdrew obedience from both popes in 1398 to coerce compliance, laying groundwork for Gallican principles that prioritized royal influence over ultramontane papal supremacy.^[41] While localized synodal efforts occasionally prompted administrative reforms in obedient territories, the overarching scandal eroded the church's moral prestige, diminishing its capacity to mediate secular disputes and fostering skepticism toward hierarchical unity.^[39]

Emergence of Triple Papacies (1409–1417)

Council of Pisa and Election of Alexander V

The Council of Pisa was convened in March 1409 by a coalition of cardinals from the Roman obedience under Gregory XII and the Avignon obedience under Benedict XIII, excluding those cardinals remaining loyal to Benedict, with the explicit aim of resolving the Western Schism through the deposition of both claimants and the election of a unified pope.^[42] The assembly, which opened on 25 March 1409 in Pisa, Italy, initially comprised 22 cardinals but grew to include archbishops, bishops, and theological experts from across Europe, representing secular rulers supportive of the effort, such as the kings of France, Naples, and Castile.^[43] Proceedings emphasized the scandal of dual papacies, arguing that the popes' refusal to abdicate constituted heresy by perpetuating division in the Church; the council cited scriptural and canonical precedents for superior ecclesiastical authority to intervene in cases of schism and maladministration.^[44] In sessions held through June, the council summoned both Gregory XII and Benedict XIII to appear or resign, declaring them contumacious upon their non-compliance and formally deposing them on grounds of heresy, scandalous conduct, and failure to fulfill pastoral duties, with decrees asserting that such actions were justified by the Church's supreme authority to preserve unity.^[42]^[43] Neither pope recognized the council's validity—Gregory fled to Rimini under Malatesta protection, and Benedict retreated to Peñíscola—yet the assembly proceeded to a conclave on 26 June 1409, unanimously electing Cardinal Pietro Philarghi of Milan, who assumed the name Alexander V.^[42] The council also promulgated reform decrees addressing abuses like simony, nepotism, and excessive papal taxation, aiming to restore ecclesiastical discipline, though these measures lacked enforcement due to the unresolved schism.^[44] Pietro Philarghi (c. 1339–1410), a Greek-born Franciscan theologian from Crete who had risen through academic posts in Oxford and Paris before becoming a cardinal in 1405, was selected for his perceived neutrality and scholarly reputation, though his election reflected influence from figures like Baldassarre Cossa.^[45] Alexander V attempted mediation by dispatching envoys to negotiate with the deposed popes and secular powers, transferring his court to Bologna in September 1409 to consolidate support in Italy, but these efforts faltered amid ongoing hostilities and refusals to submit.^[43] His brief pontificate ended abruptly with his death on 3 May 1410 in Bologna, attributed to natural causes but accompanied by unproven contemporary suspicions of poisoning amid political intrigue.^[45] The council's actions drew immediate criticism for presuming authority beyond that of cardinals or a non-papal synod to depose legitimate claimants, thereby exacerbating division into a triple papacy rather than healing it, as later affirmed by the Council of Constance in rejecting Pisan legitimacy.^[46]

Succession to John XXIII and Persistence of Benedict XIII

Following the death of Antipope Alexander V on October 3, 1410, the cardinals assembled at the Council of Pisa elected Baldassare Cossa, an Italian cardinal previously involved in Neapolitan politics and military affairs, as his successor, taking the name John XXIII on November 10, 1410.^[47] Cossa, who had influenced Alexander V's policies, sought to consolidate the Pisan obedience's position amid ongoing rivalries, but his election failed to unify Christendom, instead perpetuating the triple schism.^[48] John XXIII's pontificate was marked by allegations of simony, through which he reportedly sold ecclesiastical offices to fund operations, and involvement in irregular financial practices, including reputed piracy to bolster resources during conflicts.^[49] To secure territorial control in Italy, John XXIII allied with Louis II of Anjou, claimant to the Kingdom of Naples, providing military and diplomatic support against King Ladislaus, a backer of the Roman line under Gregory XII.^[50] In April 1411, this alliance enabled John XXIII and Anjou forces to enter Rome, followed by a decisive victory over Ladislaus at the Battle of Roccasecca on May 19, 1411, temporarily strengthening the Pisan claim in central Italy.^[48] However, these gains were fragile, as John's reliance on secular alliances and perceived moral laxity eroded broader ecclesiastical support, with contemporaries expressing distrust toward his governance.^[48] Meanwhile, Antipope Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna), rejecting the Council of Pisa's authority, withdrew from Avignon to the fortified castle of Peñíscola in Aragon by late 1411, establishing a isolated papal court there with limited adherence from parts of the Iberian Peninsula, particularly Aragon under King Ferdinand I.^[51] Benedict's defiance, rooted in his conviction of legitimate election and papal indefectibility, resulted in minimal international recognition, as most European powers shifted allegiance to the Pisan line or Rome, isolating Avignon further.^[52] Diplomatic initiatives between 1411 and 1414, including overtures for mutual renunciations, repeatedly faltered; a notable but short-lived alignment emerged when Gregory XII briefly coordinated with John XXIII against Benedict's holdouts, yet personal ambitions and mutual suspicions prevented resolution, exacerbating the pre-Constance fragmentation.^[37] Benedict's persistence in Peñíscola, despite exiguous resources, symbolized the schism's tenacity, compelling further conciliar intervention.^[53]

Resolution Through the Council of Constance

Convocation, Key Decrees, and Haec Sancta

The Council of Constance was formally convoked by Antipope John XXIII on December 9, 1413, from Lodi, initially scheduled to open on November 1, 1414, in the imperial free city of Constance on Lake Constance, though the actual opening occurred on November 5, 1414, in the city's cathedral, with the first formal session held on November 16.^[54] This gathering was instigated amid the triple papacy crisis, with John XXIII seeking to affirm his legitimacy while Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg, acting as King of the Romans, exerted significant influence to enforce attendance and direct proceedings toward resolving the schism through mutual renunciations and church reform.^[55] The council's structure divided participants into four "nations" (Italian, German, French, English)—later adding a Spanish one—each voting as a bloc to mitigate Italian dominance, reflecting pragmatic adaptations to the political fragmentation exacerbating the schism.^[54] Attendance peaked at approximately 600 prelates, including cardinals, bishops, abbots, theologians, and canon lawyers, drawn primarily from Europe but unevenly distributed due to national loyalties and travel hazards; this number represented a substantial but not universal convocation, as some regions like Scotland and parts of Iberia sent limited delegations amid ongoing allegiance splits.^[54] Early sessions focused on procedural reforms, such as mandating safe-conduct for attendees (prompted by fears of heresy trials, as seen in the case of Jan Hus) and asserting the council's independence from papal control following John XXIII's flight in March 1415, which prompted decrees to prevent dissolution. These measures underscored the empirical imperative of sustained assembly to address the schism's causal roots in contested elections and secular interference, prioritizing unity over strict adherence to prior canon law.^[55] Among the council's key early decrees, Haec sancta synodus, promulgated in the fifth session on April 6, 1415, declared that the council derived its authority immediately from Christ, binding all faithful—including the pope—to obey its decisions on matters of faith, schism eradication, and general reform, positioning the ecumenical council as superior to the pontiff in such exigencies to compel obedience and avert further division.^[54] This assertion arose from conciliarist arguments emphasizing the church's corporate nature and the practical necessity of collective action when papal claims perpetuated disunity, drawing on precedents like the Council of Pisa (1409) but extending to override individual papal resistance. Later decree Frequens, issued in the thirty-ninth session on October 9, 1417, mandated periodic general councils—every five years after the current one, then every seven, and decennially thereafter—to institutionalize oversight and prevent recurrence of crises, framing frequent assemblies as essential for ongoing reform and discipline.^[56] The issuance of Haec sancta ignited debates between conciliarists, who invoked causal realism in arguing that schismatic paralysis demanded suprapapal mechanisms for the church's survival as a unified body, and papalists, who countered that it undermined the divinely instituted primacy of Peter, risking interpretive anarchy by subordinating monarchical authority to potentially factional majorities without canonical bounds.^[54] Critics, including later papal apologists, highlighted the decree's overreach, noting its basis in crisis-driven exigency rather than immutable doctrine, a view substantiated by subsequent condemnations such as those under Pope Eugene IV, which rejected conciliar supremacy as incompatible with scriptural and traditional ecclesiology.^[57] These tensions reflected broader empirical observations of how unchecked papal elections had fueled national blocs and temporal meddling, yet the decree's formulation invited skepticism regarding its permanence, as it presupposed extraordinary conditions without clear reversion criteria.

Depositions, Abdications, and Election of Martin V

The Council of Constance formally deposed John XXIII (Baldassarre Cossa) on 29 May 1415 following a trial that convicted him of offenses including simony, schism, piracy, and various moral crimes, thereby removing the Pisan-line claimant who had convened the council itself.^[58] ^[54] This action addressed the procedural irregularity of his initial summons under duress from Emperor Sigismund, prioritizing the council's authority to judge papal legitimacy amid the schism's disruptions. In a move that lent partial validation to the council's proceedings, Gregory XII (Angelo Correr), the Roman-line pope, resigned the papacy on 4 July 1415; his representative, Cardinal Malatesta, announced the abdication at Constance, allowing Gregory to retain the title of cardinal and facilitating a unified electoral process.^[59] ^[54] Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna), the Avignon-line holdout who had rejected earlier conciliar overtures, refused to abdicate despite negotiations and excommunications; the council proceeded to depose him in 1417, citing persistent schismatic obstinacy and invalidity of his claims.^[54] ^[60] With the rival claimants removed or resigned, the council's electoral college—comprising cardinals and representatives from the five nations—unanimously selected Oddo Colonna as Pope Martin V on 11 November 1417 in Constance, marking a procedural return to unified papal election under conciliar oversight.^[54] ^[61] Martin V, a Roman noble from the Colonna family, accepted the election and was ordained priest on 13 November, consecrated bishop on 14 November, and crowned pope on 17 November in Constance Cathedral, after which broad obedience from European powers effectively ended the schism's practical divisions by 1418 as holdouts dwindled.^[62]^[54]

Immediate Aftermath and Restoration

Suppression of Remaining Claims

The Council of Constance declared Antipope Benedict XIII a schismatic and excommunicated him on July 27, 1417, after he refused to submit or abdicate, prompting his flight from Avignon to the fortress of Peñíscola in the Kingdom of Aragon (modern Spain), where he persisted in his claim amid dwindling support.^[61] Benedict XIII died there on May 23, 1423, having secured promises from his pseudocardinals to elect a successor; three convened and chose Gil Sánchez Muñoz y Carbón as Clement VIII on June 10, 1423.^[63] Clement VIII, initially backed by Alfonso V of Aragon for leverage in negotiations over Naples, faced isolation as European powers shifted allegiance to Martin V; he abdicated on July 26, 1429, formally recognizing Martin V's legitimacy and revoking his own decrees, though he lived until December 28, 1446, with any residual adherents dissolving by the early 1440s due to lack of institutional or royal backing.^[63] Pope Martin V reinforced the council's decrees through papal bulls that anathematized persistent schismatics and revoked concessions made by antipopes, effectively nullifying their ecclesiastical acts and compelling submission from remaining obediences, such as Scotland's brief holdout under Benedict XIII.^[64] These measures empirically ended widespread division, as no significant papal adherence persisted after 1429, restoring de facto unity under Rome without further rival elections gaining traction.^[64] However, suppression involved harsh reprisals against holdouts, including persecutions of Benedict XIII's followers—such as property seizures, excommunications, and localized violence—that prioritized ecclesiastical consolidation over clemency, though mass executions tied directly to the Pisan line (John XXIII's former allies) were limited post-deposition, with John XXIII himself submitting to Martin V in 1419 before dying in custody.^[65] This approach, while effective in quelling remnants, underscored the coercive tactics employed to enforce unity, alienating some regional loyalists and fueling lingering resentments in Aragon and Provence.

Reconsolidation of Papal Authority in Rome

Pope Martin V entered Rome on 28 September 1420, marking the definitive return of the papal seat after years of delay due to the city's dilapidated condition and ongoing Italian conflicts.^[66] Having departed Florence on 9 September, he found Rome characterized by decayed houses, ruined churches, and depopulated streets, remnants of prolonged neglect during the Avignon period and schism.^[67] Martin initiated comprehensive restoration projects, reconstructing key ecclesiastical and civic structures such as palaces, bridges, and basilicas with the aid of Tuscan masters, thereby reestablishing Rome as the symbolic and administrative center of papal power.^[66] To consolidate obedience among secular rulers, Martin pursued diplomatic concordats immediately following his 1417 election, securing recognition from France, England, Germany, and Spain by 1418 through concessions on benefices and reservations.^[66] With Aragon, which had backed Benedict XIII until his 1423 renunciation, negotiations extended longer, yielding significant royal privileges in a 1426 concordat that affirmed papal primacy while accommodating local interests.^[68] These agreements, verifiable in papal registers and diplomatic correspondence, facilitated the withdrawal of rival claims and redirected feudal loyalties toward the Roman pontiff.^[66] Administratively, Martin reorganized the Roman curia to integrate officials from the former Roman and Avignon obediences, aligning structures with select Constance decrees to create a unified bureaucracy.^[68] A reform bull issued on 16 March 1425 targeted curial abuses, mandating procedural efficiencies and clerical reforms, though implementation proved gradual amid financial strains from schism-era losses.^[66] He further centralized authority by creating 15 new cardinals, including several Colonna relatives, fostering a network of familial allegiance that mitigated risks of electoral vacancies and internal divisions exposed by the schism.^[66] This approach, drawing on the schism's causal lesson in the destabilizing effects of prolonged interregna, prioritized stable succession mechanisms over broader structural overhauls.^[66]

Doctrinal Controversies and Ecclesiological Debates

Conciliarism: Arguments for Council Supremacy

Conciliarism maintained that an ecumenical council, embodying the universal Church militant as its collective representative, held supreme authority over the pope when the latter's actions threatened faith, unity, or reform, subordinating individual office to the corporate body for the Church's preservation. This doctrine, advanced amid the Western Schism's triple papacies, posited the council's inherent power to judge, depose, or coerce popes in extremis, as articulated by key theorists Pierre d'Ailly and Jean Gerson, who viewed papal errors—such as obstinate schism—as justifying intervention to avert institutional collapse.^[69]^[70] The foundational argument invoked equity and natural law: the mystical body of the Church, per d'Ailly, possessed the right to assemble in general council not merely by Christ's delegation but by common natural law, empowering the whole to rectify a defective head without dissolving the organism, as unchecked papal failure would equate to tyrannical rule over the faithful.^[71] Gerson reinforced this by emphasizing the Church's representational totality in council, where bishops, theologians, and delegates manifested the universitas ecclesiae, rendering decisions binding on the pope as a member rather than sovereign, thus aligning governance with the common good over personal prerogative.^[72] Scriptural warrant drew from precedents like the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem in Acts 15 (circa AD 49–50), where assembled apostles and elders, guided by the Holy Spirit, overruled individual apostolic practices—such as Judaizing impositions—through collective discernment and decree, establishing a model of corporate authority that bound even Petrine figures and propagated universally, implying councils' precedence in doctrinal crises over singular leadership. Historical appeals extended to early ecumenical councils like Nicaea (325), which corrected episcopal errors without papal veto, underscoring tradition's preference for consensual judgment in schism or heresy. In application, conciliarists at Pisa (June 1409) invoked this supremacy to declare both Gregory XII and Benedict XIII deposed for prolonging division, electing Alexander V to enforce unity, though the move empirically extended the schism by introducing a third claimant until his death in May 1410.^[73] At Constance (1414–1418), the decree Haec sancta of 6 April 1415 explicitly proclaimed the council's obedience-demanding power over all ranks, including the pope, in eradicating schism and heresy, enabling John XXIII's deposition on 29 May 1415 despite his flight and initial resistance.^[74] Advocates argued this mechanism's efficacy in compelling Gregory XII's resignation (4 July 1415) and marginalizing Benedict XIII, facilitating Martin V's election on 11 November 1417 as sole legitimate pontiff, thereby resolving the 39-year schism through decisive collective action rather than papal negotiation alone.^[75] Proponents contended such supremacy's strengths lay in its causal realism: by prioritizing empirical Church welfare—averting scandalous multiplicity of claimants and restoring sacramental validity—it provided a pragmatic corrective absent in papal monarchism, as evidenced by the schism's prolongation under dual/triple obediences from 1378 to 1417, where individual popes prioritized self-preservation over abdication. This framework's enduring influence appeared in Gallicanism's later assertions of council-like national synodal rights against ultramontane claims, affirming conciliarism's role as a bulwark for ecclesial equity amid hierarchical lapses.^[76]

Papalist Rebuttals and Doctrinal Affirmations

Papalists maintained that the pope, as successor to St. Peter, held plena potestas (full jurisdiction) over the universal Church, derived directly from Christ's commission in Matthew 16:18-19, where Peter is designated the rock upon which the Church is built and granted the keys of the kingdom.^[77] This Petrine primacy, they argued, ensured apostolic succession through the Roman see, providing an unbroken chain of authority essential for doctrinal unity, as evidenced by early Church fathers like St. Irenaeus, who emphasized Rome's preeminent role in resolving disputes. Conciliarists' claims of council supremacy were rebutted as subordinating this divine institution to a potentially fallible assembly, risking further division akin to the Schism itself by diluting hierarchical governance into a form resembling elective oligarchy rather than monarchical succession.^[78] Doctrinally, papalists affirmed that ecumenical councils required papal convocation, direction, and confirmation to possess binding force, invoking precedents like the Council of Chalcedon (451), which proclaimed "Peter has spoken through Leo" in upholding Pope Leo I's tome against heresy. Without such ratification, decrees like Haec Sancta (1415) from Constance were deemed invalid or provisional, as they purported to assert council superiority over the pope independently of Petrine authority—a position incompatible with the Church's constitutional order.^[79] Martin V, elected at Constance on November 11, 1417, implicitly rejected this by reasserting papal supremacy in a consistory on March 10, 1418, denying any right of appeal from the Apostolic See to a future council and thereby prioritizing Roman jurisdiction over conciliar innovations.^[79]^[54] In the ensuing decades, Eugene IV's suppression of the Council of Basel exemplified papal rebuttals in action; on July 23, 1437, he declared the council transferred to Ferrara due to its defiance, excommunicating persistent members and affirming that schismatic assemblies lacked legitimacy without papal adherence, thus restoring centralized authority and debunking conciliar pretensions to autonomous reform.^[80] This act underscored critiques of conciliarism as a pragmatic expedient born of crisis rather than perennial doctrine, prone to perpetuating rivalries by elevating collective judgment over the vicar of Christ's singular plenitudo potestatis.^[81] Ultimately, these affirmations reinforced that true ecclesial unity demanded fidelity to Roman succession, viewing conciliar overreach as a causal threat to the Church's indefectibility by inverting the scriptural hierarchy where the shepherd precedes the flock.^[77]

Long-Term Legacy and Impact

Effects on Church Reform and Authority Structures

![Coat of arms of the Holy See in Renaissance style](./assets/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Holy_See_Renaissance_shape The Council of Constance's decree Frequens, issued on 9 October 1417, sought to institutionalize Church reform by mandating regular general councils—initially every five years, then seven, and decennially thereafter—to address abuses and avert future schisms.^[54] This measure aimed to embed conciliar oversight into governance, reflecting the Schism's lesson that unchecked papal authority could foster division. However, implementation revealed practical inefficacy; the Council of Basel (1431–1449), convened under Frequens, devolved into confrontation with Pope Eugenius IV, who dissolved it in 1437, underscoring how such assemblies often prioritized jurisdictional disputes over substantive reform.^[82] Causally, the Schism's protracted instability—spanning 39 years with competing obediences—empirically demonstrated that decentralized decision-making amplified factionalism, as national loyalties fragmented allegiance and stalled unified action. Post-Constance popes thus pivoted to centralized papal initiative, bypassing frequent councils whose convocations proved logistically burdensome and politically volatile. For example, the Ferrara-Florence Council (1438–1445), relocated under papal auspices, achieved temporary Eastern union but deferred internal Western reforms, exposing reliance on papal prerogative for efficacy.^[55] In authority structures, the Schism reinforced Rome-centric consolidation, with Martin V (1417–1431) reclaiming Papal States territories by military means, restoring fiscal independence from conciliar dependencies by 1424. Successors like Nicholas V (1447–1455) further entrenched this by prioritizing diplomatic stabilization and Renaissance patronage—commissioning the Vatican Library in 1448 and issuing humanist bulls—over conciliar diffusion, viewing the latter as empirically destabilizing based on recent precedents. This shift marginalized reformist decentralization, channeling impulses through curial channels amid evident failures of collective governance to sustain unity without papal supremacy.^[83]

Influence on Later Schisms and Modern Ecclesiology

The Western Schism's protracted division, spanning from 1378 to 1417, eroded confidence in papal authority and contributed to subsequent ecclesial challenges, including the rise of Gallicanism in France, which sought to curtail ultramontane papal influence through national synodal assertions of autonomy.^[84] This movement, invigorated by the schism's demonstration of multiple claimants, posited that general councils held superior authority to resolve disputes, echoing conciliarist principles from Constance but applying them to limit Rome's jurisdiction over local churches.^[85] Similarly, the schism's exposure of administrative and moral vulnerabilities in the papacy created fertile ground for 16th-century reformers like Martin Luther, who cited the era's scandals to justify rejecting hierarchical unity in favor of scriptural sola principles, leading to permanent fractures absent the stabilizing mechanism of a singular pontiff.^[86] While the Council of Constance's resolution via the deposition of claimants and election of Martin V on November 11, 1417, offered a pragmatic model for restoring unity under a single pope, it simultaneously entrenched conciliarism as a doctrinal contender, with the decree Haec sancta (April 6, 1415) declaring a general council's immediate superiority over the pope in matters of faith, schism resolution, and reform.^[54] This assertion, however, faced early rebuttals from papalists such as Juan de Torquemada, who argued its invalidity on grounds that the council lacked full ecumenical legitimacy at issuance and contradicted the divine institution of Petrine primacy.^[87] Empirical outcomes underscore the causal limits of conciliar supremacy: whereas hierarchical papal continuity enabled reconsolidation post-1417, unchecked conciliar appeals fragmented further into Protestant denominations, revealing structural instability in diffused authority models. In modern Catholic ecclesiology, Vatican I's Pastor aeternus (July 18, 1870) definitively affirmed the pope's full, immediate, and supreme primacy over the universal Church, directly countering conciliarist legacies by rooting jurisdiction in Christ's grant to Peter rather than contingent assemblies, thus privileging monarchical realism for doctrinal coherence amid 19th-century nationalistic pressures akin to Gallican echoes.^[88] Vatican II's Lumen gentium (November 21, 1964) integrated collegiality among bishops while subordinating it to papal primacy, rejecting Haec sancta-style egalitarianism as incompatible with the Church's visible unity and headship. Scholarly consensus in Catholic theology deems Haec sancta non-dogmatic, given its issuance before papal ratification of the council and conflict with infallibly defined primacy, affirming instead that hierarchical succession—despite historical crises—has empirically sustained orthodoxy against schismatic dilutions.^[89] This ecclesiological trajectory highlights papal continuity's superior causal efficacy in preserving institutional resilience over romanticized council-centric alternatives.

Recognition of Papal Legitimacy

Official Catholic Lists of Valid Popes

![Tafel_paepste.jpg][float-right] The Annuario Pontificio, the official directory of the Holy See, lists the popes of the Roman line as the legitimate successors during the Western Schism from 1378 to 1417.^[29] These include Urban VI, elected on 8 April 1378 and reigning until his death on 15 October 1389; Boniface IX, elected 2 November 1389 and reigning until 1 October 1404; Innocent VII, elected 17 October 1404 and reigning until 6 November 1406; and Gregory XII, elected 30 November 1406 and reigning until his abdication on 4 July 1415.^[29] This sequence maintains uninterrupted succession without breaks, contrasting with the schismatic claims from Avignon and Pisa.^[29] The rationale for this recognition rests on the Roman popes' continuous occupation of the papal see in Rome, the traditional seat of the papacy, following Gregory XI's return in 1377.^[29] Post-Schism obedience patterns, particularly after the Council of Constance, further supported this line, as European powers increasingly aligned with Rome despite initial divisions.^[29] The council's acceptance of Gregory XII's resignation in 1415, without contesting his prior legitimacy, and the subsequent universal election of Martin V on 11 November 1417 as his successor, confirmed the Roman chain's validity.^[29] Martin V's reign from 1417 to 1431 marked the restoration of singular papal authority, with his election achieving broad acceptance across Christendom, thereby retroactively endorsing the preceding Roman pontiffs as the authentic line amid the schism's rivalries.^[29] This position excludes the Avignon and Pisan claimants as schismatic, preserving doctrinal continuity in papal succession based on historical and ecclesiological criteria rather than concurrent obedience alone.^[29]

Status of Rival Claimants as Antipopes

The Roman Catholic Church designates the rival papal claimants during the Western Schism (1378–1417) as antipopes, affirming the legitimacy of the Roman line descending from Urban VI (elected April 8, 1378) as the sole valid successors to St. Peter. This assessment rests on the canonical validity of Urban VI's election by the conclave in Rome following the death of Gregory XI on March 27, 1378, contrasted with the irregularities in the opposing elections: the Avignon cardinals, many of whom had participated in Urban's election and sworn oaths of obedience, subsequently elected Clement VII (September 20, 1378) in defiance of canon law prohibiting schismatic acts by electors.^[29] The Church's official catalogs, such as the Annuario Pontificio, exclude these rivals entirely, listing only the Roman popes—Urban VI (1378–1389), Boniface IX (1389–1404), Innocent VII (1404–1406), Gregory XII (1406–1415), and Martin V (1417–1431)—as legitimate pontiffs during this period, thereby nullifying the antipopes' claims ab initio.^[90] The Avignon line, originating with Clement VII (Robert of Geneva, 1378–1394) and continued by Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna, 1394–1423), is rejected due to its foundation in rebellion against the Roman pontiff; Benedict XIII persisted in his claim even after the Council of Constance's declaration against him in 1417, but was abandoned by supporters and died in schismatic isolation in 1423 without ecclesiastical recognition.^[91] Similarly, the Pisan line—Alexander V (Pietro Filargo, elected June 26, 1409, died May 3, 1410) and John XXIII (Baldassarre Cossa, 1410–1415)—arose from a council convened by dissident cardinals in 1409, which unlawfully claimed authority to depose both existing claimants; the Council of Constance explicitly deposed John XXIII on May 29, 1415, for crimes including simony and immorality, while Alexander V's brief tenure lacked canonical force.^[54]^[92] The Council of Constance (1414–1418), recognized as ecumenical in its doctrinal decrees but limited in disciplinary actions, resolved the schism by securing Gregory XII's resignation (July 4, 1415), deposing the Pisan antipope, and electing Martin V (November 11, 1417), while formally rejecting Benedict XIII's pretensions; this affirmed the Roman succession's continuity without retroactively validating rival ordinations or acts beyond what necessity required for unity.^[55] Although some antipapal acts (e.g., certain benefices or sacraments administered under rivals) received suppletory validation post-schism to preserve ecclesial order, the claimants themselves hold no papal status in Catholic doctrine, as their elections violated the principle of unitary headship under canonically elected authority.^[29] This ecclesiological stance prioritizes apostolic fidelity over political divisions that fueled the schism, such as French crown influence on Avignon and Italian factions on Pisa.^[91]

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As for the superiority of councils over popes, as based upon the decrees of the Council of Constance, the Gallicans essayed to defend it chiefly by appealing to ...
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On the basis of the New Testament witness, the Catholic Church teaches, as a doctrine of faith, that the Bishop of Rome is the Successor of Peter in his ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
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Library : Vatican I And The Papal Primacy | Catholic Culture
one in papal teaching on faith and morals (the charism of infallibility), and the other a ...
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Its forty-five general sessions were devoted to three chief purposes: (I) The Extinction of the So-Called Western Schism; (II) The Reformation of Ecclesiastical ...
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Episode 173 – Ending the Schism - History of the Germans Podcast
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Gallicanism, a complex of French ecclesiastical and political doctrines and practices advocating restriction of papal power.
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327. According to Pano Haec Sancta settled all canonistic debates on conciliar and papal power; see Anton Council and Commune (London, 1979), p. 100.<|control11|><|separator|>
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“The holy Roman church possesses the supreme and full primacy and principality over the whole catholic church. She truly and humbly acknowledges that she ...
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Antipope Benedict XIII refused to resign but by this point he had no support from any existing Cardinals. With 2 of the 3 claimants to the Papacy officially ...
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In April, 1411, John XXIII advanced with Louis of Anjou upon Rome, where they vigorously prosecuted the war against Ladislaus of Naples, and completely routed ...