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Widmanstätten pattern

The Widmanstätten pattern, also known as the Widmanstätten structure or texture, is a distinctive geometric arrangement of fine, interlocking lamellae composed of the iron-nickel alloys kamacite (low-nickel) and taenite (high-nickel) observed in iron meteorites.^[1]^[2] This criss-cross or octahedral pattern emerges when polished sections of the meteorite are etched with acid or heated, revealing bands that reflect the slow crystallization process within the parent body.^[3]^[4] The pattern derives its name from Count Alois von Widmanstätten, an Austrian scientist and director of the Imperial Porcelain Works in Vienna, who independently observed it in 1808 while experimenting with iron meteorite samples by polishing and heating them to reveal the crystalline features.^[3]^[4] Although Widmanstätten did not publish his findings, his contemporaries recognized the discovery, and the term "Widmanstätten pattern" was first documented in print in 1820 by naturalist Karl Ritter von Schreibers.^[4] Notably, a similar observation had been made earlier in 1804 by British chemist William Thomson using acid etching on the Cape of Good Hope meteorite, but the eponym honors Widmanstätten due to the enduring recognition in scientific literature.^[4] This structure forms deep within the metallic cores of differentiated asteroids during prolonged cooling periods spanning millions of years, where molten iron-nickel alloys solidify and kamacite lamellae grow perpendicular to the octahedral crystal planes of taenite, with band widths varying based on nickel content and cooling rates.^[1]^[2] Analogous Widmanstätten structures occur in certain terrestrial alloys under controlled slow cooling, but the meteoritic patterns are uniquely diagnostic of extraterrestrial origins, particularly in octahedrites, as they require cooling rates not typical under Earth's natural conditions, providing insights into the thermal history and size of their asteroid progenitors.^[1]^[3] Examples include the Gibeon meteorite from Namibia and the Muonionalusta from Sweden, where the patterns exhibit striking aesthetic and scientific value.^[4]

History and Discovery

Initial Observations

The initial observation of the Widmanstätten pattern occurred in 1804 when English mineralogist William Thomson, working in Naples, etched a section of the Krasnojarsk meteorite (a pallasite) with acid to remove surface oxidation, revealing a distinctive geometric arrangement of interlocking bands. Thomson documented this structure through drawings and published his findings in the Bibliothèque Britannique, a Geneva-based journal focused on British scientific contributions. However, his early death in 1806, combined with political instability in Naples due to the Napoleonic Wars, limited the dissemination and recognition of his work.^[5] Independently, in 1808, Austrian metallurgist and director of the Imperial Porcelain Works Alois von Beckh Widmanstätten conducted experiments in Vienna by polishing a slice of the Hraschina iron meteorite and heating it with a flame at high temperatures for several hours, which caused visible bands to emerge as a cross-hatched pattern. This annealing process highlighted the underlying microstructure without the need for chemical etching, distinguishing Widmanstätten's method from Thomson's. Widmanstätten shared his discovery through demonstrations at the Imperial Cabinet of Natural History but did not formally publish it himself.^[4]^[6] In 1820, Carl von Schreibers, curator of the Imperial Cabinet, acknowledged Widmanstätten's experimental revelation in a detailed publication on meteorites, formally naming the observed bands "Widmanstätten figures" in his honor and including illustrations based on the demonstration. This attribution overlooked Thomson's earlier etched observations, establishing Widmanstätten as the primary figure associated with the pattern's initial identification despite the independent prior work.^[7]

Naming and Recognition

The Widmanstätten pattern derives its name from Alois von Widmanstätten, an Austrian mineralogist who observed the distinctive microstructure in iron meteorites in 1808 through heating experiments on polished samples, though he did not publish his findings and instead shared them orally with colleagues in Vienna.^[4] The term was first introduced in print by Carl von Schreibers, director of the Imperial Natural History Cabinet, in his 1820 publication Beiträge zur Geschichte und Kenntniss der Baierischen Meteoriten, where he honored Widmanstätten's contributions by describing the etched figures in the Elbogen meteorite and including a lithographic plate of the pattern.^[4] However, the pattern's discovery predates Widmanstätten's work, as the English-Italian mineralogist William Thomson independently identified and documented it in 1804 while etching a slab of the Krasnojarsk pallasite meteorite with acid in Naples; Thomson published his observations, complete with illustrations, in the Bibliothèque Britannique.^[5] This earlier account sparked a historical priority debate, with some 19th- and 20th-century scholars arguing that Thomson deserved primary credit, as his work was both prior and publicized, while Widmanstätten's was later and unpublished.^[8] The dispute was resolved in modern scientific literature through dual recognition, leading to alternative nomenclature such as "Thomson structure" or "Thomson-Widmanstätten structure" to reflect both pioneers' roles.^[9] Over time, the terminology evolved from the early 19th-century "Widmanstätten figures," as coined by Schreibers and used in initial meteoritics descriptions, to more precise terms like "Widmanstätten patterns" or "structures" by the 20th century, particularly in metallurgy where the phenomenon was replicated in terrestrial alloys.^[8] This shift emphasized the pattern's broader significance beyond meteorites, integrating it into discussions of phase transformations in iron-nickel systems.^[9]

Formation Mechanism

Cooling Conditions

The Widmanstätten pattern forms within the iron-nickel cores of differentiated protoplanetary bodies, such as asteroids, where the metallic core solidifies and cools slowly after the surrounding silicate mantle insulates it from rapid heat loss. This insulation by overlying silicates, often several kilometers thick, allows the core to remain thermally stable for millions of years until catastrophic disruptions, like collisions, excavate and expose the material to space.^[10] The pattern develops through extremely slow cooling rates in the astrophysical environment, typically ranging from 100 to 10,000 °C per million years, occurring over tens to hundreds of millions of years in the cores of these bodies. These rates enable diffusion-controlled growth of the lamellar structure, as nickel atoms migrate gradually between phases without kinetic barriers dominating the process.^[10] Primary formation takes place in the temperature interval of approximately 700 °C to 450 °C, during which nickel partitioning between the kamacite and taenite phases drives the oriented precipitation of lamellae. Below this range, further cooling to around 300 °C completes the microstructure but with minimal additional growth.^[10] The bulk nickel content significantly influences the pattern's scale, with higher concentrations (8–15 wt%) resulting in finer lamellae widths due to reduced effective diffusion rates of nickel, which limit the extent of phase boundary migration during cooling. In contrast, lower nickel alloys produce coarser structures under similar conditions.^[10]^[1]

Phase Transformation Process

The Widmanstätten pattern emerges through an exsolution process in iron-nickel alloys, where an initial homogeneous austenite (γ) phase, containing 5–10 wt% nickel, transforms into two distinct phases during slow cooling: kamacite (α phase, low-nickel body-centered cubic iron with approximately 4–6 wt% Ni) and taenite (Ni-rich face-centered cubic γ phase with higher nickel content, typically 20–50 wt% Ni). This transformation is driven by nickel diffusion, as the alloy enters the two-phase (α + γ) field of the Fe-Ni phase diagram below approximately 900°C, leading to the nucleation and growth of kamacite lamellae oriented parallel to the {111} octahedral planes of the parent γ phase. The resulting microstructure consists of interlocking plates of kamacite separated by taenite bands, forming the characteristic geometric pattern.^[11] The kinetics of this phase transformation are governed by the diffusion of nickel atoms within the taenite phase, which controls the growth of kamacite plates. The diffusion coefficient D for Ni in Fe is approximated by the Arrhenius equation:

D = D_0 \exp\left(-\frac{Q}{RT}\right)

where D_0 is the pre-exponential factor (typically on the order of $10^{-4} to $10^{-5} m²/s), Q \approx 280 kJ/mol is the activation energy, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. At temperatures relevant to pattern formation (600–800°C), this results in lamellar growth rates of $10^{-12} to $10^{-9} m/s, allowing for the development of plates millimeters to centimeters in width over geological timescales. The primary Widmanstätten geometry arises from the nucleation-and-growth mechanism of kamacite precipitation. Upon further undercooling below 700°C, the remaining taenite regions may undergo additional transformations. In compositions within the miscibility gap (approximately 9–52 wt% Ni), spinodal decomposition can occur at lower temperatures (~400–200°C), amplifying composition fluctuations within the γ phase to form finer substructures such as the cloudy zone in taenite bands. This process contributes to refining details within the taenite but does not form the coarse interlocking kamacite plates.^[11]^[12] Secondary features, such as plessite, form in the inter-lamellar spaces between kamacite plates during continued cooling below 450°C, where the remaining taenite regions undergo rapid decomposition into fine intergrowths of kamacite and taenite due to increased undercooling and limited diffusion. These sub-micrometer-scale mixtures fill residual γ-phase pockets, completing the transformation and stabilizing the overall microstructure against further changes at lower temperatures.

Preparation and Visualization

Sample Preparation Steps

The preparation of samples for observing the Widmanstätten pattern begins with careful initial cutting to minimize deformation and heat input, which could distort the microstructure. Traditional methods employ wire saws with a carborundum or diamond slurry to slice the meteorite or Fe-Ni alloy perpendicular or parallel to the octahedral planes of the original taenite crystal. Cuts perpendicular to one of the three cubic axes reveal two sets of kamacite bands oriented at right angles to each other, while cuts parallel to an octahedral face display three sets of bands intersecting at 60° angles. Modern techniques often utilize wire electrical discharge machining (EDM) for precise, heat-free sectioning of valuable specimens, as demonstrated in the preparation of Gibeon meteorite components.^[13] These methods ensure clean surfaces without introducing artifacts, with cutting times varying from hours to days depending on sample size and equipment.^[14] Following sectioning, the sample undergoes grinding to remove saw marks and achieve planarity. This involves progressive abrasion using silicon carbide (SiC) papers on a rotating platen under water lubrication, starting with coarse grits such as 180 or 240 to eliminate cutting damage, then advancing to finer grits up to 1200 (approximately 15 μm particle size). Each step rotates the sample 90° relative to the previous to prevent directional grooves, ensuring uniform material removal and avoiding embedded abrasives that could scratch the surface. Small fragments are typically embedded in a polymer mount for secure handling during this process.^[14] Polishing follows grinding to produce a mirror-like finish essential for subsequent visualization. Initial rough polishing uses diamond abrasives (9 μm or 6 μm) on a low-nap cloth, progressing to 3 μm and occasionally 1 μm for intermediate refinement. Final polishing employs fine alumina (0.3 μm or 0.05 μm) or colloidal silica slurries on napless cloths like polyester or nylon, often with automated equipment to maintain consistent pressure and speed. This sequence removes deformation layers from prior steps, yielding a scratch-free surface that highlights the underlying structure without relief effects.^[14] For synthetic Fe-Ni alloys prone to oxidation, preparation may occur in inert atmospheres such as argon or nitrogen to prevent surface contamination; for meteorites, standard protocols suffice, with cooling lubricants during cutting and grinding to mitigate overheating that might induce artificial phase changes or pattern distortion. Samples should be handled with gloves to avoid oils, and protective equipment is recommended to manage abrasive dust.^[14] Historically, 19th-century methods relied on manual filing and rudimentary polishing with emery papers, as practiced by early researchers like Aloys von Widmanstätten, limiting precision and often introducing irregularities. By the mid-20th century, standardized metallographic techniques evolved, incorporating powered grinders and diamond pastes, as detailed in comprehensive surveys of meteorite preparation. Contemporary labs favor automated polishers and non-contact cutting for efficiency and reproducibility, reflecting advances in materials handling since the 1970s.^[15] Once mechanically prepared, the polished surface is ready for chemical etching to enhance contrast in the Widmanstätten pattern.^[14]

Etching Methods

The primary etching method for revealing the Widmanstätten pattern involves nital, a solution consisting of 1–5% nitric acid in ethanol, applied via immersion or swabbing to polished surfaces.^[14] This etchant preferentially attacks kamacite, the low-nickel body-centered cubic α-iron phase, due to its lower nobility compared to taenite, resulting in oxidation that creates a relief or color contrast with dark kamacite bands against a brighter taenite background.^[14] Etching times typically range from 3–10 minutes, though light etching (e.g., 0.5% nital) is often sufficient to highlight phase boundaries without excessive material removal; over-etching leads to pitting and loss of detail in the kamacite lamellae.^[16]^[17] Alternative etchants include picral (4 g picric acid in 100 ml ethanol), which provides a more uniform attack on kamacite for revealing plessite fields and taenite particles with less topographic relief.^[14] Aqueous ferric chloride solutions serve as another option, particularly for larger samples, applied by daubing for about 30 seconds to provide deeper contrast and good pattern visibility without rusting.^[16] For enhanced control, electrolytic etching can be employed using an alkaline sodium picrate electrolyte, where the sample acts as the anode at 6–8 V DC for 40–60 seconds, allowing precise regulation of etch depth to delineate fine Widmanstätten features.^[14] Following etching, samples are immediately rinsed in acetone or ethanol to neutralize residues, followed by air drying or mild heating to prevent corrosion.^[14]

Microstructure and Classification

Patterns in Meteorites

The Widmanstätten pattern in iron meteorites manifests as a distinctive geometric structure composed of intersecting plates of kamacite with bandwidths up to several millimeters, intergrown with narrower lamellae of taenite. These plates and lamellae are oriented parallel to the {111} octahedral planes of the original taenite crystals, creating a three-dimensional crystalline network that becomes visible in cross-sections as interlocking bands when the surface is polished and etched.^[10]^[18]^[19] Associated with this primary intergrowth are secondary features that provide insights into the meteorite's history. Neumann bands appear as fine, straight twins within the kamacite plates, resulting from shock deformation during the meteorite's impact events. Cohenite, with the formula Fe₃C, commonly forms at the edges of kamacite plates, while schreibersite ((Fe,Ni)₃P) occurs as elongated or rosette-shaped inclusions distributed throughout the structure, often aligned with the kamacite lamellae.^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23] In coarse octahedrites, the Widmanstätten pattern is prominently macroscopic, with kamacite bandwidths ranging from 1 to about 10 mm, as exemplified by the Sikhote-Alin meteorite, where these wide bands highlight the protracted cooling of the parent asteroid core. These bandwidth variations correlate with the cooling duration, with broader plates indicating slower rates that allowed extensive growth.^[24]^[25] Despite potential distortions from terrestrial weathering, which can rust and erode the metal surfaces, or from shock metamorphism that bends the lamellae, the Widmanstätten pattern typically preserves its fundamental octahedral habit, maintaining the geometric integrity of the {111} orientation even in altered specimens.^[18] The pattern forms through exsolution of kamacite from taenite during subsolidus cooling.^[10]

Compositional Variations

The morphology of Widmanstätten patterns in iron meteorites is strongly influenced by the nickel content of the Fe-Ni alloy, which determines the relative proportions and distribution of kamacite and taenite phases. Octahedrites, containing medium nickel levels (6–13 wt% Ni), exhibit the classic fine to coarse interlocking plates of kamacite and taenite, where the lamellae widths vary inversely with nickel content, resulting in more intricate and visible patterns upon etching.^[26] In contrast, ataxites with high nickel (>13 wt% Ni, up to ~35 wt%) show absent or only microscopic Widmanstätten structures, dominated by taenite with kamacite precipitates too fine to resolve optically, leading to a homogeneous appearance.^[24] Octahedrites are further classified structurally based on kamacite bandwidth measurements, which reflect compositional and thermal influences on pattern development; this scheme, established by Vagn F. Buchwald, ranges from coarsest (Ogg, bandwidth >3.3 mm) to finest (Om or Off, bandwidth <0.2 mm), enabling inferences about the meteorite's thermal history through correlation with nickel content and cooling dynamics.^[27] Bandwidths in coarser classes like Og (1.3–3.3 mm) and Ogg (>3.3 mm) are associated with lower nickel alloys that cooled slowly, producing broader lamellae, while finer classes (Of, 0.2–0.5 mm) correspond to higher nickel contents and faster cooling, yielding denser, narrower plates.^[24] Minor elements such as phosphorus and sulfur also modify the spacing and clarity of Widmanstätten lamellae by altering phase nucleation and growth kinetics during cooling. Phosphorus, present at 0.1–0.5 wt%, promotes kamacite nucleation at higher temperatures when concentrations exceed 0.1 wt%, resulting in wider kamacite lamellae and a coarser overall pattern compared to low-phosphorus meteorites.^[28] Sulfur, typically 0.1–1 wt% and forming inclusions like troilite, can disrupt lamellae continuity and influence local spacing variations, though its effects are less pronounced than phosphorus on the bulk structure.^[10] A key quantitative metric for assessing these variations is the bandwidth factor W = w \times c, where w is the kamacite bandwidth in mm and c is the bulk nickel content in wt%; this product normalizes the structural scale for compositional differences, allowing estimation of cooling rates from ~1 to 1000 °C/Myr across meteorite groups.^[29] Higher W values indicate slower cooling in lower-nickel alloys with broader lamellae, providing insights into parent body thermal gradients without direct reliance on diffusion modeling.^[30]

Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial Occurrences

In Iron Meteorites

Widmanstätten patterns are observed in the majority of iron meteorites, particularly in octahedrites, which comprise the most common structural type of iron meteorites. These patterns are absent in undifferentiated chondrites, which lack the metallic composition and slow cooling history necessary for their development.^[31] The characteristics of Widmanstätten patterns play a key role in the structural classification of iron meteorites, dividing them into categories such as coarse, medium, and fine octahedrites based on the bandwidth of kamacite lamellae, which inversely correlates with nickel content and cooling rate. This structural data integrates with chemical grouping schemes, such as IAB and IIICD, where nickel content and pattern coarseness help trace origins to specific parent bodies, including the M-type asteroid 16 Psyche for certain metallic groups.^[32] The presence of these patterns serves as a diagnostic indicator of an extraterrestrial metallic core origin, as they form exclusively under the extremely slow cooling rates (typically 1–100 °C per million years) experienced in asteroid interiors, conditions unattainable in terrestrial iron alloys due to much faster solidification processes.^[33] Representative examples illustrate the range of pattern types: the Canyon Diablo meteorite displays coarse Widmanstätten patterns associated with approximately 7 wt% nickel, while higher nickel contents, around 11 wt%, correlate with finer patterns in meteorites like those in the IIICD group.^[34]

In Synthetic and Terrestrial Materials

Widmanstätten patterns, characterized by oriented plates or needles of one phase within another, also appear in various terrestrial alloys due to controlled heat treatments that promote diffusion-limited phase transformations. In zirconium alloys such as Zircaloy-4, used in nuclear reactor cladding, these patterns manifest as basketweave or parallel alpha plates formed during beta quenching. This structure develops when the alloy is heated to the beta phase field above approximately 950°C and then cooled at rates that allow alpha precipitation between 800°C and 600°C, resulting in Widmanstätten morphologies that influence corrosion resistance and mechanical properties.^[35]^[36] Similar Widmanstätten structures occur in titanium alloys like Ti-6Al-4V, commonly employed in aerospace applications, where a basketweave arrangement of alpha laths forms within prior beta grains. This microstructure arises during cooling from the beta transus temperature around 995°C at intermediate rates of 10–100°C/min, producing a fine, interlocking pattern that balances strength and ductility.^[37]^[38] In carbon steels near the eutectoid composition, Widmanstätten structures appear as acicular ferrite or cementite needles within pearlite colonies, formed during isothermal transformation of austenite. These needles precipitate at grain boundaries when cooling or holding occurs in the temperature range of 600–500°C, leading to a feathery appearance that can embrittle the material if excessive.^[39]^[40] Laboratory synthesis of meteoritic analogs replicates Widmanstätten patterns in Fe-Ni alloys by furnace cooling at controlled low rates of 1–10°C/hr from temperatures below the gamma field, mimicking slow asteroid cooling and producing kamacite plates in taenite. These experiments confirm that undercooling of 50–100°C below the equilibrium temperature is required for nucleation, yielding patterns comparable to those in natural iron meteorites but on a smaller scale due to accelerated timelines.^[41]^[42] Compared to pristine octahedral geometries in meteorites, synthetic and terrestrial Widmanstätten patterns are often finer and less regular owing to higher cooling rates, which limit diffusion and growth. For instance, in forged Damascus steel, the patterns become distorted through mechanical working, altering the original acicular morphology into wavy bands.^[43] Recent observations post-2020 highlight Widmanstätten-like textures in additively manufactured Inconel 718 superalloy components for aerospace, where rapid solidification followed by heat treatment produces acicular laths in a basketweave arrangement. These structures form during solution annealing around 980–1080°C and aging, enhancing high-temperature performance but requiring optimization to control grain size.^[44]^[45]

Applications and Significance

In Meteoritics

In meteoritics, Widmanstätten patterns serve as critical indicators for reconstructing the thermal histories of iron meteorite parent bodies. The width of kamacite lamellae in these patterns, measured metallographically after etching, correlates with cooling rates during the solidification of metallic cores. For instance, coarse patterns with lamellae widths exceeding 2 mm typically correspond to slow cooling rates of approximately 10 °C per million years, suggesting formation within large differentiated asteroids with core radii greater than 100 km.^[46]^[47] These measurements, derived from nickel diffusion models, reveal that parent bodies experienced prolonged subsolidus cooling over tens of millions of years, providing constraints on the sizes and insulation properties of ancient protoplanetary cores.^[48] The presence of well-developed Widmanstätten patterns is a primary criterion for verifying the extraterrestrial origin and authenticity of iron meteorites. Sharp, interlocking kamacite-taenite lamellae confirm the slow cooling in space, distinguishing genuine samples from terrestrial iron alloys, which rarely replicate the pattern's geometric precision. Absence of the pattern or its distortion—often manifested as Neumann bands from shock deformation—signals potential fakes, terrestrial contaminants, or heavily shocked meteorites subjected to high-pressure impacts.^[10]^[20] Such features allow rapid initial classification, with further confirmation via nickel content (typically 5-30 wt%) and trace element ratios.^[49] Widmanstätten patterns also offer insights into asteroid differentiation and parent body dynamics. In the IIIAB chemical group, the patterns exhibit uniform kamacite bandwidths indicative of consistent cooling rates around 50 K per million years across samples, linking them to a single core from a differentiated planetesimal approximately 25 km in radius. Compositional similarities between IIIAB irons and metal nodules in mesosiderites further suggest shared origins, with the patterns reflecting core-mantle interactions during early solar system accretion and subsequent collisional disruption.^[50]^[51] These structures thus trace the fractionation of metallic cores from silicate mantles, illuminating the prevalence of differentiation among kilometer-scale asteroids.^[52] Recent advancements in the 2020s have integrated computed tomography (CT) scanning with traditional metallography to enable non-destructive 3D mapping of Widmanstätten patterns, preserving rare samples for further study. High-resolution X-ray CT reveals internal lamellae orientations and inclusions without etching, enhancing cooling rate estimates by capturing the full three-dimensional geometry. This approach has been applied to newly classified irons, such as the 2020 Huoyanshan meteorite, yielding refined thermal models that align with bandwidth-derived rates of 3-50 °C per million years.^[53]^[48]

In Materials Science

In materials science, Widmanstätten patterns serve as key indicators of thermal history and processing conditions in engineering alloys, particularly during heat treatment and welding. In titanium alloys such as Ti-6Al-4V, these patterns form through the transformation of the high-temperature beta phase into coarse, plate-like alpha structures during slow cooling or in the heat-affected zone of welds, often leading to embrittlement by reducing ductility and promoting brittle fracture.^[54] To mitigate this, process control emphasizes rapid cooling rates—typically exceeding 100°C/min—to suppress coarse Widmanstätten formation and favor finer, equiaxed microstructures that preserve toughness and fatigue resistance in critical components like aerospace welds.^[55] Conversely, fine Widmanstätten structures can be intentionally engineered in alpha-beta titanium alloys to enhance mechanical properties; for instance, basketweave patterns exhibit slower fatigue crack propagation rates than bimodal structures, improving overall toughness in load-bearing applications.^[56] Failure analysis leverages Widmanstätten patterns to reconstruct thermal exposure in failed components, revealing instances of overheating or improper processing. In titanium alloy turbine blades for aircraft engines, the presence of coarse Widmanstätten alpha plates signals exposure to temperatures above the beta transus (around 995°C for Ti-6Al-4V), indicating potential overheating that compromises structural integrity through microstructural coarsening and reduced creep resistance.^[57] Quantitative metallographic examination, including measurement of alpha plate spacing via scanning electron microscopy, allows forensic determination of peak temperatures and exposure durations, aiding root-cause investigations in high-performance environments like gas turbines.^[58] Modern applications of Widmanstätten patterns extend to nuclear and advanced manufacturing sectors, where controlled formation optimizes performance. In zirconium alloys like Zr-2.5Nb used for nuclear fuel cladding, Widmanstätten microstructures in air-cooled conditions influence corrosion resistance in high-temperature water environments; for alloys with less than 0.6 wt% Nb, these patterns have minimal impact on oxidation rates, but higher Nb supersaturation in the alpha matrix can accelerate corrosion by altering oxide layer stability.^[59] Recent 2020s research in additive manufacturing focuses on tailoring Widmanstätten alpha colonies in directed energy deposition of Ti-6Al-4V, using in-situ induction heating to refine grain boundary structures and mitigate anisotropic tensile properties, enabling robust components for space technology where lightweight, high-strength alloys withstand extreme thermal cycles.^[60] Post-2020 studies have explored engineering Widmanstätten precipitates in multicomponent Fe-Ni based alloys, yielding variants that exhibit superior high-temperature toughness.^[61]

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An Equation for the Determination of Iron-Meteorite Cooling Rates
... kamacite bandwidth and the bulk Ni content of the meteorite. Although this ... Ratio Bandwidth mm Log Bandwidth Ni % Cooling Rate Caic Graph CRgr CR~~c ...
[33]
The Structure and Composition of Meteorites
These meteorites are well-known because the iron metal often crystallized in crisscrossing plates, known as a Widmanstätten pattern after the name of an ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[34]
(16) Psyche: A mesosiderite-like asteroid? - Astronomy & Astrophysics
It is considered one of the few main-belt bodies that could be an exposed proto-planetary metallic core and that would thus be related to iron meteorites. Such ...Missing: group | Show results with:group
[35]
Origin, age, and composition of meteorites - Astrophysics Data System
... PANETH (1960) and SMrFH (1962). 590 EDWARD ANDERS Fig. 2. Widmanstätten ... history; often to the point where the Widmanstätten pattern was faint or absent.
[36]
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/40031067.pdf
[37]
[PDF] Microstructure of Zirconium Alloys and Effects on Performance
Figure 5-3: Microstructure of Zircaloy-4 cooled from the β phase field (4h at 1100°C, air cooled) demonstrating the two different Widmanstätten morphologies (a) ...
[38]
[PDF] texture evolution during beta-quenching of a zirconium alloy - CORE
zirconium alloys develop a Widmanstätten microstructure, with α ... zirconium alloys in nuclear reactors, mainly due to anisotropy phenomena such as.<|control11|><|separator|>
[39]
Microstructural evolution of a Ti–6Al–4V alloy during ...
The 'lamellar' structure varies with cooling rate, ranging from colonized platelike α at a low cooling rate, a basketweave morphology at an intermediate cooling ...
[40]
High Thermal Stability of a Colony and Basket-Weave Mixed ... - MDPI
Mar 7, 2023 · Kim et al. [11] annealed the SLM-fabricated Ti-6Al-4V alloy at 1040 ℃ for 1 h to achieve a Widmanstätten structure, and the annealed ...
[41]
Formation of Widmanstätten Ferrite and Grain Boundary ... - MDPI
Accompanied by the formation of pearlite, Widmanstätten ferrite (WF), grain boundary ferrite and cementite are often found to nucleate at the prior ...
[42]
Influence of alloyed elements on the formation of the Widmanstatten ...
In pre-eutectoid steel the Widmanstatten structure formed at temperatures 70–100°C below the A1 point is unstable and decomposes after prolonged heating during ...
[43]
Iron meteorite Widmanstatten pattern produced in the laboratory.
A Widmanstatten pattern was produced in many of these same alloys after undercooling 30 to more than 100 °C below the equilibrium nucleation temperature.
[44]
The effect of phosphorus on the formation of the Widmanstätten ...
The effect of phosphorus on the formation of the Widmanstätten pattern in iron meteorites ... A.S. Doan, J.I. Goldstein. The formation of phosphides in iron ...
[45]
Complex Widmanstätten plates consisting of cementite and ferrite ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The upper temperature limit for the eutectoid reaction is between 1023 K and 973 K. The complex Widmanstätten plates have some characteristics ...
[46]
[PDF] Microstructure Modelling of Additive Manufacturing of Alloy 718
Dec 14, 2018 · Widmanstätten morphology can be observed. 3.2.4 Laves phase. The Laves phase is a topologically closed pack (TCP) phase that forms in Alloy.
[47]
[PDF] Additive manufacturing of Inconel 718 – Ti6Al4V bimetallic structures
A high magnification. SEM image in Fig. 6a shows a basket weave-like structure, which indicates the formation of. Widmanstätten structure. Fig. 6b shows ...
[48]
Rapid Methods of Determining Cooling Rates of Iron and Stony Iron ...
Two rapid and simple methods have been developed for determining the approximate cooling rates of iron and stony-iron meteorites in which kamacite formed by ...
[49]
Cooling rates and thermal histories of iron and stony-iron meteorites
Cooling rates calculated for uniform and fractionated parent bodies exceeding 100 km in radius can differ by a factor of more than 3. ... The core model appears ...
[50]
Metallographic Cooling Rate and Petrogenesis of the Recently ...
Sep 2, 2021 · The model includes five major factors: the mechanism for Widmanstätten pattern formation, kamacite nucleation temperature, the effects of ...Introduction · Results · Discussion · Conclusions
[51]
Kentucky Geological Survey Meteorite Database
Jan 5, 2023 · The Widmanstatten pattern makes iron meteorites easy to identify when the meteorite is polished and etched. Some metallic meteorites contain ...Missing: authenticity | Show results with:authenticity
[52]
Cooling rates of IIIAB iron meteorites - ScienceDirect.com
The average cooling rate for the group is found to be 49 K/my, corresponding to a parent body radius of 25 ± 7 km. An interpretation of the nucleation history ...
[53]
A Reexamination of Mesosiderite Metal Using Low-Temperature ...
Compositional evidence [3] links mesosiderite metal to IIIAB iron meteorites, but structural differences lead to much slower cooling rates, requiring a ...
[54]
7 - Iron and Stony-iron Meteorites: Evidence for the Formation ...
The metallographic cooling rate method revised: Application to iron meteorites and mesosiderites. ... Metallographic cooling rates of the IIIAB iron meteorites.<|separator|>
[55]
[PDF] Analysis of Iron Meteorites Using Computed Tomography and ...
Computed tomography (CT) imaging and electron-probe microanalysis (EPMA) have been used to study samples of the Mundrabilla and Colomera iron meteorites in ...Missing: non- destructive Widmanstätten pattern
[56]
[PDF] metallography of titanium alloys
A final heat treatment above the beta transus will produce a transformed structure, ... Heat treatment after welding may be used to relieve stresses, overcome ...
[57]
The microstructure evolution and embrittlement mechanism in the ...
Embrittlement mechanism in HAZ of GMAWed titanium alloys is first elucidated. · Morphology and texture of high-temperature β are observed by parent β ...
[58]
[PDF] Fatigue Properties of a New High Strength and High Toughness ...
It is shown that the fatigue crack propagation rate for the Widmanstatten structure is slightly slower than that for the basket- weave structure. The effects of ...Missing: desired | Show results with:desired
[59]
[PDF] Quantitative Microstructure Analysis to Determine Overheating ...
A method has been developed that uses microstructural analysis to clearly identify and quantify past overheat temperatures on IN100 rotor blades. The ...
[60]
[PDF] RESEARCH MEMORANDUM
However, as will be discussed in the section Blade failure mechanisms, there is no reason to expect that the S-816 blades will run the 860 hours corresponding ...
[61]
Correlation between microstructure and corrosion behavior of Zr–Nb binary alloy
### Summary of Correlation Between Widmanstätten Microstructure and Corrosion in Zr-Nb Alloys
[62]
Effect of grain boundary Widmanstätten α colony on the anisotropic ...
Jun 10, 2024 · This study employed in-situ induction heating during DED to control αWGB formation, yielding three Ti-6Al-4 V samples with varying αWGB sizes.
[63]
(PDF) Laser Melting of Mechanically Alloyed FeNi - ResearchGate
Mar 21, 2024 · This study demonstrates the optimization of laser parameters for defect-free, uniform, and chemically homogeneous FeNi alloy synthesis.
[64]
Strong and ductile high temperature soft magnets through ...
Dec 9, 2023 · The strong and ductile soft ferromagnet is realized as a multicomponent alloy in which precipitates with a large aspect ratio form a Widmanstätten pattern.