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Lamellar structure

A lamellar structure is a microscopic arrangement characterized by thin, plate-like layers known as lamellae, typically stacked in parallel or alternating patterns, often exhibiting variations in composition, orientation, or density.^[1]^[2] This organization imparts distinct mechanical, optical, and functional properties, such as anisotropy and enhanced toughness, due to the layered configuration that allows for stress distribution and controlled deformation.^[3] Lamellar structures occur naturally and synthetically across multiple disciplines, including materials science, biology, and geology, where they form through processes like phase separation, crystallization, or biomineralization.^[2]^[4] In materials science, lamellar structures are prominent in alloys and polymers; for instance, pearlite in steels consists of alternating lamellae of ferrite (α-Fe) and cementite (Fe₃C), formed via eutectoid decomposition of austenite, which influences the material's strength and ductility depending on interlamellar spacing.^[5]^[6] Synthetic examples include layered hydrogels with aligned titanate nanosheets or polymer composites reinforced by metal nanoparticles, leveraging electrostatic interactions for alignment and applications in drug delivery or seismic damping.^[7]^[8] These structures often display periodic arrangements that enable photonic effects, such as structural coloration in bio-inspired designs.^[3] In biological systems, lamellar structures contribute to the resilience of tissues and organelles; lamellar bone, the predominant form in mature skeletons, comprises parallel bundles of mineralized collagen fibrils organized into five sublayers per unit, with varying orientations that optimize load-bearing and repair.^[9] In molluscan shells, a crossed lamellar arrangement features first-order lamellae as rectangular blocks of second-order laths at alternating angles, embedded in organic matrices, providing fracture resistance through mechanisms like crack deflection.^[10] Additionally, epidermal lamellar bodies in skin, which contain stacked lipid lamellae that form trilamellar structures essential for barrier function, and starch granules exhibit alternating crystalline-amorphous layers essential for energy storage.^[11]^[12] Geological contexts highlight lamellar structures in minerals, such as deformation lamellae in quartz or feldspar, which are fine, parallel slip planes formed under stress, indicating tectonic history, or the platy habit in micas where layers cleave easily due to weak interlayer bonds.^[13]^[14] Overall, the prevalence and adaptability of lamellar architectures underscore their role in enhancing material performance across scales and environments.

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

A lamellar structure consists of thin, plate-like layers, known as lamellae, arranged in parallel or alternating configurations, often forming a repeating pattern of distinct phases or materials.^[2] These layers typically exhibit thicknesses ranging from the nanoscale to microscale, enabling unique organizational hierarchies. The term "lamella" derives from the Latin lāmella, a diminutive of lāmina meaning "thin plate," reflecting its historical association with flat, scalelike forms.^[15] Lamellar structures can be broadly classified into natural and synthetic types. Natural lamellar structures often arise through self-assembly processes, as seen in biological and polymeric systems where molecular interactions spontaneously form ordered layers.^[3] In contrast, synthetic lamellar structures are engineered via techniques like deposition or templating to replicate or enhance these ordered arrangements for targeted applications.^[16] The defining layered organization of lamellar structures inherently introduces anisotropy, where material properties vary directionally due to the parallel alignment of lamellae, influencing aspects like stiffness along the layering plane versus perpendicular to it.^[2] This foundational arrangement underpins lamellar structures across diverse fields, from materials engineering to biology.

Key Features

Lamellar structures are characterized by alternating layers of distinct phases or materials, typically arranged in a stacked configuration with sharp interfaces separating adjacent lamellae. These interfaces form due to contrasts in composition, density, or molecular organization between layers, which can include non-bonded regions or electrostatic interactions that maintain the layered integrity.^[17]^[18] A defining trait of lamellar structures is their planar geometry, coupled with a high degree of periodicity perpendicular to the layer planes, resulting in repeating motifs that define the overall architecture. This periodicity manifests as regular interlamellar distances, though variations in thickness can occur across the stack. Common defects include disruptions in the layering sequence, such as tilts, rotations, or misalignments at interfaces, which introduce local disorder without fully dismantling the structure.^[18]^[17] In terms of dimensions, individual lamellae exhibit thicknesses typically from the nanoscale to microscale, while multiple lamellae stack to form coherent domains that can extend to larger scales. Interlamellar spacing, which encompasses the distance between consecutive layers including any intervening regions, varies with synthesis conditions and material type.^[19] The composition of adjacent layers significantly influences lamellar formation and stability, as differences in material properties—such as hydrophilic versus hydrophobic characteristics—promote phase separation and self-assembly into ordered stacks. For example, polar and non-polar components in adjacent layers create energetic drives for segregation, enhancing the distinctiveness of interfaces and the periodicity of the structure.^[18] This compositional contrast often underpins the anisotropic behavior inherent to lamellar architectures.^[20]

Occurrence in Materials Science

In Metals and Alloys

In metals and alloys, lamellar structures manifest as alternating layers of distinct phases, often arising from phase transformations during cooling or solidification. A primary example is lamellar pearlite in steels, which forms through the eutectoid decomposition of austenite into ferrite (α-Fe) and cementite (Fe₃C) at 727°C, as depicted in the iron-carbon phase diagram. This transformation produces a fine, layered microstructure where ferrite lamellae (approximately 88 wt%) alternate with cementite lamellae (12 wt%), typically with interlamellar spacings on the order of 0.1–1 μm depending on cooling rate.^[21]^[22] Another prominent case occurs in eutectic alloys such as Al-Si systems, where directional solidification yields a lamellar eutectic consisting of alternating α-Al (face-centered cubic aluminum solid solution) and silicon phases. In near-eutectic compositions (around 12.6 wt% Si), the lamellae grow cooperatively, with silicon plates embedded in the aluminum matrix, influencing castability and wear resistance in applications like engine components.^[23]^[24] In titanium alloys, such as Ti-6Al-4V, lamellar microstructures develop during heat treatment or cooling from the β-phase field, featuring alternating α (hexagonal close-packed) and β (body-centered cubic) lamellae with thicknesses ranging from submicron to tens of micrometers. These structures often incorporate deformation twins within the α lamellae to accommodate lattice mismatches and external stresses.^[25]^[26] Recent advances include hetero-lamellar structures in high-entropy alloys and woven eutectic lamellae in additively manufactured lattices, which occur through controlled processing to achieve superior mechanical properties.^[27]^[28] The formation of these lamellar structures in metals is primarily governed by diffusion-controlled mechanisms during either solidification or solid-state heat treatments. In eutectic solidification, solute rejection at the solid-liquid interface drives the coupled growth of alternating phases to minimize undercooling and interfacial energy, as modeled in classical theories for steady-state lamellar eutectics. Similarly, in solid-state transformations like the pearlite reaction, carbon diffusion in austenite enables the ledgewise advancement of ferrite-cementite interfaces, resulting in oriented lamellae aligned with the transformation front. Heat treatments in alloys like titanium further promote lamellar colony formation by controlling β-grain nucleation and α-phase precipitation.^[29]^[30] Microstructurally, lamellar arrangements in metals and alloys play a key role in phase separation by enabling efficient partitioning of alloying elements between lamellae, which stabilizes the two-phase equilibrium and reduces overall free energy. They also exert significant effects at grain boundaries, where lamellar colonies act as barriers to grain growth and dislocation propagation, thereby enhancing resistance to coarsening and influencing recrystallization behavior during subsequent processing. In steels, for instance, the pearlite lamellae refine the effective grain size and promote uniform deformation distribution.^[31]^[22]

In Polymers and Composites

In polymers, lamellar structures commonly arise through microphase separation in block copolymers, where immiscible segments self-assemble into periodic domains to balance enthalpic and entropic contributions to the free energy.^[32] This process is particularly evident in diblock copolymers like polystyrene-block-polybutadiene (PS-b-PB), which form alternating lamellar layers with thicknesses typically ranging from 10 to 50 nm, depending on molecular weight and composition.^[33] These domains create a nanoscale layered morphology that enhances mechanical properties and enables applications in templating for nanostructures.^[34] In polymer composites, lamellar structures are engineered by incorporating layered inorganic fillers, such as montmorillonite clay, into matrices like nylon-6 to form nanocomposites. Montmorillonite, with its platelet-like silicate layers approximately 1 nm thick and lateral dimensions of 100-1000 nm, intercalates or exfoliates within the polymer, yielding hybrid materials with improved barrier properties and strength. Pioneering work demonstrated that in situ polymerization of ε-caprolactam in the presence of montmorillonite produces exfoliated nylon-6 nanocomposites, where the clay layers disperse uniformly, reinforcing the matrix at low loadings (e.g., 5 wt%). This layered architecture exploits the high aspect ratio of the clay to achieve percolation networks that enhance the tensile modulus by 60% to over 100%, depending on processing.^[35] Hierarchical lamellar organization is prominent in semi-crystalline polymers, where individual crystal lamellae—thin folded-chain platelets about 10-20 nm thick—assemble into larger spherulites. In polyethylene, for instance, these lamellae radiate outward from a central nucleus, forming spherulites up to hundreds of micrometers in diameter that exhibit a textured, bundled arrangement of layers.^[36] This superstructure arises during melt crystallization, with lamellae branching and twisting to fill space efficiently, influencing overall polymer toughness and optical clarity.^[37] The formation of these lamellar structures in polymers and composites is primarily driven by the thermodynamic imperative to minimize interfacial energy between dissimilar phases, leading to periodic layering that reduces the overall free energy of the system.^[32] In block copolymers, this involves a competition between repulsive block interactions and chain stretching penalties, stabilizing lamellar phases over other morphologies like cylinders or spheres.^[38] Similarly, in clay-polymer hybrids and crystalline spherulites, interfacial tension promotes alignment and packing of layers, with kinetic factors like cooling rate modulating the final hierarchy.

Biological Lamellar Structures

In Cellular Components

In cellular components, lamellar structures are prominent in various organelles, where they facilitate essential biological processes through organized membrane stacking. One primary example is found in the thylakoids of chloroplasts in plant cells and algae, which consist of flattened, disc-like sacs arranged in stacked lamellae known as grana. These grana formations typically measure 300-600 nm in diameter and serve as sites for light-dependent reactions in photosynthesis, with the stacked membranes optimizing the spatial arrangement of photosystems for efficient electron transport.^[39] Another key instance involves lamellar bodies, disc-shaped organelles prevalent in epithelial cells, such as type II alveolar cells in the lungs. These structures store pulmonary surfactant lipids in the form of tightly packed, concentric stacked bilayers, with individual bilayers approximately 6 nm thick and a repeat distance of about 11 nm between layers, enabling the regulated secretion of surfactant to reduce surface tension in alveoli.^[40] The biogenesis of these bodies involves the assembly of phospholipids and proteins within multivesicular precursors, culminating in the characteristic lamellar organization.^[41] Additional examples of lamellar configurations appear in the Golgi apparatus, where cisternae form stacked, flattened membrane discs that process and modify proteins and lipids through sequential compartments. Similarly, mitochondrial cristae exhibit lamellar infoldings of the inner membrane, increasing surface area for oxidative phosphorylation while maintaining compartmental separation between matrix and intermembrane space.^[42]^[43] These lamellar structures collectively play critical roles in cellular compartmentalization and intracellular transport, segregating biochemical reactions and enabling vectorial movement of molecules across membranes in a controlled manner.^[44] In thylakoids, this organization supports photosynthetic efficiency; in lamellar bodies, it ensures surfactant delivery; and in Golgi and mitochondrial components, it sustains protein trafficking and energy production, respectively.^[39]^[41]^[42]

In Tissues and Organs

In vertebrate tissues, lamellar bone exemplifies a hierarchical structure adapted for mechanical resilience, consisting of concentric lamellae of mineralized extracellular matrix surrounding central Haversian canals that house blood vessels and nerves.^[45] These lamellae, typically 5–20 layers thick with an average of about 8–12, and composed of type I collagen fibrils embedded with hydroxyapatite crystals, form osteons that align with principal stress directions to distribute loads effectively and resist fracture.^[45] This organization enhances the bone's rigidity while minimizing porosity, providing directional strength akin to plywood, which supports weight-bearing functions in long bones and vertebrae.^[46] In organs, lamellar structures facilitate specialized physiological roles, such as gas exchange in fish gills, where secondary lamellae on gill filaments create thin, plate-like extensions that vastly increase the surface area for oxygen diffusion from water into the bloodstream.^[47] These lamellae, spaced 20–110 μm apart, optimize oxygen uptake by balancing diffusive flux with minimal viscous resistance during water flow, enabling efficient respiration across a wide range of fish body sizes from 0.1 g to 100 kg.^[47] Similarly, in mammalian skin, the stratum corneum features orthogonal lipid lamellae formed by ceramides, cholesterol, and free fatty acids in an approximately equimolar (1:1:1) molar ratio, which assemble into hydrophobic bilayers that seal intercellular spaces between corneocytes.^[48] These lamellae impart a robust barrier against transepidermal water loss and microbial invasion, with ultra-long-chain fatty acids (C28–C36) promoting tight packing and reduced permeability.^[49] The formation of these lamellar architectures in tissues and organs occurs through orchestrated extracellular matrix deposition and epithelial remodeling. In bone, osteoblasts sequentially deposit type I collagen layers, approximately 2 μm thick, with alternating fibril orientations relative to mechanical stress axes, followed by mineralization via alkaline phosphatase-mediated phosphate release and pH regulation to form hydroxyapatite crystals.^[50] For gill lamellae, epithelial folding during embryonic development generates the fan-like secondary structures from primary filaments, enhancing surface complexity for gas exchange. In skin, lamellar bodies derived from keratinocytes briefly contribute stacked membrane precursors that fuse to extrude lipids, organizing into mature lamellae upon extrusion into the stratum corneum intercellular space. Overall, these processes ensure precise layering for functional adaptation. Physiologically, lamellar configurations in tissues confer advantages like amplified surface area for diffusion-dependent processes, as seen in gills where interlamellar spacing maximizes oxygen transfer rates despite water's low diffusivity.^[47] In load-bearing contexts like bone, the aligned lamellae provide anisotropic strength, with the twisted plywood arrangement of collagen fibrils optimizing tensile and compressive resistance to prevent microcrack propagation under cyclic stresses.^[46] These properties underscore the evolutionary refinement of lamellar organization for tissue integrity and organ efficiency in multicellular organisms.

Geological and Mineralogical Aspects

In Minerals

Lamellar structures in minerals refer to layered crystal lattices characterized by alternating planes of strong ionic or covalent bonding within layers and weak interlayer forces, such as van der Waals or hydrogen bonds, which facilitate cleavage along basal planes.^[51] These structures are prevalent in phyllosilicates and certain native elements, contributing to the minerals' distinctive physical properties like flexibility and splitting into thin sheets.^[52] Mica minerals, particularly muscovite, exemplify lamellar structures through their sheet silicate composition, where tetrahedral silica layers sandwich octahedral sheets, forming TOT units bonded by weak van der Waals forces mediated by interlayer potassium ions.^[53] This arrangement results in perfect basal cleavage, allowing the mineral to split effortlessly into elastic, plate-like sheets along the (001) plane.^[54] Muscovite commonly occurs in metamorphic rocks like schist and sedimentary rocks as a detrital component, highlighting its stability in various geological environments.^[51] Graphite displays a classic lamellar form with stacked hexagonal layers of carbon atoms, featuring strong covalent sp² bonds within each graphene-like plane and weak van der Waals interactions between layers, spaced approximately 3.35 Å apart.^[55] This layered lattice enables perfect cleavage and lubricity, as layers can slide over one another.^[56] Graphite is typically found in metamorphic rocks, such as marbles and schists, often associated with high-pressure, carbon-rich metamorphism.^[51] Other minerals exhibit lamellar features through twinning or hydrated layering. In feldspars, particularly plagioclase, lamellar twinning occurs as fine, parallel intergrowths of albite and anorthite lamellae, arising from repeated contact twinning along the albite law, which produces striations visible under magnification.^[57] Deformation lamellae in quartz and feldspar are microscopic, parallel slip planes or thin glassy layers formed by plastic deformation mechanisms like mechanical twinning or dislocation glide under tectonic stress, often at low temperatures, providing indicators of strain and deformation history in rocks.^[13] Gypsum, a sulfate mineral, forms lamellar crystals due to its structure of alternating Ca²⁺ and SO₄²⁻ layers linked by hydrogen-bonded water molecules, yielding perfect cleavage in one direction and common occurrence in sedimentary evaporite deposits.^[58] These examples underscore the prevalence of lamellar architectures in both metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, driven by crystallographic preferences for anisotropic bonding.^[51]

Formation Processes

Lamellar structures in rocks and minerals primarily arise through geological processes that promote layering via mechanical alignment or chemical deposition. In metamorphic environments, directed pressure during regional metamorphism induces foliation, where platy minerals such as micas align parallel to the stress direction, forming schistosity in rocks like slates and schists.^[59] This foliation develops as preexisting rocks recrystallize under differential stress, with low-grade examples in slates exhibiting fine-scale slaty cleavage from the parallel orientation of clay-derived minerals.^[60] Sedimentary processes also contribute to lamellar layering, particularly in shales, where fine-grained particles settle in quiet aqueous environments, creating thin, parallel laminae through episodic deposition and compaction.^[61] Chemical mechanisms further drive lamellar formation through the precipitation of layered silicates, or phyllosilicates, from aqueous solutions in diagenetic or low-temperature settings. These minerals, including clays and micas, nucleate and grow in layers as silica and metal cations supersaturate in pore fluids, often during weathering or early burial.^[62] Hydrothermal alteration enhances this by circulating hot, mineral-rich fluids through fractures, depositing lamellar veins of phyllosilicates like chlorite or serpentine along fluid pathways in host rocks.^[63] The kinetics of lamellar structure development depend on temperature, pressure, and duration, which control crystal alignment and growth. In metamorphic settings, temperatures of 200–600°C, combined with pressures of 0.2–1 GPa over millions of years, facilitate the recrystallization and orientation of platy crystals, as seen in mica formation during prograde metamorphism.^[60] Time scales allow for progressive deformation partitioning, enhancing layer-parallel fabrics without complete melting.^[59] This alignment often results in minerals exhibiting perfect basal cleavage, such as in mica. Many lamellar structures trace back to ancient geological events, with Precambrian gneisses showcasing banded lamellae formed during Archean to Proterozoic orogenies through high-grade metamorphism and partial melting.^[64] These formations, dating to over 2.5 billion years ago, preserve evidence of early Earth's tectonic activity in continental crust.^[65]

Properties and Analysis

Physical Properties

Lamellar structures exhibit significant mechanical anisotropy stemming from their alternating layers of strong intralayer bonding and weaker interlayer interactions, resulting in easy cleavage perpendicular to the layers and enhanced toughness under loading parallel to them.^[66] In crossed-lamellar architectures, such as those found in biological shells, this manifests as higher fracture strength in the transverse direction relative to the longitudinal, with multiple toughening mechanisms—including crack deflection, twisting, and micro-cracking—contributing to improved energy dissipation and fracture resistance.^[67] The shear stress at interfaces, which influences delamination and cracking, follows the relation \tau = G \gamma, where G is the shear modulus and \gamma is the shear strain, highlighting the role of elastic deformation in maintaining structural integrity under load.^[67] Thermal and electrical conductivities in lamellar structures are highly anisotropic, with preferential transport along the planes due to the delocalized electrons and phonons within layers, contrasted by limited conduction perpendicular to them. In graphite, for example, in-plane electrical conductivity exceeds perpendicular values by approximately three orders of magnitude, while thermal conductivity similarly varies directionally owing to the layered hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms.^[68] This anisotropy arises from the interlayer spacing, which is roughly 2.3 times the in-plane atomic distance, impeding cross-plane energy transfer.^[68] Optically, lamellar structures induce birefringence through the differing refractive indices parallel and perpendicular to the layers, causing polarized light to experience varying phase delays as it propagates through stacked uniaxial layers.^[69] This effect is evident in systems modeled as oriented lamellae, where non-random angular distributions lead to measurable transmission variations under cross-polarization.^[69] Regarding general stability, lamellar materials demonstrate resistance to delamination under applied stress via mechanisms that enhance interlayer energy dissipation, such as entanglement toughening, which can increase shear strength by over 300% compared to untoughened counterparts.^[70] Higher crystallinity may reduce this resistance by promoting ordered crack propagation, underscoring the importance of controlled disorder in maintaining cohesion.^[70]

Characterization Techniques

Lamellar structures are primarily characterized using scattering and imaging techniques that reveal their periodic layering and nanoscale organization. Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) is a key method for determining the periodicity of lamellar phases, where the scattering vector q corresponds to the lamellar spacing d via the relation q = \frac{2\pi}{d}, producing characteristic Bragg peaks that indicate ordered layer stacking.^[17] Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) provides direct visualization of lamellar layers at high resolution, enabling observation of layer interfaces and defects in materials such as polymers and biological membranes.^[71] Additional techniques complement these primary methods by probing surface and crystalline features. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) maps the surface topography of lamellar phases, measuring repeat distances and undulations in lyotropic systems with nanometer precision.^[72] X-ray diffraction (XRD) assesses crystal orientation and stacking faults within lamellar crystals, particularly useful for defective structures in minerals and alloys where peak broadening reveals disorder.^[73] Data from these techniques are interpreted through peak analysis to quantify layer thickness, interlamellar spacing, and defects; for instance, SAXS profiles allow fitting of peak positions and widths to model domain sizes and orientational order, though resolution is typically limited to 1-100 nm scales due to instrumental constraints.^[74] These methods confirm anisotropic properties by correlating scattering patterns with directional variations in structure.^[17] Recent advances in cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), particularly since the 2010s with improvements in direct electron detectors and phase plates, have enhanced imaging of hydrated biological lamellar structures like lipid membranes and lamellar bodies, achieving sub-nanometer resolution without artifacts from dehydration.^[75] Cryo-EM tomography further enables three-dimensional reconstruction of lamellar assemblies in cellular contexts, revealing native architectures in samples such as pulmonary lamellar bodies.^[40]

Applications

In Engineering and Technology

In engineering and technology, lamellar structures are engineered into materials to exploit their anisotropic properties, such as directional strength and barrier effects, for enhanced performance in demanding applications. Lamellar clays, such as montmorillonite and bentonite, are incorporated into drilling fluids to provide lubrication and reduce friction during oil and gas exploration. These plate-like particles align under shear, forming a low-friction boundary layer that minimizes torque and wear on drill bits and casings. Organically modified layered magnesium silicates, for instance, enhance the lubricity of oil-based muds, improving overall drilling efficiency in high-temperature wells.^[76]^[77] In metallurgy, the lamellar pearlite microstructure in tool steels contributes to superior wear resistance through its alternating layers of ferrite and cementite, which impede dislocation motion and abrasive particle penetration. Fine lamellar spacing in pearlitic steels, achieved via controlled heat treatment, can reduce mass loss during wear tests by 30% compared to coarser structures, making them ideal for cutting tools and dies.^[78]^[79] Block copolymer lamellae enable precise nanolithography for fabricating sub-10 nm features in semiconductor devices, where self-assembled alternating domains serve as templates for etching high-density patterns. Chemically tailored block copolymers, such as those with high Flory-Huggins interaction parameters, achieve reliable 7-10 nm line widths through directed self-assembly, surpassing traditional lithography limits for next-generation chips.^[80]^[81] Layered composites, including those with lamellar titanium aluminide (TiAl) microstructures, are utilized in aerospace components for their lightweight strength, offering density reductions of up to 50% compared to nickel superalloys while maintaining high-temperature performance. Duplex lamellar TiAl alloys provide a balance of ductility and creep resistance, enabling applications in turbine blades and engine parts that withstand stresses above 600°C.^[82]^[83] In energy storage, the lamellar graphite structure serves as the primary anode material in lithium-ion batteries, facilitating reversible ion intercalation between its graphene layers to achieve capacities around 372 mAh/g. This layered arrangement allows efficient lithium diffusion pathways, supporting high-rate charging and long cycle life in electric vehicles and portable electronics.^[84]^[85] Lamellar structures in coatings, particularly those incorporating clay nanosheets like montmorillonite, dramatically enhance barrier properties against gases, with oxygen permeability reductions of up to 98% in polymer films. For example, multilayer assemblies of chitosan and clay on polylactic acid substrates create tortuous diffusion paths that block oxygen ingress, extending the shelf life of packaged goods without compromising biodegradability.^[86]^[87]

In Medicine and Biology

In medicine and biology, lamellar structures play critical roles in therapeutic interventions and diagnostic assessments, leveraging their organized, layered architectures to mimic natural biological processes and enhance treatment efficacy. Lamellar bodies, which are specialized secretory organelles in type II alveolar epithelial cells, store and release pulmonary surfactant—a lipid-protein complex essential for reducing surface tension in the alveoli. In neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), a condition characterized by surfactant deficiency in preterm infants, exogenous surfactant replacement therapy restores lung compliance and prevents alveolar collapse. Synthetic formulations, such as those incorporating dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) as a primary lipid component, replicate the lamellar body-derived multilamellar vesicles of natural surfactant, enabling effective delivery and spreading at the air-liquid interface to improve oxygenation and reduce mortality rates by up to 30-50% in clinical trials.^[88]^[89]^[90] Lamellar structures are also pivotal in advanced drug delivery systems, particularly liposomes, which consist of one or more concentric phospholipid bilayers enclosing an aqueous core for encapsulating hydrophilic or hydrophobic therapeutics. These unilamellar or multilamellar vesicles facilitate targeted release by exploiting passive accumulation in tumor tissues via the enhanced permeability and retention effect, minimizing systemic toxicity. A prominent example is Doxil, a pegylated liposomal formulation of doxorubicin, where the stealth phospholipid bilayers prolong circulation half-life to over 50 hours and enable controlled release in acidic tumor microenvironments, achieving improved response rates in ovarian and Kaposi's sarcoma patients compared to free drug.^[91]^[92]^[93] In diagnostics, lamellar bone remodeling—the dynamic process of resorption and formation within layered osteons—can be non-invasively visualized to evaluate osteoporosis progression, where imbalanced remodeling leads to cortical thinning and increased porosity. Micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) provides high-resolution three-dimensional imaging of lamellar structures, quantifying parameters such as cortical thickness (reduced by 20-30% in osteoporotic trabecular bone) and intracortical porosity to assess fracture risk and monitor antiresorptive therapies like bisphosphonates. This technique reveals focal remodeling sites, including Haversian canals and osteon lamellae, offering superior sensitivity over dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry for early detection in aging populations.^[94]^[95]^[96] Therapeutic advances in tissue engineering have harnessed biomimetic lamellar architectures to promote bone regeneration, designing scaffolds that emulate the hierarchical layering of natural cortical bone for enhanced osteoinduction and vascularization. Post-2020 innovations include oriented lamellar collagen/nanohydroxyapatite (Col/nHAP) composites fabricated via freeze-casting or 3D printing, which align mineralized layers to guide cell alignment and mineralization, achieving up to 2-fold higher compressive strength (around 10-15 MPa) and promoting ectopic bone formation in rodent models. These scaffolds support mesenchymal stem cell differentiation into osteoblasts while degrading controllably over 8-12 weeks, integrating seamlessly with host tissue to repair critical-sized defects in load-bearing applications.^[97]^[98]^[99]

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Direct Observation of Growth of Lamellae and Spherulites of a ...
Compared with the thickness of the lamellae, the length of the lamellar tips is rather long. ... structure and thickness of the lamellae is about 7 nm. 15.
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260067915_Microphase_Separation_of_Cyclic_Block_Copolymers_of_Styrene_and_Butadiene_and_of_Their_Corresponding_Linear_Triblock_Copolymers
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How to Measure Grana – Ultrastructural Features of Thylakoid ...
Oct 6, 2021 · A single granum stack is usually composed of 5–25 thylakoid layers with diameters between 300 and 550nm. The model granum structure is built by ...
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Post-correlation on-lamella cryo-CLEM reveals the membrane ...
Jan 29, 2021 · Lamellar bodies (LBs) are specialized organelles exclusively found in alveolar type 2 epithelial cells (AEC2) and in keratinocytes. Alveolar LBs ...<|separator|>
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Mechanism of Lamellar Body Formation by Lung Surfactant Protein B
Surfactant is initially stored in AT2 cell-specific organelles, called lamellar bodies (LBs), as concentric stacks of membrane layers (Weaver et al., 2002; ...
[38]
Structure and dynamics of the mitochondrial inner membrane cristae
1, the inner membrane comprises curved, tubular regions that co-exist or merge with flattened lamellar segments. The overall impression is one of a highly fluid ...
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Self-Assembled Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum-Like Proto-Organelles
Oct 26, 2018 · The cisternae stacks in Golgi apparatus stacked close to each other via protein connection at a typical intercisternal distance of 7–15 nm ...Article · Results And Discussion · Cisternae Stacks Formation...
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Golgi apparatus analyzed by cryo-electron microscopy - PMC
A new and unexpected finding at vitreous Golgi apparatus are protein complexes up to 6 nm in size and attached to cisternal membranes, as there is nothing ...
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Osteon: Structure, Turnover, and Regeneration - PMC
The Haversian canal encompasses blood vessels and nerve fibers that provide nutrients and sensation to osteocytes residing within the lamellae. Moreover, the ...
[42]
Normal Bone Anatomy and Physiology - PMC - NIH
Cortical osteons are called Haversian systems. Haversian systems are cylindrical in shape, are approximately 400 mm long and 200 mm wide at their base, and ...
[43]
Optimal lamellar arrangement in fish gills - PMC - PubMed Central
May 20, 2014 · Fish gills consist of filaments with well-ordered lamellar structures, which play a role in maximizing oxygen diffusion.
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Skin Lipid Barrier: Structure, Function and Metabolism - PMC
Sep 2, 2024 · Lamellae establish tight hydrophobic layers between dying keratinocytes to protect the body from water loss and also from penetration of ...
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Cellular and extracellular matrix of bone, with principles of synthesis ...
This allows bone to create dense lamellar type I collagen, control pH, mineral deposition, and regulate water content forming a compact and strong structure.
[46]
3 Minerals – An Introduction to Geology - OpenGeology
Muscovite micas belong to the felsic silicate minerals. Felsic is a contraction formed from feldspar, the dominant mineral in felsic rocks. Diagram of mica ...
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Micas and Other Phyllosilicates - Dakota Matrix Minerals
Mica group minerals, are phyllosilicates composed of two silica tetrahedral (T) layers which sandwich a layer of octahedrally (M) coordinated cations (Al, Fe, ...
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3587970/
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3 Minerals – An Introduction to Geology - OPEN SLCC
The illustration of the crystalline structure of mica shows the corner O atoms bonded with K, Al, Mg, Fe, and Si atoms, forming polymerized sheets of linked ...
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[PDF] Graphite.pdf
The carbon layers are bound in the c-direction by weak van der Waals forces. ... graphite crystal such that the layer structure of the graphite lattice (Fig.
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https://opengeology.org/textbook/3-minerals/
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Twinning, Polymorphism, Polytypism, Pseudomorphism
Jan 21, 2019 · The feldspars - orthoclase and sanidine - are the most commonly twinned minerals in the monoclinic system. Both contact twins and penetration ...
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https://opengeology.org/textbook/3-minerals/#3.3.4
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Foliation development and refraction in metamorphic rocks ...
Foliation development and refraction in metamorphic rocks: reactivation of earlier foliations and decrenulation due to shifting patterns of deformation ...
[55]
Metamorphic Rocks - Tulane University
Sep 25, 2017 · High-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures greater than 320oC and relatively high pressure. As grade of metamorphism increases, ...
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Shale lamination and sedimentary processes - Special Publications
Shale is a 'fine-grained detrital sedimentary rock which is characterized by its finely laminated structure' whereas mudstone has the composi- tion and texture ...
[57]
Formation of iron-rich phyllosilicates in the FeO–SiO 2
Mar 14, 2024 · In this study, the influence of pH in the hydrothermal synthesis of iron-rich phyllosilicates was investigated in the pH range 8.50–12.10 after ...
[58]
Characteristics and genesis of phyllosilicate hydrothermal ...
Mar 1, 2021 · This study presents new data on the mineralogical and chemical characterization of phyllosilicates associated with epithermal Au-Ag deposits.
[59]
6 Metamorphic Rocks – An Introduction to Geology - OpenGeology
Metamorphic rocks are created when heat, pressure, and/or fluids change preexisting rocks, changing composition and/or texture without mineral crystals melting.
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[PDF] Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks of the Serpentine Hot Springs Area ...
Oxidation of pyrite has produced spots and patches of limonite along the foliation. Thin interbeds and lenses of marble are relatively common, and near the ...
[61]
Mechanical properties of crossed-lamellar structures in biological ...
This article is aimed to review the characteristics of hierarchical structures and the mechanical properties of two kinds of crossed-lamellar structures, and ...Missing: features | Show results with:features
[62]
Anisotropic mechanical behaviors and their structural dependences of crossed-lamellar structure in a bivalve shell
### Summary of Anisotropic Mechanical Behaviors in Crossed-Lamellar Structures
[63]
Anisotropic electrical conductivity - DoITPoMS
The structure also creates anisotropy in other properties of graphite, such as thermal conductivity and thermal expansion. This planar anisotropy is also ...<|separator|>
[64]
https://opengeology.org/textbook/6-metamorphic-rocks/
[65]
Superior delamination resistant two-dimensional lamellar materials
### Summary of Delamination Resistance in 2D Lamellar Materials
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Transmission Electron Microscopy Methodology to Analyze Polymer ...
Mar 28, 2024 · (31,32) While AFM is often employed to study lamellar structures, (33) TEM allows high resolutions and insights into the unit cell structure.
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Atomic force microscopy images of lyotropic lamellar phases
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(PDF) Modelling of X-ray diffraction profiles - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · a detailed structural characterization of defective lamellar structures is thus essential, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) has been the preferred ...
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SAXS Investigation of Hierarchical Structures in Biological Materials
The use of SAXS to study the lamellar structures is illustrated using the results from myelin and membranes. SAXS in solutions is discussed by highlighting the ...
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Visualizing lipid membrane structure with cryo-EM - Portland Press
Jan 6, 2023 · This review focuses on the history and application of cryo-EM to the analysis of membrane architecture. Parallels between the levels of ...
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Organically modified layered magnesium silicates to improve ...
Aug 17, 2020 · The principal functions of drilling fluids are (i) suspending and transporting formation cuttings from the bottom of the wellbore to the surface ...
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Stable dispersibility of bentonite-type additive with gemini ionic ...
May 21, 2022 · It can be used as a lubricating additive in oil drilling and oil well construction to reduce equipment damage and ensure the normal operation of ...
[73]
Effect of the Microstructure on the Wear Resistance of a Pearlitic Steel
It was found that the wear resistance increases with decreasing the interlamellar spacing, fine pearlite showed 30% lower mass loss than coarse pearlite.Missing: tool | Show results with:tool
[74]
A new strong pearlitic multi-principal element alloy to withstand wear ...
Apr 1, 2022 · Conventionally, nano-layered pearlitic structure could greatly improve the strength and wear resistance for steels, but they are not heat ...
[75]
Chemically tailored block copolymers for highly reliable sub-10-nm ...
Jul 6, 2024 · While block copolymer (BCP) lithography is theoretically capable of printing features smaller than 10 nm, developing practical BCPs for this ...
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Perpendicularly oriented sub-10-nm block copolymer lamellae ... - NIH
Jan 19, 2016 · Here, we describe a new design for modified polysiloxane-based BCPs targeted for sub-10-nm-wide lines, which are able to form perpendicularly ...
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[PDF] Titanium Aluminides for Aerospace Applications
This commitment to high performance places focus on both the light weight and higher temperature capabilities of titanium aluminides. Application will, most.
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Titanium Aluminide - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Titanium aluminides are known as novel intermetallic light-weight alloys for high-temperature applications. Owing to their low density, high specific strength ...
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Graphite Anodes for Li-Ion Batteries: An Electron Paramagnetic ...
Jul 13, 2023 · Our work demonstrates the power of EPR spectroscopy to investigate the local electronic structure of graphite at different lithiation stages.Introduction · Background · Results · Conclusions
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Graphite Anodes for Li-Ion Batteries: An Electron Paramagnetic ...
Graphite is the most commercially successful anode material for lithium (Li)-ion batteries: its low cost, low toxicity, and high abundance make it ideally ...
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[PDF] Efficient gas and water vapor barrier properties of thin poly ... - HAL
29 With 70 CHI/MMT bilayers deposited on PLA films, 98% reduction in oxygen permeability was achieved at 23°C for relative humidity (R.H.) below 70%. For higher.
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High Oxygen Barrier Thin Film from Aqueous Polymer/Clay Slurry
Apr 30, 2018 · A 50 wt % clay coating, with a thickness around 4 μm and visible light transmission of 58%, improves the oxygen barrier of a 179 μm poly( ...Missing: permeability | Show results with:permeability
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Evolution of surfactant therapy for respiratory distress syndrome
Oct 5, 2016 · Surfactant therapy has been extensively studied in preterm infants and has been shown to significantly decrease air leaks and neonatal and infant mortality.
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Pulmonary surfactant in newborn infants and children
Pulmonary surfactant is a complex mixture of specific lipids, proteins and carbohydrates, which is produced in the lungs by type II alveolar epithelial cells.Structure of surfactant · Life cycle of pulmonary... · Clinical use of surfactant in...
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Development of synthetic lung surfactants. - Journal of Lipid Research
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A Review of Liposomes as a Drug Delivery System - PubMed Central
Feb 17, 2022 · Liposomes are self-assembled (phospho)lipid-based drug vesicles that form a bilayer (uni-lamellar) and/or a concentric series of multiple ...
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Liposomal Drug Delivery Systems and Anticancer Drugs - MDPI
Apr 14, 2018 · Liposomes are artificially spherical vesicles prepared from naturally-derived phospholipid. They entail one or more lipid bilayers with discrete ...
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Nanobowl-Supported Liposomes Improve Drug Loading and Delivery
May 20, 2020 · We develop a new method to enhance the stability of actively loaded liposomal doxorubicin (DOX) through embedding a stiff nanobowl in the liposomal water ...<|separator|>
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Using Micro-CT Derived Bone Microarchitecture to Analyze ... - NIH
Micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT) images can be used to quantitatively represent bone geometry through a range of computed attenuation-based parameters.
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Micro-computed tomography assessment of bone structure in aging ...
May 17, 2022 · In osteoporotic bones, bone remodeling shifts toward bone resorption, resulting in increased net bone loss with aging. In addition, this bone ...
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Frontiers | Modalities for Visualization of Cortical Bone Remodeling
Bone's ability to respond to load-related phenomena and repair microdamage is achieved through the remodeling process which renews bone by activating groups ...
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Biomimetic construction of oriented lamellar Col/nHAP composite ...
Nov 3, 2023 · A series of collagen/nanohydroxyapatite (Col/nHAP) composite scaffolds with ordered lamellar structures and different layer spacings were prepared<|control11|><|separator|>
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Biomimetic structural design in 3D-printed scaffolds for bone tissue ...
This review systematically categorizes scaffold architectures documented in the literature and highlights how these design parameters can be optimized to ...
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Biomimetic Bilayered Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering: From ...
Feb 18, 2023 · In this review, recent advances in bilayered scaffolds design applied to regeneration of vascular, bone, cartilage, skin, periodontal, urinary ...