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Taenite

Taenite is a nickel-iron alloy mineral with the chemical formula γ-(Fe,Ni), consisting primarily of iron and nickel in a face-centered cubic crystal structure, where nickel content typically ranges from 25 to 65 atomic percent.^[1] It is most commonly found in iron-nickel meteorites, serving as the high-nickel phase that intergrows with the low-nickel alloy kamacite to produce characteristic Widmanstätten patterns upon etching.^[2] This mineral exhibits a silver-white to grayish-white color, metallic luster, malleability, and strong magnetism, with a Mohs hardness of 5 to 5.5 and a density of 7.8 to 8.22 g/cm³.^[1] Primarily extraterrestrial in origin, taenite occurs in various meteorite types, including octahedrites and ataxites, as well as in lunar rocks and spherules.^[1] On Earth, it is rare and typically appears in serpentinized ultramafic rocks, placer sands, or as detached masses in mafic igneous formations, often associated with minerals like awaruite, graphite, and troilite.^[2] Notable terrestrial localities include serpentine bodies in regions such as the United States and Canada, though its presence is far less abundant than in meteoritic contexts.^[3] The name taenite derives from the Greek word tainia, meaning "band" or "ribbon," reflecting its frequent platy or lamellar habit in meteorites.^[2] First described in 1861 from meteoritic material, it was grandfathered into the official list of mineral species by the International Mineralogical Association.^[2] Taenite's formation involves slow cooling in meteorite parent bodies, where it crystallizes from molten iron-nickel melts, and its study provides insights into the thermal history and differentiation of asteroids.^[1]

Etymology and Definition

Naming Origin

The name taenite derives from the Greek word tainia (ταῖνια), meaning "band" or "ribbon," an allusion to the mineral's characteristic platy, lamellar, or banded form as observed in the Widmanstätten patterns of iron meteorites, where it appears as thin, ribbon-like intergrowths with kamacite.^[2]^[1] Taenite was first described and named in 1861 by German chemist and naturalist Carl Friedrich von Reichenbach in his study of meteoritic iron microstructures, based on etched sections from several iron meteorites.^[2] Reichenbach identified taenite as the high-nickel (typically 25–65 wt% Ni) phase of nickel-iron alloy, distinguishing it microscopically from the low-nickel kamacite through its resistance to etching and silvery-white appearance on polished surfaces.^[4] In subsequent mineralogical literature, the term taenite became standardized to differentiate this face-centered cubic γ-(Fe,Ni) phase from earlier, nonspecific designations such as "nickel-iron" or "meteoric iron," which encompassed both taenite and kamacite without regard to their compositional or structural variations; this distinction was further solidified in Gustav Rose's 1864 classification of the Berlin mineral collection, where taenite was grouped alongside kamacite and plessite as key components of iron meteorites.^[1] As a native element alloy, taenite belongs to the iron group in mineral classification.^[2]

Mineral Classification

Taenite is classified as a native element mineral within the iron-nickel group of the native metals subclass, recognized as an intermetallic compound due to its ordered alloy structure of iron and nickel.^[5]^[2] The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) has granted taenite valid species status as a pre-IMA mineral, first described in 1861, with no designated type locality owing to its predominant occurrence in extraterrestrial materials such as meteorites.^[5]^[2] Taenite is distinguished from related iron-nickel alloys by its nickel content, typically exceeding 25 wt% Ni, in contrast to kamacite, which contains less than 7-10 wt% Ni, and awaruite, which features higher nickel levels around 75 wt% Ni in a Ni₃Fe composition.^[2]^[6]^[7] It belongs to the broader Fe-Ni alloy series, encompassing polymorphs such as tetrataenite, an ordered L1₀-structured variant with an ideal FeNi stoichiometry formed through low-temperature atomic ordering in taenite.^[8]^[2]

Chemical Composition and Crystal Structure

Atomic Composition

Taenite is a non-stoichiometric intermetallic alloy with the chemical formula (Fe,Ni), in which nickel atoms substitute for iron in a face-centered cubic lattice, influencing the alloy's phase stability during cooling processes.^[1] The nickel content varies widely, ranging from 25 to 50 wt% across different meteoritic occurrences, though it typically averages 30-50 wt% in samples from iron meteorites.^[2]^[9] Iron forms the dominant component, comprising 50-75 wt% of the alloy, balancing the nickel proportion.^[1] Minor trace elements are present in low concentrations, with cobalt commonly reaching up to 0.3-0.7 wt% and occasionally higher in specific grains, while copper and phosphorus appear sporadically at levels below 0.5 wt%.^[1] These trace constituents, including gallium, germanium, and iridium in parts-per-million ranges, partition preferentially into taenite compared to coexisting low-nickel phases.^[10] Analytical determination of taenite's composition relies heavily on electron microprobe analysis (EMPA), which has documented zoned distributions in meteoritic samples, such as nickel gradients increasing toward interfaces with kamacite, reflecting diffusion during slow cooling.^[11] Key studies using EMPA on ataxites and octahedrites confirm these variations, with central taenite regions often exhibiting the highest nickel enrichment up to 52 wt%.^[12]

Structural Characteristics

Taenite possesses a face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure belonging to the space group Fm3m. The lattice parameter a ranges from approximately 3.58 Å to 3.60 Å, with variations primarily influenced by the nickel content in the alloy.^[3]^[13] As the high-temperature gamma phase (γ-Fe,Ni), taenite remains stable above roughly 500°C but exhibits polymorphism through low-temperature ordering. Below approximately 320°C, under slow cooling conditions typical of meteoritic environments, the disordered structure transforms into the ordered tetrataenite phase, characterized by an L10 face-centered tetragonal arrangement. This ordering process enhances magnetic properties but requires extended timescales, often millions of years, to achieve equilibrium.^[14]^[8] The FCC unit cell of taenite accommodates 4 formula units of (Fe,Ni), where iron and nickel atoms substitutionally occupy the equivalent lattice positions in a random distribution within the disordered state. These positions correspond to the octahedral coordination typical of the close-packed FCC arrangement. Upon ordering to tetrataenite, the alternating layers of Fe and Ni atoms induce a slight tetragonal distortion, with the c-axis expanding relative to the a- and b-axes (c/a ≈ 1.006–1.007).^[3]^[14] X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of disordered taenite reflect its FCC symmetry, with prominent peaks including d-spacings of approximately 2.07 Å for the (111) plane, 1.79 Å for the (200) plane, and 1.27 Å for the (220) plane, confirming the cubic lattice. These spacings shift slightly with composition, aiding in compositional analysis via peak position refinement. In contrast, ordered tetrataenite introduces weak superlattice reflections due to the reduced symmetry.^[15]^[3]

Physical and Optical Properties

Mechanical Properties

Taenite exhibits notable mechanical strength derived from its face-centered cubic crystal structure and nickel-iron solid solution, which provides solid-solution strengthening compared to pure iron. Its Vickers hardness typically ranges from 200 to 500 HV in meteoritic samples, with values around 400-480 HV reported for taenite lamellae in iron meteorites like Shişr 043, surpassing pure iron's hardness of approximately 80-150 HV due to the alloying effect of nickel and trace elements such as nitrogen. On the Mohs scale, taenite measures 5 to 5.5, indicating moderate scratch resistance suitable for its role in meteoritic matrices.^[16]^[5]^[17] The density of taenite varies between 7.8 and 8.2 g/cm³, influenced by nickel content, as higher nickel concentrations slightly increase density given nickel's higher atomic mass relative to iron. This range aligns with specific gravity measurements of approximately 8.06 g/cm³ for typical compositions.^[18]^[5] Taenite demonstrates high tensile strength and ductility, particularly in meteoritic contexts, with yield strengths reaching up to 935 MPa and elongation to failure of 65% in nitrogen-enriched samples from the Canyon Diablo meteorite, attributed to solid-solution strengthening by interstitial nitrogen despite high nickel levels that would otherwise reduce solubility. These properties render taenite malleable and resistant to deformation, outperforming kamacite (yield strength ~350 MPa, elongation ~19%) and contributing to the overall durability of iron meteorites in harsh extraterrestrial environments.^[17] As a ferromagnetic material, taenite displays strong magnetic behavior below its Curie temperature, which ranges from approximately 550 to 800°C depending on nickel content (typically 25-65 wt.% Ni), with saturation magnetization decreasing as nickel increases due to dilution of iron's magnetic moment. This ferromagnetism arises from its disordered face-centered cubic structure, enabling applications in paleomagnetic studies of meteorites.^[19]^[20]

Appearance and Optics

Taenite exhibits a metallic luster, appearing bright and reflective on polished surfaces. Its color is typically silver-white to grayish white in fresh exposures, with a slight bluish or yellowish tint influenced by nickel content and surface polish; higher nickel concentrations often impart a paler, more silvery hue.^[1]^[21] Upon exposure to air, taenite surfaces may develop a thin oxide layer, though specific iridescent tarnishing is more commonly associated with co-occurring kamacite in meteoritic contexts. The streak is light gray, and the mineral is opaque, preventing transmission of light.^[2]^[1] In reflected light microscopy, taenite displays high reflectance in the visible spectrum, approximately 58% at 546 nm and 589 nm wavelengths, facilitating its identification in polished sections of meteorites. As an isotropic mineral, it shows no bireflectance, appearing uniformly bright without directional variation in reflectivity. This optical behavior contrasts with adjacent kamacite, contributing to the characteristic banded texture observed in iron meteorites.^[21]^[1]

Occurrence

In Meteorites

Taenite is predominantly found in iron meteorites, also referred to as siderites, where it constitutes 5-90% of the metal phase depending on the overall nickel content of the meteorite.^[22] In these extraterrestrial samples, taenite typically appears as Widmanstätten plates, which are intergrowths with kamacite that form during slow cooling and are visible upon etching polished sections.^[23] These plates are oriented along octahedral or hexahedral directions, creating geometric patterns that are diagnostic of the meteorite's thermal history.^[24] Taenite is closely associated with kamacite in these structures, where the two phases interleave to produce the characteristic Widmanstätten patterns, and Neumann bands—shock-induced deformation features—often appear as fine parallel lines within the kamacite adjacent to taenite boundaries.^[22] These bands result from mechanical deformation and are commonly observed in etched surfaces of iron meteorites.^[24] Taenite is particularly prevalent in octahedrites, especially those classified as medium (0.5-1.3 mm kamacite bandwidth) and coarse (1.5-3.3 mm kamacite bandwidth), where it forms distinct lamellae.^[22] It occurs less prominently in ataxites, which have high nickel contents (typically >15 wt%) and lack well-developed Widmanstätten patterns, instead featuring taenite in finer, more irregular intergrowths.^[22] A key diagnostic feature of taenite in iron meteorites is its appearance on etched surfaces, where lamellae 20-1000 μm wide are revealed, often displaying nickel concentration gradients that aid in meteorite classification and grouping.^[22] These gradients, with taenite exhibiting higher nickel content (typically 20-50 wt%) than adjacent kamacite, provide essential context for understanding the meteorite's compositional zoning.^[25]

Terrestrial and Lunar Occurrences

Taenite occurrences on Earth are exceedingly rare and predominantly associated with secondary or detrital environments rather than primary igneous formations. It has been reported in serpentinized nickeliferous ultramafic rocks, where it appears as fine particles or spherules formed through alteration processes involving iron-nickel enrichment.^[1] Specific localities include serpentine bodies in Josephine and Jackson Counties, Oregon, USA; near the South Fork of the Smith River in Del Norte County, California, USA; the Fraser River in the Lillooet district, British Columbia, Canada; and Pleistocene sediments in Alberta, Canada.^[1] Additionally, taenite grains occur as detrital particles or spherules in placer sands, such as those along the Gorge River on South Island, New Zealand, and in association with mafic intrusions like the Mt. Ozernaya on the Siberian Platform, Russia.^[1] However, many purported terrestrial finds have been challenged as misidentified meteoritic fragments, with historical analyses concluding no verified primary terrestrial origin for taenite.^[26] Possible associations with impact structures remain speculative and unconfirmed, likely representing incorporated meteoritic material rather than endogenic formation. On the Moon, taenite is similarly uncommon and primarily identified in regolith and breccias returned by Apollo missions, manifesting as metallic spherules or grains. These occurrences, documented in samples from Apollo 11, 15, and 16, include taenite with nickel contents up to 38 wt% in soil particles, often rimming or intergrown with other iron-nickel phases.^[27]^[28] Such spherules in lunar regolith breccias are attributed to meteoroid impacts that melt and segregate indigenous or exogenous metals, though some may stem from volcanic or differentiation processes in the lunar interior.^[1] Recent analyses of Chang'e-5 regolith confirm taenite in impact-derived fragments, underscoring its secondary nature in the lunar surface environment.^[29] Unlike its dominant role in meteorites, taenite here serves as a minor phase, with trace amounts also noted in other extraterrestrial settings like enstatite chondrites and pallasites, but without primary crystallization.^[2]

Formation and Paragenesis

In Iron Meteorites

Taenite originates as a remnant of the metallic cores from differentiated planetesimals, where it condenses from molten Fe-Ni alloys within the protoplanetary bodies of asteroids. Recent models suggest a protracted, multistage core formation process involving initial S-rich protocore segregation, collisional disruptions of progenitor bodies, reaccretion of mantle fragments, and subsequent ²⁶Al-driven heating to form S-poor, highly siderophile element (HSE)-enriched cores, with formation ages extending up to ~3.6 million years after calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs) for some groups like IID, IIF, IIIF, and IVB.^[30] These cores formed through heating by short-lived radionuclides like ²⁶Al, leading to melting and segregation of metal phases in the early solar system, approximately 0.3–2.8 million years after CAIs.^[31] In iron meteorites, which sample these cores, taenite represents the high-nickel face-centered cubic (γ) phase that solidifies first from the alloy melt due to the stability of the γ field across typical bulk compositions of 7–15 wt% Ni at high temperatures.^[32] Taenite occurs in paragenesis with troilite (FeS) and schreibersite ((Fe,Ni)₃P), minerals that crystallize from associated sulfide- and phosphide-rich melts within the same core environment.^[33] Troilite forms at the Fe-FeS eutectic around 988°C, while schreibersite nucleates from P-saturated metal, often lining troilite-metal interfaces and influencing subsequent metal microstructures.^[22] Taenite nucleates preferentially from the Fe-Ni melt at temperatures exceeding 1400°C, where nickel solubility in the γ phase is high, allowing it to incorporate up to 60 wt% Ni before lower-temperature phases emerge.^[34] This initial crystallization establishes taenite as the dominant high-Ni component, coexisting with these accessories in the solidified core material. During subsequent slow cooling, phase separation occurs through the exsolution of kamacite (low-Ni α phase) from taenite, producing characteristic intergrowths such as the Widmanstätten pattern.^[31] This process begins below approximately 910°C, as nickel diffusion drives the partitioning of Fe and Ni into distinct lamellae, with kamacite nucleating and growing at taenite grain boundaries or defects.^[23] Zonation within taenite plates features Ni-rich cores transitioning to Fe-rich rims, a profile that records diffusion gradients established during this exsolution. The M-shaped nickel concentration (15–30 wt% centrally, steepening toward interfaces) reflects outward Ni diffusion to accommodate kamacite growth between 700–500°C, preserving evidence of the thermal evolution without reaching full equilibrium.^[35] This zonation ties to the face-centered cubic structure's stability, enabling prolonged diffusion at subsolidus temperatures.

Cooling Processes

The cooling processes of taenite in iron meteorites occur primarily within the cores of differentiated asteroids, where extremely slow rates of 1–100 °C per million years facilitate the development of characteristic microstructures.^[36] These rates, determined from the growth kinetics of the Widmanstätten pattern, reflect the diffusion-controlled exsolution of kamacite from taenite during prolonged subsolidus equilibration.^[37] The Widmanstätten pattern emerges through spinodal decomposition in the taenite phase, particularly within the cloudy zone at the kamacite-taenite interfaces, where nanoscale Fe-Ni modulations form due to compositional instabilities at intermediate temperatures.^[38] In the Fe-Ni phase diagram relevant to meteoritic compositions (typically 5–30 wt% Ni), taenite (γ-Fe,Ni) remains stable as a single phase above approximately 700–750 °C, above which the alloy exists in a homogeneous face-centered cubic structure.^[39] Upon cooling into the two-phase field below this temperature, kamacite (α-Fe,Ni) exsolves from the taenite matrix, driven by the limited solubility of Ni in the body-centered cubic kamacite phase, leading to Ni enrichment in the residual taenite and depletion in kamacite.^[40] This process creates steep Ni concentration gradients across the interfaces, with Ni diffusing over distances of tens to hundreds of micrometers, as evidenced by high-resolution profiles measured via electron microprobe and synchrotron Mössbauer spectroscopy, which reveal hyperfine magnetic splitting consistent with ordered Fe-Ni domains.^[41] Such gradients vary with bulk Ni content, influencing the spacing and sharpness of the Widmanstätten lamellae.^[42] Shock events from asteroid impacts can interrupt these slow cooling histories, inducing deformation features in taenite such as Neumann lines, which represent mechanical twinning under pressures below 13 GPa.^[43] These lines, observed as fine parallel bands in etched sections, indicate localized shear deformation in the face-centered cubic taenite lattice, preserving evidence of dynamic loading without fully resetting the thermal microstructure.^[44] At even lower temperatures, below 320–350 °C, taenite can undergo chemical ordering to form tetrataenite (L1₀-FeNi), a hard magnetic phase requiring ultra-slow cooling rates of less than 1 °C per million years over geological timescales to achieve the alternating Fe-Ni layers.^[45] This ordering is rare in most iron meteorites due to the need for prolonged residence at these temperatures without reheating, resulting in tetrataenite rims or islands primarily in slowly cooled groups like IAB or mesosiderites.^[8]

Notable Examples and Localities

Famous Meteorites Containing Taenite

The Cape York meteorite, discovered in West Greenland, is classified as a medium octahedrite belonging to the IIIAB chemical group, with an approximate nickel content of 8 wt%. It features prominent taenite lamellae composed of various iron-nickel phases, including disordered face-centered cubic structures with nickel contents below about 25 wt%, which contribute to the meteorite's distinctive Widmanstätten patterns.^[46]^[47] The taenite in Cape York exhibits variable compositions, including dark-stained regions that contain high densities of nanoscale particles observed via electron microscopy.^[48] One of its largest fragments, known as Ahnighito and weighing over 30 tons, has been historically significant, with portions of the meteorite used by Inuit communities for tools and weapons prior to its scientific documentation in the early 20th century.^[46] The Toluca meteorite, recovered from Mexico, is a coarse octahedrite of the IAB complex, renowned for its well-developed zoned taenite-kamacite bands that form the classic Widmanstätten structure. These bands show nickel gradients, with taenite regions displaying plessite textures developed in the low-nickel cores of residual taenite lamellae during cooling.^[49] Microprobe analyses reveal erratic nickel profiles in the plessite, reflecting the interplay of high- and low-nickel phases adjacent to kamacite.^[50] Toluca serves as a key example for studying taenite formation, with its alternating bands providing early insights into the mineral's role in iron meteorite microstructures.^[51] The Sikhote-Alin meteorite fell as a shower over eastern Russia on February 12, 1947, producing thousands of fragments totaling over 23 tons and classified as a coarse octahedrite of the IIAB group. Taenite-rich fragments from this event exhibit the Widmanstätten pattern, with taenite phases contrasting with kamacite at about 7 wt%.^[52] Many specimens display fusion crust up to several millimeters thick, formed by melting during atmospheric entry, which partially alters the outer taenite and kamacite layers.^[53] The meteorite's fresh fall and abundance of taenite-bearing material have made it a primary subject for studies on atmospheric effects and metal phase distributions in irons.^[54] The Brenham pallasite, found in Kiowa County, Kansas, consists of angular to rounded olivine crystals embedded in a matrix of metal nodules that include both kamacite and taenite. These metal nodules feature taenite in their centers, with compositions showing zoning dependent on proximity to olivine, as determined by electron microprobe analysis.^[55]^[56] Taenite in Brenham often forms polycrystalline grains with nickel contents around 20-50 wt%, contributing to the meteorite's metallic phase alongside kamacite near the olivine interfaces.^[57] This structure highlights taenite's role in pallasitic metal, preserved from slow cooling processes in the parent body.^[58]

Rare Earth Occurrences

Taenite occurrences on Earth are rare compared to its prevalence in meteorites, typically limited to accessory phases in ultramafic or impact-related settings. In the Bushveld Complex of South Africa, taenite appears as an accessory mineral within chromitite layers of the Critical Zone.^[59] Additional sites feature taenite in New Zealand serpentinite placers, such as those at Gorge River on the South Island, where it forms detached particles concentrated in sands derived from massive serpentine bodies.^[3] In the Canyon Diablo meteorite crater area of Arizona, taenite blebs are identified within metallic particles of the impactite, exhibiting nickel contents of 25-65% consistent with taenite composition.^[60] Mindat.org records emphasize secondary concentrations of taenite in placer deposits and altered ultramafics, with notable localities in New Zealand's West Coast and Taranaki regions linked to serpentinite-hosted accumulations.^[2] On the Moon, taenite is documented in Apollo 16 highland samples, including the 68815 polymict breccia from Station 8, where spherules 10-50 μm in diameter occur embedded in impact-derived melt matrices.^[61] These lunar taenite grains, often associated with kamacite and troilite, reflect meteoritic contributions modified by impact processes.^[61]

Historical and Scientific Significance

Discovery and Recognition

Early observations of nickel-iron alloys in meteorites date back to the 18th century, with notable studies of specimens such as the Pallas iron, encountered by naturalist Peter Simon Pallas in Siberia in 1772, where the metallic composition was recognized but the distinct phases of low- and high-nickel iron were not yet differentiated.^[62] These early analyses focused on the overall iron-nickel content of iron meteorites, without separating the components that would later be identified as kamacite and taenite. The formal description of taenite as a distinct mineral phase occurred in 1861, when German chemist and metallurgist Carl Friedrich von Reichenbach published his detailed examination of meteoritic iron structures, using etching techniques and chemical analysis to distinguish the high-nickel (25-65 wt% Ni) allotriomorphs from the surrounding low-nickel kamacite in samples including the Toluca meteorite.^[2] Reichenbach named the phase "Taenit" (taenite) in his paper "Ueber die näheren Bestandtheile des Meteoreisens," published in Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie, emphasizing its banded, ribbon-like appearance in polished and etched sections of octahedrite meteorites.^[63] In 1864, German mineralogist Gustav Rose incorporated Reichenbach's terminology into his systematic classification of meteorites based on the collection at the Mineralogical Museum in Berlin, adopting taenite alongside kamacite and plessite as key constituents of iron meteorites and using their proportions to categorize structural types.^[64] This work solidified taenite's recognition within meteorite mineralogy, building on Reichenbach's findings to advance understanding of the Widmanstätten patterns observed since 1808. By the 1940s, taenite was regarded as an exclusively meteoritic mineral, as highlighted in H.H. Nininger's 1946 preliminary list of such phases, which included taenite due to the absence of confirmed terrestrial occurrences at the time.^[65] However, subsequent discoveries of taenite in serpentinized ultramafic rocks, such as in Oregon and New Zealand, led to its exclusion from strictly meteoritic lists by 1949.^[66] The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) formally approved taenite as a valid mineral species in the 1960s under its grandfathering provisions for pre-1959 descriptions, confirming its status in both meteoritic and rare terrestrial settings.^[2] Modern reviews, such as the entry in the Handbook of Mineralogy (revised 2017), continue to reference these foundational 19th-century works while documenting taenite's role in meteorite petrogenesis.^[1]

Research and Applications

Taenite plays a key role in cosmochemical research, particularly in modeling the internal structures and thermal histories of asteroid cores. By analyzing the nickel concentration gradients in taenite lamellae within iron meteorites, researchers infer cooling rates and crystallization sequences that inform the size and differentiation of parent bodies. For instance, studies of group IVA iron meteorites use taenite compositions to estimate core radii between 50 and 110 km post-collisional exposure, providing constraints on the thermal evolution of these protoplanetary remnants.^[67] Magnetic studies of tetrataenite, the ordered variant of taenite, have advanced paleomagnetism by revealing ancient magnetic fields in meteorite parent bodies. Sub-micrometer tetrataenite grains preserve stable remanence, enabling reconstruction of dynamo activity during the early solar system. Micromagnetic simulations demonstrate that tetrataenite inherits taenite's magnetic signature during low-temperature ordering, with saturation magnetization around 1273 kA/m, offering insights into planetary magnetic histories.^[68] Analytical techniques such as Mössbauer spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are essential for investigating taenite's phase ordering and microstructure. Mössbauer spectra distinguish ordered tetrataenite from disordered taenite through quadrupole shifts near 0.25 mm/s, revealing atomic arrangements in meteoritic lamellae. TEM complements this by visualizing nanoscale phase transitions, such as the formation of L10 superstructure in taenite. Computational simulations of diffusion in Fe-Ni systems further elucidate these processes, modeling slow atomic exchange rates below 320°C that enable tetrataenite formation over millions of years.^[69]^[70]^[71] In applications, taenite inspires the development of high-strength nanomaterials and synthetic magnets. Its exceptional yield strength and ductility in meteoritic matrices, surpassing kamacite, guide the design of Fe-Ni alloys for aerospace structures. More prominently, tetrataenite's hard-magnetic properties—high coercivity without rare-earth elements—drive efforts to synthesize L10-FeNi for permanent magnets, using methods like mechanical alloying and phosphorous-assisted annealing to mimic natural ordering. These rare-earth-free alternatives could reduce reliance on critical materials in electric vehicles and renewables.^[34]^[72]^[73] As of 2025, research continues to explore accelerated synthesis techniques, including the application of stress and magnetic fields, though some earlier reports of bulk tetrataenite formation have been retracted or reinterpreted due to experimental artifacts, such as contamination from cleaning agents.^[74]^[75]^[76] Recent developments highlight taenite's expanding scope beyond meteorites. In 2015, tetrataenite was discovered in terrestrial ophiolite-hosted magnetite from the Indo-Myanmar ranges, formed via hydrothermal processes below 550 K, challenging its exclusivity to extraterrestrial environments. In the 2020s, research has emphasized lunar regolith's Fe-Ni alloys, including taenite-like phases, for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU), with studies exploring their extraction for construction alloys like permalloy and high-temperature wiring to support sustainable lunar bases.^[77]^[78]^[79]

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Iron Crystals in Meteorites: Widmanstätten Structure | AMNH
When molten iron and nickel first cool and harden in a planet's core, they form a different alloy, taenite. But as the solid taenite cools, plates of ...
[24]
Metallography of Iron-Nickel Meteorites - Vacaero
Jun 5, 2018 · We should point out that kamacite and taenite were named by Reichenbach in 1861 – 2 years before Sorby first observed metallographically ...
[25]
Nickel-iron meteorites | Research Starters - EBSCO
The two nickel-iron alloy minerals, kamacite (up to 7.5 mass percent nickel) and taenite (between 20 and 50 mass percent nickel) are the two most abundant ...
[26]
A preliminary note on the exclusively meteoritic minerals - NASA ADS
Moreover, Henderson'1 states that he does not think that there is a single authentic occurrence of terrestrial taenite ; hence taenite is included in the ...
[27]
Meteoritic Metal in Apollo 16 Samples
In one particle from soil sample 65701, taenite (38% Ni) occurs as a rim ... Metallic particles in the Apollo 14 Lunar soil. Proceedings of the Third ...Missing: regolith | Show results with:regolith
[28]
Mineralogy and petrography of lunar samples
The lunar fines contain 325 ppm of water-soluble calcium. WE HAVE confirmed the presence of plagioclase, pyroxene, ilmenite, olivine, cristo~ balite, tridymite, ...<|separator|>
[29]
First classification of iron meteorite fragment preserved in Chang'e-5 ...
Feb 26, 2024 · Lunar soil preserves numerous fragments of meteorites impacting on ... taenite), kamacite, and schreibersite, with a trace of pentlandite.
[30]
https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adw1668
[31]
The subsolidus Fe-Ni phase diagram from Yang et al. (1996) is ...
At high temperatures, taenite (γ) is the stable phase. Given the bulk composition of most iron meteorites, as the temperature drops, it is common for iron ...
[32]
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-subsolidus-Fe-Ni-phase-diagram-from-Yang-et-al-1996-is-shown-At-high_fig3_252497158
[33]
Excellent mechanical properties of taenite in meteoric iron - Nature
Feb 26, 2021 · We show that the taenite matrix exhibits excellent balance between yield strength and ductility superior to that of the kamacite matrix.<|control11|><|separator|>
[34]
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-83792-y
[35]
[PDF] THE COOLING RATES OF IRON METEORITES
The growth of the Widmanstätten pattern is controlled by the diffusion of Ni in the taenite. There are a variety of techniques to determine the cooling rates of ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[36]
The growth of the Widmanstätten pattern in metallic meteorites
Long, R.E. Ogilvie. Nickel content of kamacite near the interface with taenite in iron meteorites ... Cahn. On spinodal decomposition. Acta Met., 9 (1961), pp.
[37]
Cooling rates and impact histories of group IAB and other IAB ...
Oct 18, 2021 · In meteorites with intermediate cooling rates like IAB irons, the bulk of the cloudy zone probably contains antitaenite as the low-Ni phase, but ...
[38]
[PDF] Phase Decompositions In Iron-rich Iron-nickel ... - Lehigh Preserve
content is very high, the kamacite nucleates at or below -500°C and the amount of ... and weighed to yield a melt of about 10 gm for each alloy. ... taenite of iron ...
[39]
Low temperature phase equilibria in the Fe-Ni and Fe-Ni-P systems
The solubility limits of the α (kamacite) and γ (taenite) phases in the Fe-Ni and Fe-Ni-P phase diagrams have been measured at low temperatures, 700-300°C.Missing: stability | Show results with:stability
[40]
A high spatial resolution synchrotron Mössbauer study of the ... - NIH
Mar 15, 2017 · The Ni concentration is highest at the kamacite/taenite interface and decays approximately exponentially to the average bulk composition of the ...
[41]
[PDF] Phase Decompositions In Iron-nickel Systems At ... - Lehigh Preserve
where a is the lattice parameter, E is the Young's modulus and v is the Poisson's ratio. ... Ni is entering the taenite grain from the taenite/silicate interface ...
[42]
Shock-thermal history of Kavarpura IVA iron - ScienceDirect.com
Shock textures include both Neumann lines (<13 GPa) and ε kamacites (>13 ... Implications of shock effects in iron meteorites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta.
[43]
Experimental simulations of shock textures in BCC iron
May 3, 2022 · It has been considered that the Neumann band in iron meteorites was formed by mutual collisions between planetesimals (Bischoff and Stöffler ...
[44]
Ordered FeNi, Tetrataenite, and the Cooling Rate of Iron Meteorites ...
... tetrataenite is a common and widespread mineral in meteorites. The formation of tetrataenite in taenite fields during cooling below 320 °C creates a cloudy ...
[45]
[PDF] The Cape York Meteorite - University of Washington
This cross-hatched pattern is due to lamellae of kamacite and taenite, two types of iron-nickel alloy, intergrowing ... Eskimo Hall was removed, replaced with the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[46]
Iron-nickel alloys in a taenite lamella from the iron meteorite Cape ...
Taenite lamellae from iron meteorites consist of different iron-nickel phases, e.g., a paramagnetic, disordered fcc phase (less than about 25 percent Ni) ...
[47]
Handbook of Iron Meteorites, Volume 1 (Ch 9) - eVols
The major minerals of the irons were recognized quite early. Thus when Rose (1864a) classified and described the. Berlin meteorite collection, he was able ...
[48]
[PDF] Plessite textures in the Toluca (Group IA) iron meteorite revealed by ...
Plessite may develop in the low-nickel cores of residual taenite lamellae during the development of octahedrite structure in iron meteorites (Buchwald, 1975).Missing: locality | Show results with:locality
[49]
[PDF] John A. Wood - NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
The iron meteorites, which comprise about 5% of meteorites seen to fall to earth, are usually thought to be remnants o f a core of nickel-iron in the parent ...
[50]
Moessbauer spectra for iron bearing phases in the meteorite Toluca
... diffusion still occurs in kamacite, nickel accumulates at the kamacite-taenite interface. This leads to a final composition profile, when the temperature ...Missing: exsolution | Show results with:exsolution
[51]
[PDF] MÖSSBAUER SPECTROSCOPY OF SIKHOTE-ALIN, ALISKEROVO ...
The content of Ni in kamacite was ~6 wt.% (Aliskerovo. IIIE-an) and ~7 wt.% (Sterlitamak IIIAB) while that in taenite was ~37 wt.% (Aliskerovo IIIE-an) and ...
[52]
[PDF] Exploring Meteorite Mysteries - University of North Dakota Blogs
Sikhote-Alin meteorite. This is a fragment from the Sikhote-Alin shower that fell in. Russia in February, 1947. It is an iron meteorite that is covered by ...
[53]
Metal, iron, & nickel | Some Meteorite Information
The metal occurs as two different alloys known as kamacite (lower nickel concentration) and taenite (higher nickel concentration).Missing: awaruite | Show results with:awaruite
[54]
[PDF] A metallographic and microprobe study of the Brenham pallasite
SUMMARY. A metallographic study has been made of the macroscopic and microscopic features of the Brenham pallasite. The microprobe has been used to ...
[55]
A study of four pallasites using metallographic, microhardness and ...
Microprobe studies of a zoned portion of the Brenham pallasite have shown these features to be dependent upon composition. The composition profiles of ...
[56]
[PDF] TOMOGRAPHY OF THE BRENHAM PALLASITE Jacob Spinsby1 ...
The dark gray material is olivine (black where plucked during polishing), the white is metal (kamacite near the olivine and taenite in the metal centers), and ...
[57]
[PDF] Magnetic Properties of Iron Meteorites and Their Parent Bodies
Plessite fields and taenite ribbons of tens of µm in width are present, along with ... Taenite lamellae are 0.2–0.6 mm in width, shock effects are absent, and the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
Bushveld Complex, South Africa - Mindat
The MG2 chromitite locally consists of four discrete seams (MG2A-D), including thin layers and stringers branching off from the main layer. The Bushveld complex ...
[59]
Taenite - Mineral Database - Mineralogy of Wales
Crystal System: Cubic ; Formula: (Fe,Ni) ; Status of Occurrence: Confirmed Occurrence ; Distribution: Rare ; Chemical Composition: Nickel-iron alloy with 27 to 65 % ...Missing: properties | Show results with:properties
[60]
The chemical composition of metallic spheroids and metallic ...
The impactite metallic particles had Ni contents from 10 to 95 per cent and Co contents from 0·3 to 4 per cent. The Co contents of these particles showed a ...
[61]
Characteristics of metal particles in Apollo 16 rocks - NASA ADS
Although the metal particles seldom exceed 1% of the volume of a lunar sample, their study has proven to be of considerable potential value in the following ...
[62]
Meteorites | Oxford University Museum of Natural History
In 1772, German naturalist Peter Pallas encountered a 700kg lump of ... iron meteorite, now commonly known as a 'pallasite' after Peter Pallas. The ...
[63]
https://www.mindat.org/reference.php?id=2974
[64]
Beschreibung und Eintheilung der Meteoriten auf Grund der ...
Gedruckt in der Druckerei der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenshaften, in Commission bei F. Dümmler's Verlags-Buchhandlung Harrwitz und Gossmann, 1864 ...
[65]
A Preliminary Note on the Exclusively Meteoritic Minerals - 1946
It is shown in this preliminary note that the earlier lists of the exclusively meteoritic minerals are in error ... taenite, and weinbergerite. References. 1 ...
[66]
A Second Note on the Exclusively Meteoritic Minerals - 1949
... exclusively meteoritic minerals. It is suggested further that taenite is properly excluded from this list. The revised list contains clinoenstatite ...
[67]
Size of the group IVA iron meteorite core: Constraints from the age ...
Our model for the thermal evolution of the IVA core suggests that it was approximately 50–110 km in radius after being collisionally exposed. This range is due ...
[68]
Magnetic Recording Stability of Taenite‐Containing Meteorites
Jun 22, 2023 · Coarse (>200 nm up to ∼10 μm) taenite grains are observed in meteoritic plessite, a microstructure found almost ubiquitously in iron meteorite ...
[69]
Magnetic hysteresis properties and 57 Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy ...
Taenite phase in Mössbauer spectra exhibit a wide range of quadrupole shift (ε), changing from ε ∼ 0.25 mm/s for ordered FeNi phase (tetrataenite) to ε ...
[70]
Mössbauer spectroscopy of an ordered phase (superstructure) of ...
Mössbauer and X-ray spectra for taenite lamellae from the iron meteorite Cape York show that the lamellae contain an ordered phase with the composition FeNi.
[71]
Density Functional Theory description of the order-disorder ... - Nature
Jun 3, 2019 · Forming the tetrataenite phase requires cooling times of the order of millions of years due to the slow diffusion of Fe and Ni atoms below Tod.
[72]
Formation of L10 Ordering in FeNi by Mechanical Alloying and Field ...
Apr 10, 2023 · The present work describes the synthesis of ordered L1 0 FeNi from elemental Fe and Ni powders by mechanical alloying up to 12 h and subsequent heat treatment.
[73]
Direct Formation of Hard‐Magnetic Tetrataenite in Bulk Alloy Castings
Oct 25, 2022 · Conventionally cast Fe–Ni–(P,C) compositions form ordered L10 Fe–Ni phase (the mineral tetrataenite), challenging the view that this phase is ...Missing: polymorph | Show results with:polymorph
[74]
Tetrataenite in terrestrial rock | American Mineralogist
Jan 1, 2015 · Tetrataenite is an equiatomic and highly ordered, non-cubic Fe-Ni alloy mineral that forms in meteorites from the distortion of fcc taenite ...
[75]
Mechanical properties of meteoritic Fe–Ni alloys for in-situ ...
Sintered Martian concrete [2], sintered Lunar regolith [3], and various metallic alloys extracted from regolith [4] have been proposed for this purpose.
[76]
[PDF] Sustainable-ISRU-on-the-Moon.pdf - Ottawa - Carleton University
Feb 21, 2020 · (Fe–Ni–Co–Si alloy) for high temperature electrical wiring, permalloy. (Fe–Ni alloy) for magnetic shielding and ferrite for permanent magnets.