Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Yazdegerd II

Yazdegerd II (r. 438–457 CE) was a Sasanian shahanshah whose reign emphasized Zoroastrian orthodoxy amid internal religious tensions and external military pressures.^[1] Son of Bahram V Gor, he ascended following his father's death and ruled until his own in 457, a period marked by civil strife after his passing between sons Hormizd III and Peroz I.^[2] Known for intellectual curiosity, including a maxim advocating critical examination of doctrines, Yazdegerd pursued policies to unify the empire under Zoroastrianism, dismissing Christians from military and administrative roles.^[3] His religious centralization efforts provoked significant resistance, notably in Armenia, where in 449 he decreed conversion to Zoroastrianism among the nobility, triggering a revolt led by the Christian general Vardan Mamikonian; the ensuing Battle of Avarayr in 451, though a Sasanian tactical victory, failed to suppress Armenian Christianity and highlighted the limits of coercive uniformity.^[4] These measures reflected broader persecutions of Christian communities across the empire, framed not merely as faith-based but as tools for political consolidation against perceived loyalties to Rome.^[3] Externally, Yazdegerd initiated a frontier war with the Eastern Roman Empire in 440, raiding Armenia and Mesopotamia but achieving no decisive gains before a 442 truce.^[5] In the east, he campaigned against the Kidarites (sometimes linked to early Hephthalites), refusing tribute payments and launching offensives around 450 that captured forts and yielded captives, though these nomads continued posing threats to Sasanian frontiers.^[5] Such conflicts underscored the empire's strategic overextension, with Yazdegerd's forces achieving temporary successes but unable to fully subdue migratory foes reliant on mobility and alliances. His adoption of the title kay, evoking mythical Kayanian kings, signaled ideological continuity with ancient Iranian kingship, reinforcing dynastic legitimacy.^[2]

Background

Name and Etymology

The name Yazdegerd (Middle Persian: 𐭩𐭦𐭣𐭪𐭥𐭲𐭩 Yazdākird; alternative spellings Yazdgerd, Yazdgird), borne by the Sassanid king who ruled from 438 to 457 CE, is a theophoric compound signifying "God-made" or "wrought by the divine." It derives from yazad (cognate with Avestan yazata-, referring to a divine being or god worthy of worship) and -karta (meaning "made" or "created").^[6] This etymology parallels other Iranian names like Bagakart and Greek equivalents such as Theoktistos.^[6] In contemporary non-Persian sources, the name appears in Hellenized forms like Isdigerdēs (Ἰσδιγέρδης) in Greek accounts, reflecting phonetic adaptations while preserving the core theophoric structure.^[7] The term's usage extended to multiple Sassanid monarchs, underscoring its auspicious connotation of divine origin or sanction in Zoroastrian-influenced royal nomenclature.^[8]

Early Life and Family Origins

Yazdegerd II was born into the Sasanian dynasty as the son of Bahram V Gūr, who reigned as shahanshah from approximately 420 to 438 CE.^[9] This parentage positioned him within the direct royal line, with Bahram V himself being the son of the preceding ruler Yazdegerd I (r. 399–420 CE), though no contemporary inscriptions or seals explicitly detail Yazdegerd II's immediate familial relations beyond this succession.^[9] Surviving historical accounts, including those derived from Middle Persian and Arabic chronicles such as al-Ṭabarī's Tārīḵ al-umam wa-l-mulūk, offer no specific information on Yazdegerd II's birth year, location, or early upbringing, reflecting the general scarcity of biographical details for Sasanian princes prior to their ascension.^[9] Later traditions, like those in Ferdowsī's Shāhnāma, introduce legendary elements such as a purported Indian royal mother named Sepinūd, but these lack corroboration from administrative or numismatic evidence and stem from epic rather than historiographic sources.^[10] As a scion of the dynasty founded by Ardašīr I in 224 CE, Yazdegerd II's origins tied him to the Zoroastrian priestly and noble elite that sustained Sasanian legitimacy, though pre-reign activities or education remain undocumented in verifiable records.^[9]

Ascension to the Throne

Succession from Bahram V

Yazdegerd II succeeded his father, Bahram V, as shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire upon the latter's death in 439 CE.^[11] Bahram V had reigned from 421 to 439 CE, during which he maintained relative stability following his own contested ascension.^[12] The transition to Yazdegerd II appears to have been direct and without recorded internal challenges, reflecting the dynastic principle of father-to-son inheritance that characterized much of Sasanian royal succession when viable male heirs were available.^[11] Supported by the influential grand vizier Mehr-Narseh, who had served under Bahram V and continued in his role, Yazdegerd II consolidated power amid ongoing external pressures from nomadic groups in the east and the Eastern Roman Empire in the west.^[11] Historical accounts from Sasanian-based sources, such as those preserved in later Islamic chronicles like al-Thaʿālibī and al-Ṭabarī, portray Yazdegerd II positively as a just ruler attentive to the needs of his subjects, in contrast to the more legendary and adventurous depiction of his father.^[11] This succession marked the continuation of the House of Sasan, with Yazdegerd II's reign spanning 439 to 457 CE.^[13]

Initial Consolidation of Power

Yazdegerd II ascended the Sasanian throne in 438 CE upon the death of his father, Bahram V, succeeding as the designated heir without recorded opposition from rival claimants or factions.^[13] To secure his rule, he relied on the administrative expertise of Mihr-Narseh, a member of the House of Suren who served as wuzurg framadār (grand vizier) across multiple reigns, providing continuity in governance and facilitating coordination with the influential nobility (wuzurgan).^[14] This alliance with established aristocratic houses was crucial for mobilizing resources against emerging threats, such as the Kidarite incursions in the east.^[10] Yazdegerd II further bolstered his legitimacy by adopting the archaic title kay ("king") on his coinage, the first Sasanian ruler to do so, thereby associating his dynasty with the mythical Kayanian kings of Iranian legend and emphasizing divine royal authority rooted in pre-Sasanian traditions.^[10] This ideological reinforcement, evident in numismatic inscriptions from early in his reign, helped unify the Zoroastrian elite under his leadership by evoking a continuity of sacred kingship.^[15] Initial diplomatic efforts, including upholding the peace treaty with the Eastern Roman Empire inherited from his predecessor, allowed him to focus inward on consolidating control over provincial governors and military commanders.^[16] These steps ensured stability during the vulnerable transition period, enabling subsequent military campaigns.

Military Campaigns

War with the Eastern Roman Empire

The Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440 arose shortly after Yazdegerd II's accession in 438, triggered by Emperor Theodosius II's refusal to continue annual subsidies to the Sassanids for defending the Caucasus passes against nomadic incursions, as stipulated in prior agreements.^[11] These payments, amounting to approximately 500 pounds of gold annually, were intended to support Sassanid fortifications at key gorges like the Darial Pass, but Roman financial strains from Hunnic threats in Europe and the Vandal sack of Carthage in 439 prompted the halt.^[11] Yazdegerd II responded by declaring war and launching raids into Roman Armenia in 440, exploiting the Romans' divided attentions.^[11] No major battles are recorded, and the conflict remained limited in scope, with Sassanid forces achieving no significant territorial gains amid Roman defensive preparations along the frontier.^[11] Faced with the escalating Vandal crisis in North Africa, Theodosius II dispatched his magister officiorum, Anatolius, to negotiate directly with Yazdegerd II in the Sassanid royal camp.^[11] The resulting peace treaty, concluded in 440, restored the subsidies for Caucasus defense and prohibited both empires from constructing new fortresses in Mesopotamia, effectively ending hostilities without decisive victory for either side.^[11] Tensions persisted into the 450s, particularly over religious policies in Persian Armenia, where Yazdegerd's enforcement of Zoroastrianism sparked revolts; Armenian Christians appealed to the Romans for aid, but Emperor Marcian provided only limited support due to ongoing conflicts with Attila the Hun, averting escalation into full-scale war.^[11]

Conflicts with the Kidarites and Hephthalites

Yazdegerd II faced repeated incursions from Hunnic nomadic confederations on the Sassanid Empire's eastern frontiers, including groups identified in historical sources as the Kidarites (a branch of the Chionites) and the emerging Hephthalites, during the 440s and 450s CE. These threats originated from Central Asia, particularly Bactria and Transoxiana, where the nomads disrupted trade routes, raided provinces like Khorasan, and challenged Sassanid suzerainty over Kushan remnants. Primary Armenian chronicles, such as those by Ełisē and Łazar Pʿarpecʿi, record Sassanid mobilization against these "Huns," while Middle Persian geographical texts like the Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr reference fortifications built against the Čōl (Huns) in response to such invasions.^[11]^[17] Campaigns against the Kidarites, or Chionite-Kidarite forces, commenced around 442 CE, with Yazdegerd II assembling armies in Nishapur for expeditions lasting until approximately 449 CE. Scholarly analysis equates these foes with the Kidarites under rulers like Kidara, who had previously extracted tribute from Sassanid predecessors but now faced direct confrontation as their expansion into eastern Iran intensified. A second phase of operations, dated to 450–451 CE, targeted similar Hunnic tribes, blending Kidarite remnants with early Hephthalite elements, though distinctions remain debated due to fluid confederation identities in sparse sources. These efforts involved Sassanid heavy cavalry and allied levies, including displaced Armenian nobles pressed into service after internal revolts, but yielded inconclusive results, as nomadic mobility allowed retreats and renewals of raids.^[18]^[17] By circa 453 CE, conflicts shifted emphasis toward the Hephthalites, a distinct "second wave" of Huns who displaced or absorbed Kidarites in Bactria and established a more centralized threat. Yazdegerd relocated his command to Nishapur for several years of sustained warfare, fortifying key sites like Qūmis (Dāmḡān) against Hephthalite advances. Armenian auxiliaries played a noted role, as per Ełisē's account of their deployment post-Armenian subjugation, yet the campaigns did not eradicate the peril, with Hephthalite power consolidating for future Sassanid defeats under successors like Peroz I. Numismatic evidence from the period shows disrupted Sassanid control in eastern mints, underscoring the campaigns' strain on imperial resources amid concurrent western fronts.^[11]^[18]^[17]

Domestic Administration

Religious Policies and Zoroastrian Enforcement

Yazdegerd II, a devout adherent of Zoroastrianism, implemented policies aimed at reinforcing religious orthodoxy as a means of imperial unity and loyalty, particularly after attributing early military defeats against the Kidarites to the disloyalty of Christian subjects within the empire.^[11] In 445–446 CE, he enacted repressive measures against Christians, including their expulsion from the Sasanian army, to curb perceived threats to state cohesion and prioritize Zoroastrian fidelity among the soldiery.^[11] A central aspect of enforcement targeted Armenia, where Yazdegerd II dispatched his influential minister Mihr-Narseh in 445–446 CE with an edict compelling the Armenian nobility (naxarar) to adopt Zoroastrianism, emphasizing its tenets as described in the decree.^[11] This imposition, reflecting efforts to centralize religious uniformity under Mazdean doctrine, provoked widespread resistance, culminating in an Armenian uprising led by Vardan Mamikonian.^[11] The conflict escalated to the Battle of Avarayr on 2 June 451 CE, where Sasanian forces decisively defeated the rebels, resulting in heavy Armenian casualties, the death or capture of Christian priests, and the exile of surviving insurgents to Khorasan by 454 CE.^[11] These actions strengthened Zoroastrian elements among the Armenian elite but failed to eradicate Christianity, as the rebellion underscored the limits of coercive conversion amid entrenched local traditions.^[11] Extending enforcement beyond Christians, Yazdegerd II initiated persecutions of Jews from 455 CE, prohibiting public Sabbath observance and targeting religious leaders, which aimed to suppress non-Zoroastrian practices but sparked revolts.^[11] Overall, his policies marked a shift toward stricter Zoroastrian hegemony, driven by magian influence and geopolitical pressures, though they strained provincial allegiances without achieving total religious homogenization.^[11]

Fortifications and Infrastructure

Under Yazdegerd II's reign (438–457 CE), the Sasanian Empire prioritized defensive fortifications along its northern frontiers to counter incursions by nomadic groups such as the Čōl (Huns), marking an early phase of systematic barrier construction in the Caucasus region. In the province of Čōl/Čōr, near the Darband pass, he initiated the building of Šahrestān Yazdegerd, a large city-fortress identified with the archaeological site of Torpakh-kala (modern Beliji, 20 km south of Derbent), spanning over 100 hectares in a trapezoidal layout.^[19] This structure featured a perimeter wall of adobe bricks (40 x 43 x 10–12 cm) measuring 10.2 m thick and 6 m high, reinforced by 144 semicircular towers spaced 28–30 m apart, a 20–25 m wide moat, and gates flanked by semi-oval towers projecting 7.5 m.^[19] Construction occurred in the 440s CE, partly funded by an annual subsidy of 500 litres (160 kg) of gold from a 442 CE treaty with the Eastern Roman Empire, integrating it into an echeloned defense system alongside initial mud-brick barriers at Darband itself and the Ghilghilchay wall.^[19] These adobe fortifications at Darband, the first Sasanian effort to seal the Caspian seacoast route, consisted of parallel walls extending from the sea to the mountains, later superseded by stone structures under subsequent rulers.^[20] Further east, Yazdegerd II fortified Qumes (modern Dāmḡān) in northeastern Iran as a key border post against the Čōl, enhancing its role within the Gruznian Guard's defensive network as documented in the late Sasanian geographical text Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr.^[11] These measures reflected a strategic response to eastern and northern threats, including Hephthalite pressures, without extending to new frontier fortresses in Mesopotamia due to a 440 CE peace agreement with Rome prohibiting such builds.^[11] On infrastructure, Yazdegerd's administration oversaw bridge construction as pious endowments, exemplified by a structure at Fīrūzābād (Ardašīr Ḵorra) commissioned under his grand vizier Mihr-Narseh, crossing the Tang(-e) Āb river on the main access road below the Qaḷʿa-ye Doḵtar fortress.^[21] The preserved pier, pentagonal with a triangular cutwater (6.35 x 6.50 m base, ~9.70 m length), utilized rubble concrete with lime mortar and cut stone facing secured by leaded iron clamps, positioned to complement Ardašīr I's investiture relief and symbolize religious merit.^[21] Such projects aligned with broader Sasanian hydraulic and transport initiatives, though specific dams or canals lack direct attribution to Yazdegerd II beyond general imperial patterns.^[21]

Coinage, Economy, and Imperial Ideology

Yazdegerd II's coinage followed the standard Sasanian design of silver drachms, featuring the king's bust on the obverse and a fire altar with attendants on the reverse, struck in .900 silver fineness across multiple mints from 438 to 457 CE.^[22] ^[11] Active mints included western facilities in Āsōrestān (abbreviated AS) and Khuzestan (WH), alongside eastern ones such as Gorgān (GW) and Marv (ML), with production supporting military campaigns on dual fronts against the Eastern Roman Empire and Hephthalites.^[11] A notable innovation under Yazdegerd II was the introduction of the legend mzdysn bgy kdy ("The Mazda-worshipping majesty, the Kayanid") on coins from eastern mints, evoking Avestan Kayanid heritage and diverging from prior Sasanian norms.^[11] Reverse designs also evolved to depict attendants facing the fire altar in reverence, underscoring Zoroastrian devotional elements.^[11] The Sasanian economy during Yazdegerd II's reign remained agrarian, reliant on irrigation-dependent agriculture in fertile regions like Khuzestan and Mesopotamia, though specific policies are undocumented; minting surges likely financed prolonged warfare, straining resources amid eastern nomadic incursions.^[11] Imperial ideology under Yazdegerd II emphasized Zoroastrian orthodoxy and dynastic legitimacy, as manifested in coin legends linking the ruler to Mazda-worship and mythical Kayanid lineage, aligning with domestic religious enforcement to unify the empire against heterodox threats.^[11] This numismatic shift reflected efforts to assert centralized religious identity amid territorial pressures.^[11]

Personal Traits and Governance

Personality and Leadership Style

Yazdegerd II was depicted in medieval Persian historiographical traditions as a gentle and benevolent ruler, earning the epithet "Gentle Yazdegerd" in sources such as Hamza al-Isfahani and Ibn al-Balkhi.^[9] He eschewed the excesses of his father Bahram V and the harsh temperament of his grandfather, maintaining a stoic lifestyle oriented toward justice and the welfare of his subjects rather than personal desires or courtly flattery.^[9] This characterization aligns with accounts in al-Tabari, which portray him as prioritizing equitable governance over indulgence.^[9] In leadership, Yazdegerd emphasized military organization and direct attention to the populace, as noted in Thaʿalibi's histories, while delegating enforcement of policies to trusted viziers like Mehr-Narseh.^[9] His approach to administration sought to unify the empire through centralized religious enforcement, reflecting a pragmatic yet firm style aimed at consolidating Zoroastrian orthodoxy amid external threats from the Hephthalites and Byzantium.^[9] However, this zeal for Zoroastrianism manifested in coercive measures, including the expulsion of Christians from the army around 445–446 CE and edicts imposing Zoroastrian practices on Armenian nobility, as recorded in Elishe Vardapet's history.^[9] Later policies targeted Jews, such as prohibitions on Sabbath observance by 455 CE, underscoring a leadership intolerant of religious dissent despite broader commendations for moderation in Persian sources.^[9] Such actions prioritized imperial cohesion over pluralism, contributing to rebellions like the Armenian uprising of 451 CE.^[9]

Family and Succession

Marriages

Yazdegerd II's primary documented marriage was to Dēnag (also spelled Denag or Dinak), who held the position of queen (banbīshn) during his reign from 438 to 457 CE.^[23]^[24] Little is known about Dēnag's origins or the specific circumstances of their union, which aligns with the limited surviving records on Sasanian royal consorts beyond their roles in dynastic continuity.^[25] As a Zoroastrian queen, she exemplified the elite women's involvement in imperial administration, though her personal influence prior to Yazdegerd's death remains unattested in primary sources.^[23] No other wives or consorts of Yazdegerd II are named in historical accounts, despite the Sasanian practice of polygamy among nobility for securing alliances and heirs; this scarcity may reflect the focus of extant sources, such as Armenian chronicles and seals, on male rulers and major conflicts rather than domestic arrangements.^[26] Dēnag's prominence is evident post-Yazdegerd's death in 457 CE, when she acted as regent from Ctesiphon amid the civil war between her sons, Hormizd III and Pērōz I, demonstrating her authority in stabilizing the empire's core.^[23]^[24]

Children

Yazdegerd II's known offspring consisted primarily of two sons, Hormozd III and Pērōz (later known as Peroz I), both of whom played central roles in the Sassanid succession crisis following their father's death in 457 CE.^[11] Hormozd III, the elder son, was designated as heir apparent and briefly ascended the throne as shahanshah upon Yazdegerd's demise, ruling from approximately 457 to 459 CE while based in the eastern regions of the empire, such as Rayy.^[27] Pērōz, the younger son, challenged his brother's claim, leveraging support from the nobility and Zoroastrian clergy to overthrow Hormozd III, whom he reportedly killed in battle around 459 CE, thereby securing the throne for himself until 484 CE.^[28] This fraternal conflict highlighted underlying tensions in Sassanid royal succession, where primogeniture was not strictly enforced, and military backing often determined outcomes.^[27] No other children are reliably attested in primary sources such as Armenian chronicles or Sasanian inscriptions, though fragmentary accounts suggest Yazdegerd may have had additional progeny whose roles were marginal or unrecorded.^[11]

Death and Dynastic Aftermath

Yazdegerd II died in 457 CE, with historical accounts providing no explicit details on the cause of death.^[11] His passing precipitated a brief but intense dynastic struggle within the Sasanian Empire, as he had not clearly designated a successor, leading to rivalry among his sons.^[11] The elder son, Hormizd III, initially seized the throne in 457 CE and ruled from the eastern regions, maintaining control over key territories including the viceroyalty he had previously held.^[11] However, his younger brother, Peroz I, challenged this claim, allying with the Hephthalites—a nomadic confederation in the east—to bolster his military position against Hormizd's forces.^[11] This external support proved decisive, as Peroz leveraged Hephthalite cavalry to confront and ultimately defeat Hormizd's armies. The succession war concluded by 459 CE, with Hormizd III killed in battle—reportedly through the intervention of a noble named Bahram Mihran—and Peroz I consolidating power as shahanshah.^[11] Peroz's reliance on Hephthalite aid, while securing his rule, introduced long-term dependencies that influenced subsequent Sasanian foreign policy, including tribute payments and military obligations to the nomads.^[11] This internal conflict highlighted the fragility of Sasanian royal authority amid feudal rivalries and external pressures, though Peroz's victory restored central control and enabled renewed campaigns against eastern threats.

Historical Assessment

Achievements in Defense and Unity

Yazdegerd II prioritized frontier defense through targeted military engagements. In 440 CE, he launched a war against the Eastern Roman Empire, resulting in an inconclusive stalemate and a treaty that barred Rome from erecting new fortresses in Mesopotamia.^[9] This preserved the status quo along the western border amid mutual exhaustion.^[9] Eastern campaigns addressed nomadic incursions threatening Parthia and Khwarezmia. Assembling forces at Neishabur in 443 CE, Yazdegerd initiated a prolonged offensive against the Kidarites, culminating in their defeat and expulsion across the Oxus River by approximately 450 CE.^[29] Subsequent efforts from 453 CE targeted the Hephthalites, including the fortification of Qumes (Dāmḡān) as a defensive outpost against tribes such as the Čōl.^[9] These measures reinforced the empire's northeastern perimeter against successive waves of invaders.^[9] Internal stability contributed to broader unity by quelling provincial dissent. Following an Armenian uprising in 451 CE led by Vardan Mamikonian, Sasanian commander Muškan Niusałavurt defeated rebel forces at the Battle of Avrayar on 2 June 451 CE.^[9] Surviving insurgents were exiled to Khorasan in 454 CE, reasserting central oversight and preventing fragmentation.^[9] By reorganizing the army and coordinating aristocratic support, Yazdegerd enhanced imperial cohesion against both external pressures and domestic challenges.^[9]

Criticisms, Controversies, and Rebellions

Yazdegerd II's religious policies, emphasizing Zoroastrian orthodoxy, generated substantial controversy by alienating non-Zoroastrian subjects, particularly Christians suspected of disloyalty amid military setbacks against the Hephthalites.^[11] His administration blamed Christian elements in the nobility and army for defeats in eastern campaigns around 440 CE, prompting expulsions and edicts mandating conversion to Zoroastrianism across provinces like Mesopotamia, Iberia, and Armenia.^[11] These measures, while bolstering support among the Zoroastrian priesthood and aristocracy, were critiqued in Christian sources as tyrannical, though they reflected pragmatic efforts to consolidate imperial cohesion against external threats and internal divisions.^[11] Persecutions intensified from 446 CE, targeting Christian nobles in Karkh de Beth Slokh (Mesopotamia) and extending to Jewish communities, with reports of forced conversions, property seizures, and executions to enforce compliance.^[11] In Iberia (modern Georgia), similar pressures on Christian aristocracy fueled unrest intertwined with political resistance.^[30] Yazdegerd's vizier Mihr-Narseh, a devout Zoroastrian, played a key role in implementing these policies, including the construction of fire temples to symbolize religious dominance, which further strained relations with subject populations.^[31] Christian historiographical accounts, such as those preserved in Syriac martyrologies from 446 CE, depict these actions as martyrdom-inducing, though Sassanid records portray them as necessary corrections to subversive influences aligned with Byzantine interests.^[32] The most prominent rebellion erupted in Armenia in 450 CE, triggered by Yazdegerd's decree requiring renunciation of Christianity and adoption of Zoroastrian practices, viewed as an assault on Armenian cultural and religious autonomy under Persian vassalage.^[33] Led by sparapet Vardan Mamikonian, a noble of the Mamikonian clan with prior military service to Persia, the uprising involved the killing of Persian-appointed officials and culminated in the Battle of Avarayr on May 26, 451 CE.^[11] ^[33] Armenian forces, numbering around 66,000 including clergy-led contingents, clashed with a larger Persian army under Mihr-Narseh's command; Vardan and several nakharars were slain, but the defeat is credited in Armenian tradition with halting forced conversions and inspiring sustained resistance.^[34] The rebellion persisted post-Avarayr, contributing to negotiated religious tolerances by 454 CE after Yazdegerd's death, underscoring the limits of coercive centralization in diverse frontier regions.^[11]

References

[1]
https://brill.com/view/journals/jps/aop/article-10.1163-18747167-bja10058/article-10.1163-18747167-bja10058.pdf
[2]
[PDF] The Sasanian Empire in the Fifth Century - UC Irvine
Yazdegerd II.385 The tale of Bahrām's death as reported in Perso-Arabic sources is laden with symbolism that completes his link to the Kayānid pantheon of ...
[3]
A Question of Faith? Persecution and Political Centralization in the ...
The Sasanian Empire under Yazdgard II (438–457 CE) is often characterized by indiscriminate persecution of religious minorities, particularly Christians, ...
[4]
[PDF] Some remarks on Christian church in Iran in the 5th century AD
In order to unify Armenia and Iran Yazdegerd II (438-457) issued a decree obliging Armenians to converse to the Mazdean religion in 449. The Armenian revolt ...Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[5]
[PDF] CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE HEPHTHALITES AND THE SASANIANS
The reign of Yazdegerd II (440–457 AD) saw the first significant military confrontations between the Sasanian Empire and the Hephthalites (White. Huns), a ...
[6]
YAZDEGERD I - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Jul 20, 2003 · It is a compound of Yazad Yazata- 'divine being' and –karta 'made', and signifies 'God-made', similar to Iranian Bagkart and Greek Theokistos.Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[7]
Yazdegerd بن كسرى بهرام الخامس (421 - 457) - Genealogy - Geni
Nov 14, 2022 · Yazdegerd II ("made by God," in Greek accounts Ἰσδιγέρδης, Isdigerdēs), fifteenth Sassanid King of Persia, was the son of Bahram V (421–438) and ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[8]
Yazdegerd Definition & Meaning - YourDictionary
Yazdegerd definition: An Iranian male given name, notably borne by several Sassanid kings.Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[9]
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/yazdgerd-ii
[10]
Yazdgerd II - Eranshahr
Apr 16, 2025 · His reign was marked by wars against the Eastern Roman Empire in the west and the Kidarites in the east. Yazdegerd II was the first Sasanian ...Missing: achievements | Show results with:achievements
[11]
YAZDEGERD II - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Jan 22, 2013 · YAZDEGERD II (r. 439-57 CE), Sasanian king, whose reign is marked by wars with Byzantium in the west and the Hephthalites in the east. He stayed ...
[12]
Bahrām V Gōr - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Jul 27, 2016 · Bahrām V Gōr, son and successor of Yazdegerd I, reigned from 420 to 438. His mother was said to have been Šōšanduxt, a daughter of the Jewish exilarch.
[13]
Yazdegerd II | Sāsānian Dynasty, Last Ruler, Persian Empire
He was engaged in a short war with Rome in 442 and also fought against the Kushans (Kuṣāṇas) and Kidarites in the east. Little else is known of Yazdegerd's ...Missing: achievements | Show results with:achievements
[14]
Mihr Narseh | Military Wiki - Fandom
Mihr Narseh, was a powerful Sasanian nobleman and grand vizier of Sasanian Empire during the reigns of the Sasanian kings Yazdegerd I (399-420 CE), ...
[15]
SASANIAN COINAGE - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Yazdgerd I adds the title rāmšahr “joy of the empire” before his name. Under Yazdegerd II, the mythic royal title kay “king” is placed before the royal name ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
<펌> Yazdegerd II (r 438-457) : 네이버 블로그
In 438, shah Bahram V (r. 420–438) died, and was succeeded by Yazdegerd II. His western neighbours, the Romans, had since their peace treaty with Iran in 387 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[17]
HEPHTHALITES - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Dec 15, 2003 · Hunnish incursions into Iran in the time of Bahrām V Gōr (420-38) and of Yazdegerd II (438-57) may also have involved the Kidarites (see ...
[18]
[PDF] Archaeological and Historical Analysis - Refubium
M. Alram who provided me with a lot of information on the Hephthalite (Alchon) coins in the time of my research stay at the Art Historical.
[19]
ŠAHRESTĀN YAZDEGERD - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Aug 9, 2017 · ŠAHRESTĀN YAZDEGERD, the Sasanian city-fortress built by Yazdegerd II (r. 439-57 CE) in the province of Čol, attested by the 6th-century ...
[20]
DAGH BARY - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Oct 20, 2017 · The stone Darband defensive complex replaced the adobe fortifications in the Darband pass that were constructed during the reign of Yazdegerd II ...
[21]
BRIDGES - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Extensive imperial, as well as private, programs of constructing bridges, dams, and canals are attested for the Sasanian period. ... Yazdegerd II (438-57). The ...
[22]
Drachm - Yazdgard II - Sasanian Empire - Numista
Yazdgerd II (438-457). Type, Standard circulation coins. Years, 438-457. Value, Drachm (1⁄12). Currency, Dinar (224 AD-651 AD). Composition, Silver (.900).Missing: numismatics | Show results with:numismatics
[23]
DĒNAG - Encyclopaedia Iranica
872; cf. Justi, Namenbuch, p. 84), the wife of Yazdagerd II was also called Dēnag; she reigned at Ctesiphon (q.v.) during the war between her two sons, Ohrmazd ...Missing: Sassanid wives
[24]
Sassanian Kings List & Commentary - World History Encyclopedia
Mar 2, 2020 · Yazdegerd II (r. 438-457), son of Bahram V, was a religious, studious, and well-read monarch who would have done better in a more peaceful ...
[25]
WOMEN i. In Pre-Islamic Persia - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Nothing is known of the descent of Dēnag, the wife of Yazdegerd II (r. 439-57) and mother of Pērōz (Firuz, r. 459-84) and Hormozd III (r. 457-59), though ...
[26]
MARRIAGE ii. NEXT OF KIN MARRIAGE IN ZOROASTRIANISM
Jan 30, 2013 · Evidence from Dura Europos, however, combined with that of the Jewish and Christian sources citing actual cases under the Sasanians, strengthen ...
[27]
HORMOZD III - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Dec 15, 2004 · Sasanian great king (r. 457-59 CE). He was the eldest son and heir of Yazdegerd II and “was king of Sejestān" (Ṭabari).<|separator|>
[28]
FĪRŪZ - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Dec 15, 1999 · FĪRŪZ(PĒRŌZ), Sasanian king (r. 459-84), son of Yazdegerd II (r. 439-57). After Yazdegerd's death his other son, Hormozd, hitherto viceroy ...
[29]
An Introduction to the Sasanian Dynasty - Cais-Soas
This child, named Shapur, was therefore born king. During his youth the empire was controlled by his mother and the nobles.<|separator|>
[30]
HISTORY OF IRANIAN-GEORGIAN RELATION - (CAIS) ©
Yazdegerd II (438-57), convinced that a single religion would enhance the ... Religious controversy was intertwined with political struggle in the 5th century.
[31]
MEHR-NARSEH - Encyclopaedia Iranica
2). According to the Sasanian-based sources, during Yazdgerd II's reign Mehr-Narseh was sent for negotiations after the commencement of the rekindled war ...Missing: Yazdegerd | Show results with:Yazdegerd
[32]
ACTS OF ĀDUR-HORMIZD AND OF ANĀHĪD - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Syriac martyrological texts. Their events are set in the year 446 A.D., during the reign of Yazdegerd II; and they were apparently recorded not long ...Missing: Yazdgerd | Show results with:Yazdgerd
[33]
AVARAYR - Encyclopaedia Iranica
... Sasanian king, Yazdegerd II (439-57), in which he ordered the Armenians, the bulk of whose country had become a vassal state of Iran at the Romano-Persian ...
[34]
EŁIŠĒ - Encyclopaedia Iranica
... Yazdegerd's hazārapat Mehrnarseh. The two versions are closely related, with several identical lists of nobles. Although Ełišē claims to have been an ...