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1 BC

1 BC, known in Latin as ante Christum natum ("before Christ"), denotes the final year preceding the Anno Domini era in the proleptic Julian and Gregorian calendars, with no intervening year zero, making it immediately adjacent to AD 1.^[1] This dating convention, devised by the monk Dionysius Exiguus in 525 AD to reckon from the estimated incarnation of Jesus Christ, renders 1 BC a pivotal chronological marker, though modern historical analysis places Christ's birth several years earlier, around 6–4 BC, due to discrepancies in Herod the Great's reign and other records.^[2] In the Roman Empire, the year fell under the principate of Augustus Caesar, who had consolidated power following the Republic's transformation, fostering relative stability amid ongoing frontier consolidations.^[3] Concurrently, in Han Dynasty China, Emperor Ai died without heir in August, precipitating the accession of the infant Emperor Ping and the regency of Wang Mang, whose maneuvers foreshadowed the dynasty's interregnum and the brief Xin Dynasty by 9 AD.^[4] Astronomically, 1 BC featured notable celestial alignments in the Julian reckoning, though unremarkable in contemporary records beyond routine imperial administration and distant eastern transitions.^[5]

Chronology and Calendar

Julian Calendar Context

The Julian calendar was introduced in 45 BC by Julius Caesar, who reformed the Roman Republican calendar to create a solar system with 365 days in common years and an intercalary day every fourth year, inserted after February 24 (later standardized as February 29), yielding an average year of 365.25 days.^[6]^[7] This addressed the prior system's drift from irregular intercalations by aligning more closely with the observed solar cycle, as advised by Alexandrian astronomers like Sosigenes.^[8] Priestly oversight initially led to excessive leap insertions approximately every three years rather than four, accumulating errors until Augustus intervened around 8 BC by enforcing the quadrennial rule and suspending leaps in select years (such as 8 BC and 4 BC) to restore synchronization with equinoxes and solstices.^[9]^[6] By 1 BC, the calendar operated stably as a common year under this corrected framework, with proleptic extensions applied retrospectively for eras predating its adoption to maintain consistent numbering.^[9] Surviving Roman fasti, marble inscriptions recording kalends and festivals, provide direct evidence of its mechanics in use, showing fixed month lengths and leap placements aligned to civil observances.^[10] Astronomical records, including dated eclipses and planetary positions in Roman annals, further validate the Julian alignment around 1 BC by matching predicted solar events to reported kalendared dates, confirming minimal drift at that epoch—approximately one day per century relative to the tropical year—without reliance on later Gregorian adjustments that retroactively shorten intervals.^[10]^[7] This empirical anchoring underscores the calendar's utility for precise historical chronology in the Mediterranean world, privileging observable celestial cycles over ad hoc pontifical decisions.

Astronomical and Anno Domini Designations

In astronomical chronology, the year 1 BC corresponds to year 0, enabling a continuous sequence of integers for computational purposes in the proleptic Gregorian calendar, where negative years precede it (e.g., 2 BC as year −1). This system, employed by astronomers and in software for celestial mechanics, avoids the discontinuity of the historical BC/AD convention, which omits a year 0 and transitions directly from 1 BC to 1 AD to reflect ordinal counting from the estimated Incarnation without implying a null year.^[11]^[12] The Anno Domini (AD) designation originated with Dionysius Exiguus, a 6th-century Scythian monk, who in 525 AD proposed numbering years from the Incarnation of Jesus Christ to supplant the Diocletian era, which commemorated a persecutor of Christians. Dionysius back-calculated from known consular years and paschal cycles, equating the current Anno Diocletiani 248 (in 525 AD) to AD 532, thereby fixing AD 1 as the consular year of Caesar Augustus and Lucius Agrippa (approximately 2 BC in modern reckoning, but intended as the Incarnation year). His tables facilitated Easter computation across Christendom, establishing a causal framework for unified historical record-keeping tied to theological primacy rather than imperial persecution.^[13]^[14] Regarding precision, Dionysius's alignment of AD 1 with Christ's birth drew on patristic traditions emphasizing the Incarnation's centrality, though empirical scrutiny reveals potential offsets. Primary sources like Josephus link Herod the Great's death to a lunar eclipse, with astronomical verification identifying candidates on March 13, 4 BC (partial, visible in Judea) or a total lunar eclipse on 10 January 1 BC (astronomical year 0, per NASA data), also visible.^[15] Recent analysis notes this 1 BC eclipse fits Josephus's timeline, providing nearly 12 weeks to Passover for trials, executions, travel, and mourning, making it a strong match over the traditional 4 BC date.^[16] The 4 BC eclipse underpins scholarly estimates placing Christ's birth in 6–4 BC to precede Herod's reign's end, as per Matthew 2; however, analyses favoring the 1 BC event—accounting for Josephus's timeline of post-eclipse events and Herod's illness duration—align closer to the traditional boundary, prioritizing Dionysius's computational intent over adjustments that disrupt the AD system's foundational continuity. This adherence preserves causal integrity in chronological records, where revisions risk cascading errors in pre-modern dating reliant on regnal and ecclesiastical anchors.^[17]^[18]^[19]

Historicity and Dating Precision

The dating of events in 1 BC benefits from relatively high precision in Roman records, where the Julian calendar—introduced in 45 BC—provided a solar framework aligned with annual consular terms recorded in primary inscriptions like the Fasti Capitolini, a marble list of magistrates from 509 BC onward discovered in the 16th century.^[20] These fasti, maintained by pontiffs and corroborated by literary sources such as Ovid and Livy where extant, assign events to specific consular pairs, enabling year-level accuracy without reliance on later interpolations; for instance, the ordinary consuls for the year ab urbe condita 753 (corresponding to 1 BC) are verifiable through such epigraphic evidence, resisting narrative embellishments common in post-Augustan chronicles.^[20] This direct evidentiary chain prioritizes causal continuity from contemporary administrative practice over retrospective adjustments, as consular succession was a fixed institutional mechanism tied to electoral cycles. Cross-cultural synchronization poses greater challenges, as Roman solar dating contrasts with lunisolar systems like the Chinese imperial calendar, which tracked years via regnal eras (e.g., the final year of Emperor Ai of Han, Jianping 4, ending in 1 BC) recorded in annals such as the Hanshu.^[21] Empirical alignment depends on shared astronomical anchors, such as eclipses or planetary conjunctions, but 1 BC lacks prominent cross-verifiable phenomena; while debates exist over comet visibilities (e.g., misattributions of Halley's Comet apparitions to nearby years like 11–10 BC), no such event provides unambiguous global correlation for this specific year.^[11] Egyptian records, using a Nile-based civil calendar, offer partial bridges via Ptolemaic-to-Roman transitions, but require proleptic Julian projections, introducing minor discrepancies from uneven local adoptions.^[22] Archaeological evidence remains sparse and non-disruptive, with no major 1 BC-specific artifacts—such as dated coins or inscriptions—necessitating timeline revisions, unlike flashpoints in earlier centuries (e.g., Assyrian eclipse records from 763 BC).^[23] Overreliance on interpolated secondary sources, like Byzantine compilations, risks introducing biases from later ideological lenses, whereas primary data like the Fasti favor unaltered factual listing; unsubstantiated claims of systemic calendrical errors (e.g., purported Julian drifts favoring modern secular recalibrations) lack support from inscriptional consistency, as the calendar's leap-year mechanics stabilized post-45 BC without evidence of cumulative offset by 1 BC.^[20] This underscores the need for cross-verification, weighting epigraphic and annalistic primaries over interpretive traditions prone to hindsight distortion.

Events

Roman Empire and Mediterranean

In 1 BC, the Roman Empire under Augustus maintained a state of administrative consolidation and relative tranquility across its Mediterranean domains, reflecting the ongoing implementation of reforms initiated after the civil wars. Augustus, holding the title of princeps since 27 BC, exercised de facto imperial authority while preserving republican institutions, with the year's consuls being Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Cossus and Lucius Calpurnius Piso Augur, who managed routine senatorial affairs. Provincial governance emphasized efficient taxation and military readiness, building on Augustus' prior censuses— the second of which had occurred in 8 BC to tally citizens and provincials for fiscal and recruitment purposes, ensuring stable revenue flows from senatorial provinces like Africa and Asia.^[24] Military stability characterized the period, with no major campaigns recorded in core Mediterranean territories, as the legions—numbering around 28 under permanent establishment—focused on border security rather than expansion. This Pax Romana, empirically evidenced by reduced internal strife and sustained grain imports from Egypt, stemmed causally from Augustus' centralization of command, which curtailed factional armies post-Actium (31 BC) and integrated defeated foes into the system via veteran settlements. Infrastructure projects, such as aqueduct repairs and road maintenance along key routes like the Via Appia, supported commerce and troop mobility, with Augustus later claiming expenditures exceeding 600 million sesterces on public works by the era's close.^[24] Client kingdoms on the periphery, including Thrace under Rhoemetalces I and Nabataea, provided strategic buffers through tribute and auxiliary forces, minimizing direct Roman commitments while extending influence without conquest. Diplomatic efforts reinforced this equilibrium, particularly with eastern neighbors; envoys from Parthia's Phraates V, who had ascended amid internal turmoil, engaged Rome to affirm the 20 BC treaty returning Crassus' standards, underscoring Augustus' preference for prestige over war in securing the Euphrates frontier. In the west, Iberian provinces saw pacification efforts conclude under earlier governors like Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, transitioning to routine oversight that stabilized Hispania's silver mines and agricultural output. These developments prioritized causal durability—rooted in fiscal prudence and loyalty incentives—over aggressive republican-era expansionism, fostering empire-wide cohesion amid demographic pressures from veteran retirements.

Han Dynasty

Emperor Ai of Han died on August 15, 1 BC, at age 24, without an heir, amid ongoing court favoritism toward his associate Dong Xian.^[25] His second cousin, Liu Kan (born 9 BC), ascended as Emperor Ping on October 17, 1 BC, at approximately age eight, marking a regency under the influence of Grand Empress Dowager Wang Zhengjun.^[26] Wang Zhengjun, widow of Emperor Yuan, appointed her nephew Wang Mang as acting regent and Commander-in-chief, leveraging his prior administrative roles to stabilize the succession amid factional tensions.^[27]^[28] Wang Mang rapidly eliminated rivals to consolidate authority, ordering the dismissal of Dong Xian the day after Ai's death; Xian, as general of the armed forces, faced demotion and subsequently died by suicide, as did his wife and kin.^[29] He orchestrated arrests, forced suicides, and executions of perceived opponents, including remnants of influential clans from Ai's reign, while securing honors like Grand Mentor, Duke of Anhan, and Steward-regulator.^[27] These maneuvers shifted power toward a Confucian-oriented bureaucracy, with Wang promoting ritual and scholarly standards drawn from classical texts, foreshadowing his subsequent economic and administrative experiments without immediate overhauls.^[27] The period saw no significant border incursions or rebellions, enabling internal realignments verified through Han annals cross-checked with eclipse records for chronological precision.^[27]

Kingdom of Kush

In the late 1st century BC, the Kingdom of Kush operated as an independent Meroitic state centered at Meroë, with King Teriteqas reigning until circa 1 BC, followed by a transition to queens such as Amanishakheto around the turn of the millennium.^[30]^[31] This period followed the Romano-Kushite War (c. 27–21 BC), after which a peace treaty brokered by Queen Amanirenas and Roman Prefect Publius Petronius stabilized relations, allowing Kush to retain autonomy south of the First Cataract while avoiding further Roman incursions.^[32]^[33] Kush's economy relied on control of Nile Valley trade routes, exporting gold from local mines, ivory, ebony, ostrich feathers, and incense to Roman markets via Egyptian intermediaries, in exchange for imported wine amphorae, glassware, and metal tools evidenced in Meroë excavations.^[34]^[35] These commodities, particularly gold panned from Nubian rivers and ivory from sub-Saharan savannas, generated sufficient wealth to fund monumental architecture and military defenses, sustaining political independence without subjugation to Rome or Ptolemaic remnants.^[35] Archaeological findings at Meroë include over 200 pyramids and associated temples from the Meroitic era, with radiocarbon dates from furnace residues and organic artifacts calibrating to the late 1st century BC, indicating active iron smelting and construction proximate to 1 BC.^[36] Meroitic cursive and hieroglyphic inscriptions on stelae and temple blocks from this time record royal dedications to deities like Amun and Isis, reflecting administrative continuity and the use of the undeciphered Meroitic script for royal proclamations, without evidence of disruption from external conflicts.^[37]^[38]

Satavahana Dynasty and South Asia

The Satavahana dynasty exercised authority over the Deccan region during the late 1st century BCE, succeeding the Mauryan Empire after a century-long interregnum and establishing control from Telangana eastward to the Godavari basin and westward into Maharashtra.^[39] Inscriptions in Prakrit using Brahmi script, numbering around 24 royal and familial records scattered across the Deccan, document administrative continuity and royal lineages, with the Naneghat inscription—dated stylistically to the 1st century BCE—recording sacrifices and genealogy under a ruler named Satakarni, likely Satakarni I or an early successor.^[40] These epigraphic sources, corroborated by numismatic finds of lead and potin coins bearing royal titles, indicate consolidation of power through military campaigns against residual post-Mauryan polities, though precise chronologies remain tentative due to reliance on Puranic king lists lacking archaeological corroboration for foundational dates.^[41] Expansions under early Satavahana kings focused on the Deccan plateau, with evidence from sites like Nevasa revealing seals and coins attesting to territorial extension into riverine valleys conducive to agriculture and trade.^[42] The port of Bharukaccha (modern Bharuch), situated on the Narmada estuary and linked to Satavahana spheres of influence, facilitated maritime exchanges with the Roman world, as inferred from later Periplus descriptions and early archaeological traces of imported Roman amphorae and coins signaling commodity flows of spices, textiles, and semiprecious stones outbound against Mediterranean metals and glass.^[43] This trade infrastructure, operational by the 1st century BCE, underpinned economic vitality amid sparse direct records, with causal drivers rooted in geographic access to monsoon winds rather than centralized fiat.^[44] Patronage of Buddhism, evidenced by donations recorded in cave inscriptions at Nasik and contributions to stupa railings at sites like Sanchi post-70 BCE, coexisted with Brahmanical rituals in Naneghat texts, suggesting pragmatic religious eclecticism to legitimize rule without resolved tensions between monastic and Vedic elites.^[45] Empirical constraints persist: while inscriptions and coins affirm active governance around 1 BC, the absence of datable events ties reconstructions to broader 1st-century BCE patterns, limiting claims of dramatic upheavals and emphasizing incremental state formation over mythic grandeur.^[46]

Parthian Empire

Phraates V, also known as Phraataces, ruled the Parthian Empire in 1 BC, having seized power in 2 BC after his mother Musa orchestrated the poisoning of his father, Phraates IV. This transition maintained continuity in Arsacid dynastic rule, with Musa exercising significant influence as co-regent, though her background as a former Italian slave raised tensions among Parthian nobles accustomed to aristocratic legitimacy. Diplomatic relations with Rome, strained since the 53 BC defeat at Carrhae, showed signs of stabilization through ongoing hostage arrangements; Phraates IV had dispatched four sons to Augustus circa 10 BC as a pragmatic concession to secure borders and avert invasion, a policy Phraates V upheld amid negotiations over Armenia.^[47]^[48] Parthian control of Central Asian trade corridors bolstered economic resilience, positioning the empire as a vital intermediary on the Silk Road network linking Han China and Mediterranean markets. Merchants facilitated the exchange of silk, spices, and precious metals, with Parthian drachmae circulating widely to support these routes. Numismatic evidence from hoards, such as those containing Arsacid silver coins alongside Roman and Indo-Parthian issues, confirms robust commercial activity and monetary stability around this period, reflecting the empire's role in sustaining long-distance trade without direct overland conflict.^[49]^[50] The decentralized Parthian polity, characterized by feudal obligations to powerful noble houses like the Surens and Karens, prevented monarchical absolutism and fostered internal equilibrium under Phraates V. Arsacid genealogy, traceable through royal inscriptions and Roman accounts, underscored legitimate succession despite Musa's controversial prominence, as aristocratic assemblies vetted heirs to balance royal authority with regional autonomy. This structure, evident in the absence of major revolts during early years of Phraates V's reign, prioritized pragmatic power-sharing over centralization, enabling the empire to weather dynastic intrigue.^[48]

Religious and Cultural Developments

Judaism and Near Eastern Religions

In the Levant, the expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, initiated by Herod the Great around 20 BC, persisted into 1 BC under the rule of his son Archelaus, who served as ethnarch until his deposition in 6 AD. This project involved enlarging the Temple Mount platform and enhancing the sanctuary's structures, employing thousands of workers and priests trained specifically for the task to maintain ritual purity during construction. Priestly records, including the division into 24 courses established under King David and documented in biblical texts, continued to organize Temple service, ensuring rotational duties amid the ongoing build.^[51]^[52] Sectarian divisions within Judaism, including Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, characterized the Second Temple period, with tensions rooted in interpretations of purity laws, oral traditions, and Temple authority predating 1 BC but persisting without resolution. Pharisees, associated with urban lay scholars, advocated separation from ritual impurity and broader application of Mosaic law beyond the Temple elite, while Essenes maintained ascetic communities, possibly withdrawing from Jerusalem due to disputes over priestly legitimacy, as inferred from archaeological finds like the Dead Sea Scrolls dated to the late Second Temple era. These groups operated amid Hasmonean legacies but showed no unification or major schismatic event specifically in 1 BC, reflecting stable yet fragmented religious practice.^[53] In the Near East, the Parthian Empire upheld Zoroastrianism as its primary state religion, featuring fire temples and rituals centered on Ahura Mazda, with archaeological evidence from sites like Old Nisa confirming such structures from the Parthian period onward. Mithraism, drawing from Iranian Mithra worship within Zoroastrian frameworks, coexisted as a cult emphasizing covenants and solar aspects, tolerated alongside Greek pantheons in conquered territories, though without dominance over Zoroastrian orthodoxy. Empirical records, including temple remains and inscriptions, indicate continuity rather than innovation in these cults during 1 BC. Jewish and other minority faiths persisted under Parthian pluralism, but no verifiable fulfillment of messianic prophecies from Hebrew texts occurred, as contemporary sources lack evidence of a recognized Davidic redeemer or prophetic realization, countering later interpretive overlays.^[54]^[55]

Developments in Asia

In the Han Dynasty, Confucianism maintained its position as the prevailing state ideology, with influential figures like Wang Mang emphasizing the study and application of the Confucian Classics to reinforce moral governance and social order. During the late Western Han period, Wang Mang, who had deeply engaged with these texts, advocated for their institutional promotion, including increasing the number of court erudites (bōshì) specialized in the Classics and elevating their interpretive authority in policy-making. This approach reflected a continuity of Han efforts to integrate Confucian principles into imperial administration, rather than introducing novel doctrines, though Wang's interpretations sometimes involved selective enforcement to consolidate regental influence amid dynastic instability.^[27]^[56] Such promotions were not without factional tensions; while Confucian scholarship fostered scholarly debates over textual authenticity—drawing on ancient bronze inscriptions and oracle bones for validation—competing interpretations occasionally led to purges of rival scholars, underscoring causal links between state power and orthodox enforcement rather than unalloyed syncretism. Evidence from Han annals indicates no major doctrinal innovations in 1 BC, but rather a consolidation against heterodox influences like early Daoist or proto-Buddhist elements, which remained marginal until later Eastern Han contacts via the Silk Road.^[56] In South Asia, the Satavahana dynasty, active from the late 2nd century BC onward, extended patronage to Buddhism and Jainism through the construction and endowment of stupas, viharas (monasteries), and chaityas (prayer halls), building directly on the legacy of Ashoka's 3rd-century BC edicts that had disseminated Buddhist relics across the Deccan and beyond. Rulers financed expansions at key sites such as Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda, where archaeological remains of relic deposits and sculptural friezes from the 1st century BC attest to royal sponsorship aimed at legitimizing rule via religious merit accumulation. This support coexisted with Vedic Brahmanical practices, including animal sacrifices, but prioritized Buddhist monastic networks for their role in trade-route integration and social cohesion.^[57]^[58] Jainism similarly benefited from Satavahana liberality, with cave donations and doctrinal patronage evident in inscriptions, though without the same stupa-centric emphasis as Buddhism; this pluralistic policy masked underlying competitions for royal favor, as evidenced by epigraphic records of sectarian endowments that sometimes displaced local cults. Continuity prevailed over rupture, with no recorded schisms or mass conversions in 1 BC, but state-linked enforcements—such as land grants conditional on doctrinal adherence—highlighted pragmatic alliances rather than seamless harmony among traditions.^[57]^[58]

Broader Cultural Context

In the Roman Mediterranean, aqueduct systems exemplified enduring hydraulic engineering, with gravity-based conduits like the Aqua Appia—initially constructed in 312 BC—continuing to supply urban centers through maintenance and incremental expansions into the late Republic era, underscoring technological continuity rather than rapid innovation.^[59] Concurrently, in Han China, sericulture sustained large-scale silk production, estimated at over 20,000 pounds of woven silk annually by the dynasty's standards, involving meticulous rearing of silkworms (Bombyx mori) and weaving techniques that prioritized quality for elite and tributary uses. These practices reflected regional technological plateaus, where empirical refinements in materials and labor organization enabled reliable output but showed no evidence of paradigm-shifting advances specific to the year. Archaeological recoveries highlight limited trans-regional exchanges, such as Roman glass vessels and beads unearthed at South Indian sites like Arikamedu, chemically traced to Mediterranean workshops and dated to the 1st century BC through stratigraphic and stylistic analysis, indicating sporadic maritime voyages via monsoon winds rather than routine commerce.^[60] Similar artifacts, including glass fragments from the Isthmus of Kra, corroborate Indian Ocean trade networks extending Roman wares eastward, yet their scarcity—often confined to elite burials or ports—demonstrates diffusion confined to luxury novelties, not systemic cultural integration.^[61] Such interactions faced inherent causal constraints from transport limitations, including the low capacity of pack-animal caravans (typically 100-200 kg per load) and sailing vessels reliant on seasonal winds, which curtailed volume and velocity of exchanges, fostering regional isolations over purported globalization.^[62] Literary and archival outputs remained sparse and localized, with potential annalistic compilations in Roman or Han courts preserving administrative records but evidencing no cross-continental synthesis; knowledge transmission thus prioritized endogenous traditions, bounded by linguistic barriers and infrastructural gaps that prevented broad empirical convergence.

Notable Figures

Births

No births of historically notable individuals are verifiably attested for the year 1 BC in ancient literary sources, epigraphic evidence, or modern prosopographical databases such as the Prosopographia Imperii Romani, which reconstruct elite Roman biographies from fragmentary data. Roman dating practices prioritized consular years and public careers over personal events like births, often inferring ages from minimum office-holding requirements under laws like the lex Villia annalis (established 180 BC), which mandated, for instance, 30 years for quaestorship—thus yielding approximate rather than exact birth years for officials entering service decades later.^[63] This methodological limitation explains the absence of precise attributions, countering any narrative emphasis on transitional eras around the BC/AD divide without corresponding empirical support. Minor figures, such as potential future magistrates, may have been born then but remain unidentifiable due to incomplete records.

Deaths

Emperor Ai of Han (Liu Xin) died on August 15, 1 BC, at age 24, from chronic illnesses that had plagued him throughout his reign.^[64] His death without a direct heir triggered a succession crisis, as the throne passed to his infant grandnephew, Emperor Ping (Liu Yifang), under the regency of Wang Mang, who consolidated power amid court factions and eunuch influences detailed in dynastic records.^[65] Dong Xian, the emperor's favored general and commander-in-chief who had risen rapidly due to their close relationship, committed suicide on August 16, 1 BC, alongside his wife, following his dismissal by imperial decree after Ai's death.^[66] This eliminated a potential rival power center, facilitating Wang Mang's unchallenged regency and contributing to the erosion of imperial authority in the late Western Han period.^[67] No other verified deaths of regional rulers or key advisors in 1 BC—such as in the Parthian Empire under Phraates IV, Satavahana domains, or Meroitic Kush—appear in contemporary inscriptions or annals to have directly precipitated successions or power vacuums.^[68]

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About twenty-four stone inscriptions were issued directly by the Satavahana kings and their family members, and these are scattered across the Deccan region.
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[PDF] The Sātavāhana, Western Kṣatrapa, and Ikṣvāku Dynasties Mic
Ghosh's study proved that the archaeological evidence for the development of ... The emergence of the Sātavāhana dynasty in the first century BCE initiated the.Missing: 1st | Show results with:1st
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Bygone splendour : a history of the Satavahanas - historyreads
Nov 10, 2016 · The inscriptions found of the Satavahanas are around 25 out of which only few are royal records and the others are of private individuals.
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(PDF) An Ancient Port town on Narmada - Bharuch - Academia.edu
It was meeting point of both the foreign – Greeks, Roman, later the Arabs and the Indian merchants. The imports included Roman wine, copper, tin, coral, topaz, ...
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[PDF] ANALYSIS OF THE EARLY ROMAN 'INDIA TRADE' IN THE INDIAN ...
Nov 5, 2013 · This study examines the Early Roman 'India trade' in the Indian Ocean during the. Late Pre-Islamic period through a holistic overview of ...
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[PDF] Expansion of Buddhism in Early Deccan
Jun 25, 2023 · After the year 70 BCE, both the gates and the railings were constructed, and it is believed that the Satavahanas were the ones who ordered them.
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SĀTAVĀHANA ARCHAEOLOGY - jstor
This again so far has not been attested by archaeological evidence. The absence of archaeological evidence need not necessarily mean that Pliny is.Missing: BCE | Show results with:BCE
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(PDF) Augustus versus Phraates IV. Some Remarks on the Parthian ...
Phraates IV sent four sons to Rome around 10 BC, interpreted as a move for stability amidst domestic strife. Augustus emphasized that Phraates IV's sons were ...
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ARSACIDS ii. The Arsacid dynasty - Encyclopaedia Iranica
She rose to become his favorite wife and bore him a son named Phraataces, the later Phraates V. Hoping to obviate any problems over the succession, Phraates ...
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Parthian Circulation: A Study of the Wilson Hoard (IGCH 1816)
Jul 5, 2019 · This paper examines three aspects of this hoard: first, the history of the hoard since recovery, second, a die study of the coins from the mint ...
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Beyond Frontiers: Ancient Rome and the Eurasian Trade Networks
Oct 25, 2018 · The research examines interactions and exchanges in Eurasian networks during early Roman Empire, focusing on trading routes, Eastern product ...
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The Temple of Herod - Religious Studies Center
Herod began to build his temple in ca. 20 BC—although the temple was not completed until ca. AD 63. According to Josephus, Herod believed that building the ...
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Herod Rebuilds the Temple Mount and the Temple - Timeline
The greatest of Herod's building projects was the expansion of the Temple Mount – which became the largest sacred compound in the Roman Empire.
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Sectarianism in the Second Temple Period
Aug 26, 2014 · The Pharisees were linked to the urban middle classes and took their name from their life of separation from ritual impurity and untithed ...
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Parthian Religion - World History Encyclopedia
Jun 30, 2020 · While Parthia allowed Jews and Christian enclaves to thrive, the three leading beliefs were the Greek pantheon, Zoroastrianism, and Mithraism.Missing: archaeology | Show results with:archaeology
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Parthian Religion
Feb 23, 2021 · Parthians worshipped Mithraism and also practiced Zoroastrianism, with their holy documents first compiled by them.
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[PDF] WANG MANG 王莽 (c. 45 b.c.e .–23 c.e .) AND CLASSICAL ... - HAL
Jan 29, 2023 · ... Emperor Ping under Wang Mang's regency, which many took to be the first “sign” of Heaven's favor for Wang Mang's ascendancy. This offering ...
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RELIGIOUS PRACTICES IN THE SATAVAHANA EMPIRE
Jun 30, 2024 · Simultaneously, the Satavahanas were notable patrons of Buddhism, commissioning the construction of stupas, viharas, and chaityas, particularly ...
[56]
(PDF) RELIGIOUS PRACTICES IN THE SATAVAHANA EMPIRE
Aug 8, 2025 · The Satavahanas also supported Jainism, reflecting the pluralistic nature of their reign. Jain monks and nuns were provided with the freedom to ...
[57]
Expedition Magazine | Roman Aqueducts - Penn Museum
In 312 B.C. Appius Claudius built the first aqueduct for the city of Rome. The Romans were still a tightly knit body of citizens whose lives centered on the ...
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1(b).2. Import of Glass in ancient India
Oct 28, 2024 · This essay examines the early maritime trade between India and the Roman Empire, focusing on archaeological evidence from the 1st century BC ...Missing: finds | Show results with:finds
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Finds from the Region of the Isthmus of Kra (Malay Peninsula)
Apr 23, 2025 · Early Roman Glass in the Indian Ocean Trade: Finds from the Region of the Isthmus of Kra (Malay Peninsula)
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Ancient Trade Issues | The Geography of Transport Systems
Limiting factors. The main technical constraint to trade was the limited capacity and speed of inland transportation, implying the maritime focus of long- ...
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Marriage Ages for Roman Senators - jstor
63 The birth year of the elder Marcella can be deduced from her marriage to Agrippa in 28. 64 E. Simon, Ara Pacis Augustae (1967), pl. 15. See now the plate ...
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China's gay emperor known for his 'cut sleeve'
Apr 19, 2021 · Emperor Ai of Han's reign has been interpreted by historians as opening the door to court corruption and dynastic crisis.
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The Rise and Fall of the Han Dynasty - History Collection
Mar 18, 2017 · Pressure from his supporters ensured he returned to the capital in 2 BC. The following year, Emperor Ai died, and as he had no son, Wang Mang ...
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董賢
Chinese. Dong Xian (董賢) (22 BC – 16 August 1 BC) was a Chinese Han dynasty ... After knowing of his dismissal, Dong and his wife died by suicide, and were ...
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Dong Xian 董賢 (www.chinaknowledge.de)
Dong Xian 董賢 (23-1 BCE), courtesy name Shengqing 聖卿, was a minister of the late Former Han period 前漢 (206 BCE-8 CE) and minion of Emperor Ai 漢哀帝 (r. 7 ...Missing: BC | Show results with:BC
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List of Rulers of the Parthian Empire | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
A list of rulers of the Parthian Empire in chronological order from the third century B.C. to the third century A.D., based on current research.”
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Catalog of Lunar Eclipses: -0099 to 0000
NASA's official catalog confirming a total lunar eclipse on January 10, 1 BC (astronomical year 0).
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How Lunar and Solar Eclipses Shed Light on Biblical Events
Article from Bible Archaeology Report discussing the fit of the 1 BC eclipse to Josephus's timeline.