Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Adipogenesis

Adipogenesis is the developmental process by which multipotent mesenchymal stem cells commit to the adipocyte lineage and differentiate into mature, lipid-laden adipocytes, forming white, brown, or beige adipose tissue that plays a central role in energy homeostasis and metabolic regulation.^[1] This tightly regulated process unfolds in three main stages: commitment, where mesenchymal stem cells or preadipocytes are specified toward the adipogenic lineage; mitotic clonal expansion, involving rapid cell proliferation in response to mitogenic signals; and terminal differentiation, characterized by the expression of adipocyte-specific genes leading to lipid accumulation and functional maturation.^[2]^[3] Central to adipogenesis is a transcriptional cascade orchestrated by key regulators, including the early-phase factors C/EBPβ and C/EBPδ, which activate the master regulator PPARγ and C/EBPα to drive the expression of genes involved in lipogenesis, insulin sensitivity, and adipokine secretion.^[1]^[2] Signaling pathways such as bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) promote differentiation, while inhibitors like Wnt, Hedgehog, and TGF-β signaling suppress it to maintain lineage balance.^[2] Physiologically, adipogenesis is essential for storing excess energy as triglycerides in adipose tissue, preventing lipotoxicity in non-adipose organs like the liver and muscle, and supporting endocrine functions through adipokines that influence systemic metabolism.^[3] Dysregulated adipogenesis contributes to obesity by promoting excessive adipose expansion, particularly visceral fat accumulation, and is linked to metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease; notably, recent studies highlight age-dependent shifts, with distinct progenitor cells driving heightened adipogenesis in middle age.^[2]^[4] In humans, adipocytes exhibit a turnover rate of approximately 10% per year, underscoring the process's dynamic role in tissue maintenance and potential therapeutic targeting for obesity intervention.^[1]

Overview

Definition and Phases

Adipogenesis is the developmental process by which multipotent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) or committed preadipocytes differentiate into mature adipocytes capable of lipid storage.^[5] This multi-step biological pathway is essential for the formation and expansion of adipose tissue, involving sequential cellular commitments and transformations that result in cells specialized for energy homeostasis.^[2] The initial discovery of adipogenesis as a tractable process occurred in the 1970s through pioneering cell culture studies using immortalized mouse embryonic fibroblast lines, such as 3T3-L1 cells, which demonstrated the inducible conversion of fibroblastic precursors into lipid-filled adipocytes under specific hormonal conditions.^[6] These early experiments established adipogenesis as a model for studying cellular differentiation, revealing that preadipose cells could be maintained in culture and triggered to mature, laying the groundwork for subsequent molecular analyses.^[7] Adipogenesis unfolds in three distinct phases: determination, mitotic clonal expansion, and terminal differentiation. In the determination phase, multipotent MSCs commit irreversibly to the preadipocyte lineage, restricting their potential to differentiate into other mesenchymal cell types such as osteoblasts or chondrocytes.^[2] This commitment occurs early in development or in response to physiological cues, marking the point at which precursors adopt an adipocyte-specific fate.^[5] Following confluence in culture or appropriate in vivo signals, preadipocytes enter mitotic clonal expansion, a proliferative phase characterized by 2–3 rounds of cell division that amplify the committed cell population.^[2] This step is crucial for generating sufficient cells prior to maturation and is tightly regulated to ensure proper timing.^[5] The final phase, terminal differentiation, involves the morphological and functional maturation of preadipocytes into adipocytes, accompanied by extensive lipid accumulation in the form of triglycerides within cytoplasmic droplets.^[2] During this stage, cells express genes that confer insulin sensitivity, lipogenic capacity, and secretory functions, transforming them into fully functional adipose units integrated into tissue depots.^[5] Transcription factors orchestrate these changes, driving the coordinated activation of adipocyte-specific programs (detailed in Core Molecular Mechanisms).

Physiological Importance

Adipogenesis plays a central role in energy homeostasis by facilitating the storage of excess energy as triglycerides in adipose tissue during periods of nutrient abundance, thereby preventing lipotoxicity in other organs. Mature adipocytes, formed through this differentiation process, accumulate lipids in large droplets, providing a high-energy reserve—approximately 38 kJ per gram of triglyceride, which is roughly double the energy yield from glucose or amino acids. During fasting or increased energy demand, these adipocytes release free fatty acids through lipolysis, regulated by hormones such as insulin (which promotes storage) and catecholamines (which trigger breakdown), ensuring systemic energy balance.^[8] Beyond energy storage, adipocytes derived from adipogenesis contribute significantly to endocrine functions by secreting adipokines that modulate whole-body metabolism, inflammation, and insulin sensitivity. Leptin, produced by adipocytes, signals satiety to the hypothalamus, promotes lipid oxidation, and enhances mitochondrial biogenesis to maintain energy expenditure. Adiponectin, another key adipokine, exerts anti-inflammatory effects, improves insulin sensitivity in muscle and liver, and supports glucose utilization, thereby protecting against metabolic dysregulation. These secretions position adipose tissue as an active endocrine organ, influencing peripheral tissues and central nervous system responses to nutritional status.^[9]^[8] Dysregulated adipogenesis is implicated in several pathophysiological conditions, particularly those related to metabolic health. In obesity, excessive adipogenesis leads to adipose tissue expansion through both hypertrophy (enlargement of existing adipocytes) and hyperplasia (formation of new adipocytes), which can result in hypoxia, chronic inflammation, and insulin resistance, contributing to type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Conversely, impaired adipogenesis, as seen in lipodystrophy, reduces adipose tissue expandability, causing ectopic lipid deposition in organs like the liver and muscle, severe dyslipidemia, and profound insulin resistance. These imbalances highlight adipogenesis as a critical determinant of metabolic disease risk, where balanced differentiation supports health while dysregulation promotes pathology.^[9]^[10]^[8]

Adipocyte Types and Differentiation

White and Brown Adipocytes

White adipocytes and brown adipocytes represent the two primary cell types arising from adipogenesis, each with specialized structures and functions adapted to distinct physiological roles. White adipocytes are primarily derived from Myf5-negative precursor cells within the mesenchymal lineage, enabling their commitment toward energy storage rather than myogenic differentiation.^[11] These cells are characterized by a single large unilocular lipid droplet that occupies most of the cytoplasm, facilitating efficient long-term storage of triglycerides as an energy reserve during periods of nutrient excess.^[12] They are predominantly located in subcutaneous depots beneath the skin and visceral depots surrounding internal organs, where they contribute to body insulation and metabolic buffering.00325-7) In contrast, brown adipocytes originate from Myf5-positive precursors that share a developmental trajectory with skeletal muscle cells, highlighting their closer evolutionary tie to myogenic lineages.^[11] These cells feature multiple smaller multilocular lipid droplets surrounding numerous mitochondria, which enable their hallmark function of thermogenesis through uncoupled mitochondrial respiration mediated by uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1).^[13] This process dissipates energy as heat, independent of ATP production, to maintain body temperature in response to cold exposure. Brown adipocytes are mainly found in specialized brown adipose tissue (BAT) depots, such as the interscapular region in rodents and neonates, though their presence diminishes in adult humans.00464-7) A third adipocyte subtype, beige adipocytes (also known as brite cells), emerges through transdifferentiation of mature white adipocytes or recruitment from white adipose progenitors, adopting an intermediate phenotype with thermogenic capacity. This plasticity is induced by environmental cues like prolonged cold exposure or pharmacological activation of β-adrenergic receptors, leading to upregulated UCP1 expression and partial multilocular morphology within white adipose depots.00464-7) Unlike constitutive brown adipocytes, beige cells can revert to a white-like state upon stimulus removal, underscoring their adaptive role in energy expenditure.^[14] Both white and brown adipocytes trace their evolutionary and developmental origins to common mesenchymal precursor cells in the embryonic mesoderm, from which they diverge through lineage-specific commitment signals during adipogenesis.^[15] This shared ancestry allows for potential plasticity, such as beige formation, but is governed by factors like PRDM16 that direct Myf5-positive precursors toward brown fate while suppressing myogenesis, illustrating the intricate balance in adipocyte differentiation potentials.^[11]

In Vivo and In Vitro Models

In vivo models for studying adipogenesis primarily utilize genetically modified mice to track adipocyte development and precursor dynamics within physiological contexts. The Cre-loxP recombination system enables conditional knockout of genes in adipocyte precursors, such as through Adipoq-Cre or aP2-Cre lines, which allow tissue-specific targeting of white and brown adipose depots without affecting other organs. For instance, the AdipoChaser mouse, a triple-transgenic model incorporating adiponectin promoter-driven rtTA, tetracycline-responsive Cre, and Rosa26-loxP-stop-loxP-lacZ, facilitates inducible and permanent labeling of mature adipocytes upon doxycycline administration, enabling the quantification of de novo adipogenesis post-labeling.^[16] These models reveal depot-specific timing, with epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) adipogenesis occurring postnatally and subcutaneous white adipose tissue (sWAT) initiating embryonically.^[16] Obesity models, such as high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice, mimic diet-induced adipose expansion and are used to investigate hyperplasia versus hypertrophy. In PDGFRα-GFP-Cre-ERT2/tdTomato reporter mice fed HFD for 8 weeks, iWAT expands through proliferation of adipocyte progenitors and recruitment of smaller new adipocytes (44% labeled post-HFD versus 13% on chow), while gonadal WAT (gWAT) primarily hypertrophies with limited progenitor proliferation (34% labeled post-HFD versus 15% on chow).^[17] Human studies employ adipose tissue biopsies for lineage tracing, often via single-nucleus RNA sequencing on subcutaneous and visceral samples from surgical donors, identifying progenitor-to-adipocyte trajectories and depot-specific patterns without genetic manipulation. In vitro models provide controlled environments for dissecting adipogenesis, with preadipocyte cell lines and primary cultures as foundational tools. The 3T3-L1 cell line, derived from mouse embryo fibroblasts and established in 1975 by Green and Kehinde, differentiates into adipocytes over 10-14 days when post-confluent cells are treated with a hormone cocktail including 0.5 mM 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX), 0.25-1 µM dexamethasone, and 1-10 µg/mL insulin, often supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum.90087-2)^[18] Similarly, the 3T3-F442A subline, also from Green and Kehinde in 1974, exhibits higher lipid accumulation and requires primarily insulin for differentiation, making it suitable for studies of mature adipocyte traits.90126-3)^[18] These lines are selected based on adipocyte type, with 3T3-L1 favoring white adipocyte models and adaptations for brown/beige differentiation.^[19] Primary stromal vascular fraction (SVF) cultures, isolated from rodent or human adipose tissue via collagenase digestion, encompass heterogeneous preadipocytes and progenitors that differentiate using the same IBMX-dexamethasone-insulin cocktail over 7-14 days, reflecting depot- and donor-specific variations.^[18]^[19] In vitro approaches offer advantages in mechanistic precision and scalability, allowing genetic manipulations like CRISPR and high-throughput screening, but they lack systemic tissue interactions and vascularization, leading to immature lipid droplets and reduced physiological fidelity compared to in vivo systems.^[19] Conversely, in vivo models provide holistic insights into organismal responses but face ethical constraints, especially in humans, and challenges in isolating specific cellular events.^[20]

Core Molecular Mechanisms

Transcriptional Regulation: PPARγ and C/EBPs

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is a nuclear receptor transcription factor that serves as a master regulator of adipogenesis, orchestrating the expression of genes essential for adipocyte differentiation and lipid storage. The PPARγ2 isoform, which is specifically expressed in adipocytes, is induced early during the differentiation process and plays a pivotal role in committing preadipocytes to the adipogenic lineage. Upon activation, PPARγ forms a heterodimer with retinoid X receptor (RXR) and binds to peroxisome proliferator response elements (PPREs) in the promoter regions of target genes, thereby promoting the transcription of lipogenic and adipocyte-specific factors such as fatty acid binding protein 4 (FABP4) and lipoprotein lipase (LPL). These targets facilitate fatty acid uptake and storage, hallmarks of mature adipocytes.^[21]^[22] PPARγ activity is modulated by endogenous ligands like fatty acids and synthetic agonists such as rosiglitazone, a thiazolidinedione that potently induces adipocyte differentiation by stabilizing the receptor's active conformation.^[23] The CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP) family of basic leucine zipper transcription factors complements PPARγ by driving sequential phases of adipogenesis. C/EBPβ and C/EBPδ are rapidly upregulated in response to adipogenic stimuli, acting as early inducers that promote mitotic clonal expansion and initiate the expression of downstream factors including PPARγ and C/EBPα. These early C/EBPs bind to specific C/EBP response elements in target gene promoters, facilitating cell cycle progression and the transition to terminal differentiation. In contrast, C/EBPα emerges later and sustains the differentiated state by activating genes involved in lipid metabolism, glucose uptake, and cell cycle exit, such as those encoding adipocyte protein 2 (aP2/FABP4) and insulin-responsive glucose transporter (GLUT4). C/EBPα expression peaks during mid-to-late adipogenesis, ensuring the maintenance of the adipocyte phenotype.^[24]^[25] PPARγ and C/EBPα engage in mutual feed-forward loops that amplify and stabilize adipogenic gene expression, forming an interdependent network critical for terminal differentiation. PPARγ directly transactivates the C/EBPα promoter, while C/EBPα reciprocally induces PPARγ2 expression, creating a positive feedback mechanism that reinforces commitment to the adipocyte fate and prevents reversion to a proliferative state. This synergy is essential for the full maturation of adipocytes, as disruptions in either factor impair the other's function. Genetic evidence underscores their indispensability: targeted ablation of PPARγ in mouse embryonic fibroblasts and embryonic stem cells completely blocks adipocyte differentiation in vitro and severely impairs adipose tissue development in vivo, resulting in lipodystrophy-like phenotypes. Similarly, heterozygous dominant-negative mutations in human PPARG, such as those altering the DNA-binding or ligand-binding domains, cause familial partial lipodystrophy characterized by adipose tissue loss, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome.^[1]^[26]^[27]

Regulatory Cascade

The regulatory cascade of adipogenesis describes a sequential activation of transcription factors that drives the differentiation of mesenchymal precursor cells into mature adipocytes, integrating external signals with intrinsic genetic programs. This hierarchical model, first comprehensively outlined in the late 1990s, involves the coordinated expression of key transcription factors that progressively commit cells to the adipocyte lineage and maintain their differentiated state.^[28]^[29] In the early phase, external adipogenic stimuli, such as hormonal cues, rapidly induce the expression of CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins β (C/EBPβ) and δ (C/EBPδ) within hours of differentiation initiation. These immediate-early factors bind to the promoters of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and C/EBPα genes, thereby activating their transcription and initiating the core adipogenic program. C/EBPβ and C/EBPδ lack the ability to directly drive terminal differentiation but serve as pivotal activators that bridge extrinsic signals to downstream effectors.^[29]00031-8)^[1] During the mid-phase, PPARγ and C/EBPα form a mutual activation loop, where each enhances the expression and activity of the other, amplifying the adipogenic signal. This cross-regulation ensures robust induction of genes essential for lipid metabolism, including sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1), which in turn promotes lipogenic enzyme expression such as fatty acid synthase and acetyl-CoA carboxylase. The interplay between PPARγ and C/EBPα is critical, as disruption of either impairs the full execution of the program, with PPARγ acting as the primary driver of adipocyte identity.^[30]^[31]^[29] In the late phase, sustained expression of PPARγ and C/EBPα maintains the differentiated state by continuously regulating approximately 200 adipocyte-selective genes involved in lipid storage, insulin sensitivity, and metabolic homeostasis, while suppressing anti-adipogenic factors such as preadipocyte factor 1 (Pref-1). Pref-1, expressed in undifferentiated precursors, inhibits the cascade by blocking C/EBPβ/δ induction; its downregulation is essential for progression to maturity. This phase stabilizes the adipocyte phenotype, preventing reversion to a proliferative state.^[32]^[33] The hierarchical cascade model, proposed by Rosen and Spiegelman in the 1990s, underscores this temporal orchestration, where early inducers activate master regulators that then execute and sustain differentiation. Genome-wide studies confirm that PPARγ and C/EBP factors co-occupy most of these target genes, ensuring coordinated expression. Variations exist between white and brown adipocytes; for instance, PRDM16 integrates into the cascade in brown precursors to promote thermogenic genes like UCP1 alongside PPARγ, diverting the program from white fat characteristics.^[28]^[34]

Hormonal and Signaling Regulation

Insulin and IGF-1

Insulin and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) serve as pivotal hormonal regulators that promote adipogenesis by facilitating preadipocyte proliferation, survival, and differentiation into mature adipocytes.^[2] These hormones exert their effects primarily through binding to their respective tyrosine kinase receptors, the insulin receptor (IR) and IGF-1 receptor (IGF1R), which are expressed on preadipocytes and adipocytes.^[35] Upon ligand binding, receptor autophosphorylation activates downstream signaling cascades that support the metabolic and proliferative demands of adipocyte development.^[36] A central mechanism involves the activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathway, which enhances glucose uptake and mitotic clonal expansion essential for adipogenesis.^[37] Insulin and IGF-1 stimulate the translocation of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) to the plasma membrane, increasing glucose influx to fuel lipogenesis and energy needs during differentiation.^[38] This PI3K-Akt signaling also promotes cell cycle progression through mitotic clonal expansion, a synchronous proliferation phase where preadipocytes undergo DNA replication and division prior to terminal differentiation.^[39] Furthermore, these hormones induce the expression of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein delta (C/EBPδ), an early transcription factor that initiates the adipogenic program and links to downstream activation of the core transcriptional cascade.^[40] In in vitro models of adipogenesis, insulin is a requisite component of differentiation cocktails, typically combined with agents like 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) and dexamethasone to induce robust adipocyte formation from preadipocyte cell lines such as 3T3-L1.^[41] Optimal insulin concentrations (e.g., 5-10 μg/mL) during the initial 2-3 days of induction drive mitotic expansion and lipid accumulation, with prolonged exposure maintaining mature adipocyte function.^[41] Chronic elevation of insulin, as observed in obesity, further enhances adipocyte hyperplasia by sustaining proliferative signals and expanding adipose tissue mass.^[42] Evidence from genetic models underscores these roles; mice with adipose-specific knockout of the insulin receptor (FIRKO) exhibit markedly reduced white adipose tissue mass and impaired fat pad development due to defective preadipocyte differentiation.^[43] Similarly, combined insulin and IGF-1 receptor knockouts in adipose tissue result in diminished adipocyte size and number, highlighting overlapping signaling requirements for adipose organogenesis.^[44] For IGF-1, studies demonstrate its promotion of brown adipogenesis in certain contexts, such as enhancing differentiation of brown preadipocytes via IGF1R signaling and upregulation of thermogenic markers.^[45] Clinically, hyperinsulinemia in metabolic syndrome drives pathological adipogenesis, contributing to excessive adipose expansion, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia by amplifying pro-adipogenic signals in a dysregulated environment.^[46]

Wnt and BMP Signaling

The canonical Wnt signaling pathway plays a critical inhibitory role in adipogenesis by stabilizing β-catenin, which translocates to the nucleus and activates transcription factors TCF/LEF to repress the expression of key adipogenic regulators such as PPARγ and C/EBPα.^[47] This pathway is initiated through binding of Wnt ligands to frizzled receptors and LRP5/6 co-receptors on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and preadipocytes, preventing the differentiation of these cells into mature adipocytes.^[48] In conditions of obesity, suppressed levels of Wnt signaling components, such as Wnt10b, allow for increased adipose tissue hyperplasia by permitting new adipocyte formation, contributing to adipose expansion.^[49] In contrast, bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling generally promotes adipogenesis, particularly through BMP2, BMP4, and BMP7, which bind to type I activin receptor-like kinase (ALK) receptors and trigger the phosphorylation of Smad1/5/8 proteins.^[50] These activated Smads form complexes with Smad4 that translocate to the nucleus, where they induce the expression of C/EBPβ and facilitate the commitment of multipotent stem cells toward the adipocyte lineage.^[51] BMP signaling is especially vital for brown adipogenesis, as BMP7 activates a comprehensive program including upregulation of brown fat-specific factors like PRDM16 and PGC-1α, driving the differentiation of precursors into thermogenic brown adipocytes.^[52] Crosstalk between Wnt and BMP pathways finely tunes the balance between white and brown adipocyte fates during development and differentiation. High Wnt activity favors non-adipogenic lineages or white adipocyte hypertrophy, while BMP dominance shifts precursors toward adipogenesis, with BMP4 preferentially inducing white adipocyte commitment and BMP7 promoting brown.^[53] This antagonism has been demonstrated in avian models, such as chick and quail embryos, where modulating BMP signaling enhances adipocyte differentiation in somites, and in human MSCs, where BMP treatment overrides Wnt-mediated inhibition to direct lineage commitment.^[54] The interplay integrates with other signals, such as insulin, to modulate overall adipogenic potential in MSCs.^[55] Given their opposing effects, targeting these pathways holds therapeutic promise for obesity management; studies, including those from 2022 onward, have explored BMP agonists, particularly BMP7 via gene therapy, to stimulate brown adipogenesis and increase energy expenditure as a strategy to counteract fat accumulation. For example, AAV-mediated BMP7 delivery has been shown to improve metabolic phenotypes in obese models by enhancing energy expenditure and reducing inflammation (as of 2022).^[52]^[56]

Emerging Regulatory Factors

Senescent Cells

Cellular senescence refers to a state of irreversible growth arrest in preadipocytes, triggered by cellular stresses such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and DNA damage.^[57] This process is characterized by the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), through which senescent cells release pro-inflammatory factors including interleukin-6 (IL-6) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1).^[57] In the context of adipose tissue, these senescent preadipocytes accumulate particularly in visceral depots during aging and obesity, contributing to tissue dysfunction.^[58] The accumulation of senescent cells in obese adipose tissue exerts inhibitory effects on adipogenesis by secreting paracrine factors, such as activin A, that directly block the differentiation of non-senescent progenitors into mature adipocytes.^[59] This SASP-mediated inhibition not only reduces the available pool of functional progenitors but also promotes chronic low-grade inflammation, exacerbating metabolic derangements like insulin resistance.^[60] Consequently, the impaired adipogenic capacity leads to hypertrophic adipocyte expansion rather than healthy tissue remodeling, a hallmark of obesity-related adipose dysfunction.^[58] Evidence from preclinical models demonstrates that clearing senescent cells can restore adipogenesis and mitigate associated metabolic issues. In a 2015 study using aged mice, genetic or pharmacological elimination of senescent cells enhanced progenitor differentiation and improved adipose tissue function, linking senescence clearance to better metabolic outcomes.^[59] Similarly, a 2019 investigation showed that senescent cell ablation in obese mice alleviated inflammation, boosted insulin sensitivity, and promoted adipogenesis in visceral fat, underscoring the causal role of these cells in obesity-driven pathology.^[60] These findings highlight senescence as a targetable barrier to adipose plasticity in metabolic disease.^[61] The reversibility of senescence-related inhibition has been explored through senolytic therapies, which selectively eliminate senescent cells. For instance, treatment with dasatinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, combined with quercetin has been shown to reduce senescent preadipocyte burden in adipose tissue, thereby attenuating inflammation and enhancing metabolic function in aging and obese models.^[62] Such interventions improve progenitor proliferation and differentiation, suggesting potential therapeutic avenues for restoring adipogenic capacity in dysfunctional adipose tissue.^[60]

Epigenetic Modifications

Epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation and histone alterations, play a pivotal role in regulating chromatin accessibility and gene expression during adipogenesis, enabling the transition from mesenchymal progenitors to mature adipocytes. These dynamic changes facilitate the activation of pro-adipogenic programs while silencing anti-adipogenic pathways, distinct from direct transcriptional control by factors like PPARγ and C/EBPs.^[63] DNA methylation patterns shift markedly during adipocyte differentiation, with hypermethylation of promoters for anti-adipogenic genes such as Wnt10b suppressing their inhibitory effects and allowing progression toward fat cell commitment. Concurrently, hypomethylation at the PPARγ locus enhances its expression, promoting the initiation of adipogenic differentiation through reduced methylation of key regulatory regions. These changes are mediated by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) for maintenance and ten-eleven translocation (TET) enzymes for active demethylation, where TETs oxidize 5-methylcytosine to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, facilitating gene activation.^[64]^[65]^[66] Histone modifications further fine-tune adipogenic gene accessibility, with acetylation of histone H3 at lysine 9 (H3K9ac) at enhancers recruited by coactivators CBP/p300 marking active adipogenic loci and correlating positively with differentiation progression. Trimethylation of H3 at lysine 4 (H3K4me3) similarly promotes transcriptional activation of these genes, while inhibitors of histone deacetylases (HDACs), such as sodium butyrate, enhance adipocyte differentiation by increasing histone acetylation and boosting expression of differentiation markers. Post-2020 studies highlight TET enzymes' specific roles in adipogenesis; for instance, TET2 promotes white-to-beige conversion through demethylation at pro-browning gene loci, while loss of adipose TET2 and TET3 enhances β-adrenergic responses and thermogenic gene expression like Ucp1.^[67]^[68] Obesity induces lasting epigenetic alterations in adipose progenitors, including hypermethylation and aberrant histone marks that persist even after significant weight loss, impairing normal adipogenic plasticity and contributing to metabolic dysfunction. These reversible epigenetic landscapes, particularly in response to environmental cues, underpin the adaptability of beige adipocyte activation, allowing metabolic flexibility beyond fixed transcriptional cascades.^[69]^[70]

Non-coding RNAs

Non-coding RNAs, including microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), exert post-transcriptional control over adipogenesis by modulating mRNA stability, translation, and interactions with regulatory proteins. These molecules fine-tune the differentiation of preadipocytes into white, brown, or beige adipocytes, influencing lipid accumulation and energy homeostasis. miRNAs typically bind to target mRNAs to induce degradation or translational repression, while lncRNAs can act as miRNA sponges, scaffolds for protein complexes, or direct modulators of transcription factor activity.^[71] Several miRNAs play pivotal roles in adipogenic regulation. The miR-17-92 cluster promotes early adipocyte differentiation by targeting and repressing Rb2/p130, a cell cycle inhibitor that otherwise restricts the mitotic clonal expansion phase necessary for C/EBPβ induction.^[72] In contrast, miR-143 and miR-145 enhance PPARγ expression and adipogenesis by inhibiting ERK5 signaling, which normally suppresses differentiation; their upregulation during adipogenic induction accelerates lipid droplet formation in 3T3-L1 cells.^[73] miR-130, part of the miR-130/301 family, suppresses adipogenesis, particularly the brown adipocyte fate, by directly binding the 3' untranslated region of PPARγ mRNA to reduce its expression and impair mitochondrial biogenesis in beige precursors.^[74] LncRNAs contribute to adipogenesis through chromatin and protein interactions. HOTAIR regulates depot-specific gene expression in adipose-derived stem cells by binding to transcription end sites and interacting with polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) to modulate adipogenic pathways.^[75]^[76] The steroid receptor RNA activator (SRA) lncRNA modulates PPARγ activity by direct binding, stabilizing the receptor and amplifying its transcriptional output to drive late-stage differentiation and insulin sensitivity in mature adipocytes.^[71] These non-coding RNAs exhibit tissue-specific expression patterns, with certain miRNAs and lncRNAs enriched in white adipose tissue to favor lipid storage, whereas others, like miR-455, are upregulated in brown and beige depots to promote thermogenic programs via targeting HIF1an and activating AMPK signaling.^[77] Mechanistically, miRNAs induce target mRNA degradation through Argonaute-mediated silencing in RISC complexes, while lncRNAs often function as competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) to sequester miRNAs, thereby derepressing pro-adipogenic transcripts. Recent studies from 2021-2023 highlight therapeutic potential, such as CRISPR-mediated knockdown of obesity-promoting lncRNAs like HOTAIR in mouse models, which reduces fat mass and improves glucose tolerance without altering core transcriptional cascades.^[78] This layered RNA regulation coordinates with epigenetic modifications to ensure precise control of adipocyte fate.^[79]

References

[1]
Adipogenesis at a glance | Journal of Cell Science
Aug 15, 2011 · This Cell Science at a Glance article reviews the transition of precursor stem cells into mature lipid-laden adipocytes.
[2]
Molecular Mechanisms of Adipogenesis: The Anti-adipogenic Role ...
This review aims to provide a comprehensive knowledge of the key molecular factors (proteins and various signaling pathways) involved in adipocyte ...
[3]
Modeling Adipogenesis: Current and Future Perspective - PMC - NIH
Oct 20, 2020 · This review focuses on examining the physiological importance of adipogenesis, the current approaches that are employed to model this tightly controlled ...
[4]
Distinct adipose progenitor cells emerging with age drive active ...
Apr 25, 2025 · Adipogenesis is the process by which new adipocytes are generated through the proliferation and differentiation of adipose progenitor cells ( ...
[5]
Adipogenesis: A Complex Interplay of Multiple Molecular ...
Jun 16, 2020 · Adipogenesis consists of two phases, namely commitment and terminal differentiation. This review discusses the role of signalling pathways ...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[6]
An established preadipose cell line and its differentiation in culture ...
Cell. 1975 May;5(1):19-27. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(75)90087-2. Authors. H Green, O Kehinde. PMID: 165899; DOI: 10.1016/0092-8674(75)90087-2. Abstract. When cells ...
[7]
An established preadipose cell line and its differentiation in culture II ...
When cells of the established preadipose line 3T3-L1 enter a resting state, they accumulate triglyceride and convert to adipose cells.
[8]
Adipogenesis: A Necessary but Harmful Strategy - PMC
Jul 26, 2019 · Adipogenesis is a complex physiological process, necessary to sequester lipids effectively to avoid lipotoxicity in other tissues, like the liver, heart, ...2. Adipose Tissue · 2.1. Wat · 3. Adipogenesis In Response...
[9]
Adipogenesis - PMC - PubMed Central
This review will focus on transcriptional control of adipogenesis and its regulation by several endocrine hormones. The general functions and cellular origins ...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[10]
Adipogenesis as a Potential Anti-Obesity Target - PubMed Central
Jan 8, 2021 · This review focuses on available conventional medicine and natural products to prevent or treat obesity by targeting adipogenesis and discussing ...
[11]
PRDM16 controls a brown fat/skeletal muscle switch - Nature
Aug 21, 2008 · Here we show by in vivo fate mapping that brown, but not white, fat cells arise from precursors that express Myf5, a gene previously thought to ...Results · Prdm16 Binds To Ppar-γ And... · Online Methods
[12]
Perilipin1 promotes unilocular lipid droplet formation through the ...
Mar 12, 2013 · White adipocytes, specialized in energy storage, are characterized by their large unilocular LDs. LD size correlates with the susceptibility to ...
[13]
Uncoupling Protein 1 of Brown Adipocytes, the Only Uncoupler - NIH
Uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), is a unique mitochondrial membranous protein devoted to adaptive thermogenesis, a specialized function performed by brown ...Missing: multilocular seminal<|separator|>
[14]
The common and distinct features of brown and beige adipocytes
Both brown fat and beige fat possess thermogenic properties in addition to common morphological and biochemical characteristics.Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[15]
The developmental origins of adipose tissue - PMC - PubMed Central
Over the last few decades, the major focus of the field has been cell culture modeling primarily studying in vitro adipogenesis. The term adipogenesis first ...Brown And White Fat: Flavors... · White Adipose Tissue: The... · Adipose Stem Cells: Getting...Missing: 1970s | Show results with:1970s
[16]
https://doi.org/10.4161/adip.27656
[17]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101328
[18]
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17071040
[19]
https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00519.2020
[20]
https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9102326
[21]
Stimulation of adipogenesis in fibroblasts by PPAR gamma 2, a lipid ...
We demonstrate here that retroviral expression of PPAR gamma 2 stimulates adipose differentiation of cultured fibroblasts.
[22]
Genome-wide profiling of PPARγ:RXR and RNA polymerase II ...
The nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) is a key regulator of adipocyte differentiation in vivo and ex vivo and has been shown ...
[23]
An antidiabetic thiazolidinedione is a high affinity ligand ... - PubMed
Jun 2, 1995 · We report that thiazolidinediones are potent and selective activators of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma).
[24]
Cascade regulation of terminal adipocyte differentiation by three ...
Jan 15, 1995 · Here we provide evidence that C/EBP delta and C/EBP beta play early catalytic roles in the differentiation pathway, relaying the effects of the hormonal ...
[25]
Regulated expression of three C/EBP isoforms during adipose ...
The accumulation of C/EBP beta and C/EBP delta reached a maximal level during the first 2 days of differentiation and declined sharply before the onset of C/EBP ...
[26]
PPARγ Is Required for the Differentiation of Adipose Tissue In Vivo ...
All of these studies are gain-of-function experiments and have clearly shown that PPARγ is sufficient to induce adipogenesis in a variety of cell types. There ...
[27]
Human Metabolic Syndrome Resulting From Dominant-Negative ...
Apr 1, 2003 · Humans with dominant-negative mutations in PPAR-γ represent a novel subtype of inherited partial lipodystrophy. The paucity of limb and ...Research Design And Methods · Studies Of Insulin... · Results
[28]
Molecular regulation of adipogenesis - PubMed - NIH
Adipogenesis, or the development of fat cells from preadipocytes, has been one of the most intensely studied models of cellular differentiation.Missing: hierarchical cascade
[29]
Transcriptional regulation of adipogenesis - Genes & Development
... adipocytes when appropriate hormonal inducers were added (Green and Kehinde 1974, 1975, 1976). These lines, designated 3T3-L1 and 3T3-F442A, were isolated ...
[30]
Article Cross-Regulation of C/EBPα and PPARγ Controls the ...
Four members of the C/EBP family, α, β, δ, and CHOP-10, are expressed at specific times during adipogenesis in a manner that is consistent with a distinct ...
[31]
C/EBPα induces adipogenesis through PPARγ: a unified pathway
These results indicate that C/EBPα and PPARγ participate in a single pathway of fat cell development with PPARγ being the proximal effector of adipogenesis.
[32]
Function of pref-1 as an inhibitor of adipocyte differentiation - Nature
Nov 1, 2000 · Downregulation of pref-1 is required for adipose conversion and constitutive expression of pref-1 inhibits adipogenesis. Conversely, decreasing ...
[33]
Inhibition of adipogenesis and development of glucose intolerance ...
Preadipocyte factor-1 (Pref-1) is a transmembrane protein highly expressed in preadipocytes. Pref-1 expression is, however, completely abolished in ...
[34]
Transcriptional Control of Brown Fat Determination by PRDM16 - PMC
We show here that the zinc-finger protein PRDM16 is highly enriched in brown fat cells compared to white fat cells.
[35]
The Insulin-Like Growth Factors in Adipogenesis and Obesity
Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I is a critical mediator of preadipocyte proliferation, differentiation, and survival. ... Results from clinical studies on GH ...
[36]
Differential Roles of Insulin Receptor Substrates in Brown Adipocyte ...
Insulin promotes adipocyte differentiation via a complex signaling network involving multiple insulin receptor substrates (IRSs).
[37]
Insulin Stimulates Adipogenesis through the Akt-TSC2-mTORC1 ...
This study demonstrates that activation of mTORC1 signaling is a critical step in adipocyte differentiation and identifies TSC2 as a primary target of Akt ...
[38]
Development of insulin-responsive glucose uptake and GLUT4 ...
May 15, 1998 · Differentiating human fat cells in primary culture develops an insulin-responsive glucose transport system which exhibits a high stability.
[39]
Insulin-like Growth Factor-1/Insulin Bypasses Pref-1/FA1-mediated ...
IGF-1/ insulin-dependent signaling plays an important role in trigger- ing the phase of mitotic clonal expansion during adipocyte differentiation.
[40]
The role of C/EBPδ in the early stages of adipogenesis - ScienceDirect
These findings show that C/EBPδ is involved in MCE and gene expression in the early stages of adipocyte differentiation.
[41]
3T3-L1 differentiation into adipocyte cells protocol - Abcam
This protocol uses insulin, IBMX and dexamethasone to chemically induce the differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells into adipocytes.
[42]
An optimised protocol for the investigation of insulin signalling ... - NIH
In this study, we report that adjusting the composition of the adipogenic differentiation cocktail influences adipocyte function, and we propose that hormonal ...
[43]
Article Hyperinsulinemia Drives Diet-Induced Obesity Independently ...
Dec 5, 2012 · Collectively, these in vivo data suggest that high-fat diet-induced hyperinsulinemia promotes adult adipocyte hypertrophy and nutrient storage.
[44]
Article Adipose Tissue Selective Insulin Receptor Knockout Protects ...
We find that FIRKO mice have markedly reduced fat mass and whole-body triglyceride stores, and are protected from gold thioglucose-induced and age-related ...
[45]
Impaired Thermogenesis and Adipose Tissue Development in Mice ...
To investigate the overlapping signaling created by insulin and IGF-1, we created mice with a combined tissue specific knockout of the insulin and IGF-1 ...
[46]
Insulin/IGF-I Regulation of Necdin and Brown Adipocyte ...
Based on these results, we propose that insulin/IGF-I act through IRS-1 phosphorylation to stimulate differentiation of brown preadipocytes via two ...
[47]
Hyperinsulinemia in Obesity, Inflammation, and Cancer
Mar 29, 2021 · Multiple lines of evidence demonstrate that maximal adipocyte hyperplasia and hypertrophy require fully intact insulin action. The ...
[48]
Wnt/β-catenin signaling in adipogenesis and metabolism - PMC
Research conducted over the last decade has established the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway as an important regulator of adipocyte differentiation.
[49]
Wnt Signaling: From Mesenchymal Cell Fate to Lipogenesis and ...
Jul 28, 2021 · Wnt signaling suppresses adipocyte differentiation by inhibiting expression of PPARγ and C/EBPα, the central regulators of adipogenesis. B: The ...
[50]
Running Against the Wnt: How Wnt/β-Catenin Suppresses ...
Feb 8, 2021 · The main role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling is to suppress differentiation while increasing MSC and preadipocytes cell mass.Missing: chick quail
[51]
How mesenchymal stem cells transform into adipocytes - NIH
Mar 26, 2024 · BMP2/4/7 use SMAD1/5/8 signaling to regulate adipocyte commitment. BMP2, BMP4, and myostatin ligands affect the adipocyte commitment of MSCs.Missing: ALK seminal
[52]
Adipose tissue plasticity and the pleiotropic roles of BMP signaling
BMP4 stimulates angiogenesis, which serves as stem cells niches for adipogenesis; BMP2,4,7 all play roles in commitment of multipotent stem cells to ...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[53]
New role of bone morphogenetic protein 7 in brown adipogenesis ...
BMP-7 activates a full program of brown adipogenesis including induction of early regulators of brown fat fate PRDM16 and PGC-1 (PPARγ coactivator-1) α, ...Missing: ALK seminal
[54]
Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) Signaling in Adipose Tissue
BMP4 and BMP7 are the most studied BMPs in adipose tissue, with major roles in white and brown adipogenesis, respectively.
[55]
Hypertrophy of Adipose Tissues in Quail Embryos by in ovo Injection ...
As Pparγ and Fabp4 have been used as well-known adipogenic markers, up-regulation of the two genes suggests promotion of adipocyte differentiation in embryonic ...
[56]
TGF-β/SMAD signaling regulation of mesenchymal stem cells in ...
Jan 29, 2020 · This review focuses on the roles of TGF-β/SMAD signaling in adipocyte commitment of MSCs. BMP4 and BMP7 signaling are sufficient to induce adipocyte lineage ...Bmp4 Signaling In The... · Bmp2 Signaling In The... · Tgf-β Signaling In The...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal<|control11|><|separator|>
[57]
The impact of cellular senescence in human adipose tissue - PMC
May 17, 2023 · Senescent AT is characterized by dysfunctional cells, increased inflammation, decreased insulin sensitivity and lipid storage.
[58]
The role of adipose tissue senescence in obesity - Portland Press
Adipogenesis is a process by which preadipocytes differentiate into mature adipocytes. Adipogenesis can be regulated by multiple factors including cellular ...
[59]
Targeting senescent cells enhances adipogenesis and metabolic ...
Dec 19, 2015 · Our study indicates targeting senescent cells or their products may alleviate age-related dysfunction of progenitors, adipose tissue, and metabolism.
[60]
Targeting senescent cells alleviates obesity-induced metabolic ...
Our results implicate cellular senescence as a causal factor in obesity-related inflammation and metabolic derangements.
[61]
Adipose Stromal Cell Expansion and Exhaustion - PubMed Central
PMCID: PMC7226766 PMID: 32252348. Abstract. Adipose tissue (AT) is comprised of a diverse number of cell types, including adipocytes, stromal cells ...
[62]
Senolytic drugs, dasatinib and quercetin, attenuate adipose tissue ...
Dasatinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor that primarily targets senescent adipocyte progenitor cells, while quercetin inhibits anti‐apoptotic BCL‐xL, HIF‐1α, ...
[63]
Epigenetic Regulation of Adipogenesis in Development of Metabolic ...
Jan 12, 2021 · Modified cytosine(C) residue, 5-methylcytosine (5mC), established by DNMTs could easily be reverted to unmodified C by ten eleven translocation (TET) enzymes ( ...Adipose Tissue: White, Brown... · Altered Adipokine Production... · Environment-Epigenetic...<|separator|>
[64]
Regulation of Cyclin D1 and Wnt10b Gene Expression by cAMP ...
Simultaneously, hypermethylation of the Wnt10b gene promoter suppresses binding of CREB, allowing adipogenesis to proceed. Previous article in issue; Next ...
[65]
CpG Methylation across the adipogenic PPARγ gene and its ... - NIH
Jan 26, 2017 · We reported that hypomethylation of the PPARγ CpG site cg10499651 was associated with increased PPARγ expression as measured by both real ...
[66]
Functional Implications of DNA Methylation in Adipose Biology
Apr 16, 2019 · During adipogenesis, PPARγ, via the physical interaction with TET1, increases local demethylation around PPARγ-binding sites (27). In mature ...
[67]
MLL3/MLL4 are required for CBP/p300 binding on enhancers ... - NIH
Apr 8, 2017 · MLL3/MLL4 are required for CBP/p300 binding on enhancers activated during adipogenesis. Further, MLL4 and CBP identify super-enhancers (SEs) of adipogenesis.
[68]
Histone modifications in development - Company of Biologists journals
Jun 13, 2025 · In line with this, H3K9ac levels positively correlate with adipogenesis progression (Yoo et al., 2006). These (and other findings we cannot ...
[69]
Adipose tissue retains an epigenetic memory of obesity after weight ...
Nov 18, 2024 · We show that both human and mouse adipose tissues retain cellular transcriptional changes after appreciable weight loss.
[70]
A negative feedback loop between TET2 and leptin in adipocyte ...
Apr 1, 2024 · Ten-eleven translocation (TET) 2 is an enzyme that catalyzes DNA demethylation to regulate gene expression by oxidizing 5-methylcytosine to ...
[71]
LncRNA-Mediated Adipogenesis in Different Adipocytes - PMC
Jul 5, 2022 · The noncoding RNAs include snRNA (small nuclear RNA), siRNA (small interfering RNA), miRNA (microRNA), lncRNA (long noncoding RNAs), and circRNA ...
[72]
miR-17-92 cluster accelerates adipocyte differentiation by negatively ...
These data indicate that miR-17-92 promotes adipocyte differentiation by targeting and negatively regulating Rb2/p130.
[73]
miRNA regulation of white and brown adipose tissue differentiation ...
In addition to targeting PTN, miR-143 has previously been shown to promote adipocyte differentiation through targeting of extracellular signal regulated kinase ...
[74]
miR-130 Suppresses Adipogenesis by Inhibiting Peroxisome ... - NIH
Among them, miR-130 strongly affected adipocyte differentiation, as overexpressing miR-130 impaired adipogenesis and reducing miR-130 enhanced adipogenesis. A ...
[75]
Unique role for lncRNA HOTAIR in defining depot-specific gene ...
May 26, 2022 · The genes selectively activated by HOTAIR are associated with adipogenesis (Fig. 1D) and myogenesis (Supplemental Fig. S1C). Intriguingly ...
[76]
MicroRNA‐455 regulates brown adipogenesis via a novel HIF1an ...
These data suggest that miR‐455 may work in concert with sympathetic signals to recruit beige adipocyte differentiation. Figure EV1. miR‐455 induced brown ...Missing: 34654847 | Show results with:34654847
[77]
Roles of Long Noncoding RNAs in Adipogenesis and Obesity ...
This review focuses on recent research concerning the functions of lncRNAs in the regulation of white and brown adipogenesis, emphasizing their roles in ...Differentiation · C/ebp Family Proteins · Dlk1/pref1
[78]
Non-Coding RNAs and Adipogenesis - MDPI
Jun 10, 2023 · This article outlines the process of adipogenesis, and discusses updated roles and mechanisms of ncRNAs in the development of adipocytes.