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Angelfish

Angelfish is a common name applied to two unrelated groups of fish renowned for their striking appearances and popularity in aquariums: the freshwater angelfish of the genus Pterophyllum (family Cichlidae), characterized by a compressed, disc-shaped body with elongated dorsal and anal fins, native to the Amazon River basin in South America; and the marine angelfish of the family Pomacanthidae, featuring a strongly compressed body, bold coloration, and a prominent preopercular spine, found in tropical coral reefs across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans.^[1]^[2] Freshwater angelfish, primarily species such as Pterophyllum scalare, P. leopoldi, and P. altum, inhabit slow-moving waters like swamps and flooded forests with dense vegetation in Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Guyana, and French Guiana, preferring pH levels of 6.0–8.0, hardness of 5–13 dH, and temperatures of 24–30°C.^[1] These omnivorous cichlids grow to a maximum length of about 15 cm, displaying silvery bodies accented by vertical dark bars that fade with age, and they form monogamous pairs that guard eggs laid on leaves or submerged structures.^[1]^[3] Highly valued in the aquarium trade for their graceful swimming and ease of breeding, they are commercially fished and bred worldwide, though wild populations remain of least concern according to IUCN assessments.^[1]^[4] Marine angelfish encompass approximately 90 species across seven genera, such as Pomacanthus, Holacanthus, and Centropyge, thriving in shallow coastal waters typically less than 20 m deep—rarely exceeding 50 m—where they associate with coral reefs and exhibit diverse social structures ranging from solitary individuals to harems or lekking groups.^[2]^[5] Juveniles often display spotted or banded patterns for camouflage, while adults show vibrant hues and elongated fin filaments; diets vary by genus, including algae for smaller species like those in Centropyge, zooplankton for Genicanthus, and sponges or invertebrates for larger ones.^[2] Many are protogynous hermaphrodites that spawn pelagically, and while some contribute to local fisheries, their primary significance lies in the ornamental trade, though specialized feeders pose challenges for captive maintenance; the family's fossil record dates back to the lower Eocene.^[2]

Taxonomy and Classification

Freshwater Angelfish

Freshwater angelfish belong to the genus Pterophyllum within the family Cichlidae, a diverse group of perciform fishes primarily distributed across freshwater habitats in the Neotropics.^[6] The genus comprises three recognized species: P. scalare, P. altum, and P. leopoldi, all characterized by their laterally compressed bodies adapted to slow-moving riverine environments.^[7] These species are endemic to South American river systems, particularly the Amazon and Orinoco basins, where they inhabit vegetated floodplains and tributaries with soft, acidic waters.^[8] The evolutionary origins of Pterophyllum trace back to the diversification of Neotropical cichlids during the Miocene, with the genus emerging as part of the Cichlinae subfamily in the Amazonian river systems of northern South America.^[9] Phylogenetic analyses position Pterophyllum within the heroines clade, closely related to other South American cichlids such as those in the genera Heros and Mesonauta, reflecting adaptive radiations driven by the dynamic hydrology of Andean foreland basins.^[10] This evolutionary history underscores their specialization for life in blackwater rivers, where low conductivity and high humidity have shaped their physiological tolerances.^[11] Unique to freshwater angelfish in the Pterophyllum genus are morphological adaptations including elongated dorsal and anal fins that extend dramatically, contributing to a distinctive disc-like body profile suited for maneuvering among dense aquatic vegetation.^[6] These fin structures, derived from the cichlid ancestral form, enhance agility in flooded forests and provide display functions in social interactions, distinguishing them from more fusiform cichlids in the same family.^[12] Historical classifications of Pterophyllum have undergone revisions, with early descriptions in the 19th century placing the genus under synonyms like Platax and Plataxoides due to superficial resemblances to marine fishes.^[13] Subspecies such as P. scalare scalare were proposed in the mid-20th century to account for regional variations, but subsequent taxonomic work in 1986 elevated P. altum and P. leopoldi to full species status, resolving prior synonymies like P. eimekei under P. scalare.^[11] These changes reflect improved understanding from morphological and distributional data, stabilizing the current three-species framework.^[8] Unlike marine angelfish in the family Pomacanthidae, which are phylogenetically distant actinopterygians with spiny dorsal fins, freshwater forms evolved independently within the cichlid lineage.^[14]

Marine Angelfish

Marine angelfish belong to the family Pomacanthidae within the order Acanthuriformes, comprising 8 genera and approximately 90 species distributed across tropical and subtropical marine environments.^[2] This family is characterized by its diversity, with notable species including the queen angelfish, Holacanthus ciliaris, which exemplifies the group's adaptation to reef systems in the western Atlantic. Unlike the unrelated freshwater angelfish (Pterophyllum species in the cichlid family Cichlidae), which represent a case of convergent evolution in body form, Pomacanthidae are exclusively marine perciform-like fishes.^[2] Evolutionary adaptations in Pomacanthidae have enabled their success in complex coral reef habitats, including a deep, laterally compressed body that facilitates maneuverability among branching corals and crevices.^[15] Additionally, prominent spines on the operculum and preopercle provide defense against predators, a trait that distinguishes them from similar reef dwellers like butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae).^[2] These morphological features have evolved in response to the selective pressures of reef ecosystems, promoting niche specialization in feeding and shelter-seeking behaviors.^[15] The family exhibits significant variation among genera, reflecting size and ecological roles; for instance, Pomacanthus species are large and robust, often exceeding 50 cm in length and occupying open reef areas, while Centropyge comprises dwarf pygmy angelfishes under 15 cm, suited to intricate algal turfs and sponges.^[2] Other genera like Genicanthus include sexually dichromatic species, and Pygoplites is monotypic with the regal angelfish. Recent molecular studies, including mitogenomic analyses and phylogenomic reconstructions using ultraconserved elements, have confirmed the monophyly of Pomacanthidae and refined intergeneric relationships as of 2023–2024.^[16]^[17]

Other Angelfish-Like Species

Several fish species outside the genera Pterophyllum (freshwater angelfish) and the family Pomacanthidae (marine angelfish) bear the colloquial name "angelfish" or are considered angelfish-like due to superficial resemblances in body shape, such as disc-like compression and extended fins, leading to common misnomers in aquariculture and fisheries. In freshwater habitats, certain loricariid catfishes exemplify this naming convention. The species Hypancistrus sp. "L028," endemic to tributaries of the lower Amazon River in Brazil, is commonly called the angelfish pleco or angelicus pleco for its triangular, laterally compressed body and white-spotted dark patterning that echo the form of Pterophyllum scalare. This small-growing species, reaching up to 10 cm in length, belongs to the family Loricariidae in the order Siluriformes, far removed taxonomically from cichlid angelfish, with the name deriving purely from visual analogy rather than evolutionary relation.^[18] Among marine species, the family Ephippidae (spadefishes) in the order Percomorpha includes prominent examples of such misnomer. The Atlantic spadefish (Chaetodipterus faber), distributed from the U.S. East Coast to Brazil in shallow coastal waters and reefs up to 50 m deep, is often mistakenly called an angelfish because of its deep, disc-shaped body, silvery coloration with black vertical bars, and elongated dorsal and anal fins that create an angelic silhouette similar to Pomacanthidae species. This perciform fish, which can grow to 91 cm, is phylogenetically unrelated to true marine angelfish, with the confusion stemming from shared morphological traits adapted for reef environments rather than close kinship. Juveniles, in particular, exhibit a more pronounced black phase that enhances the resemblance.^[19] Regionally, the South American leaffish (Monocirrhus polyacanthus) from the family Polycentridae has occasionally been likened to angelfish in informal contexts for its flattened, leaf-mimicking body that provides a vaguely discoid profile, though it is primarily recognized as an ambush predator in Amazonian blackwater rivers and not a true synonym. Similarly, Asian leaffishes in the family Nandidae, such as Nandus nandus from South and Southeast Asian slow-moving waters, share a compressed form that invites loose comparisons, but these names highlight only aesthetic parallels without taxonomic overlap.^[20]

Physical Characteristics

Body Morphology

Angelfish, encompassing both freshwater species in the genus Pterophyllum and marine species in the family Pomacanthidae, share a laterally compressed, discoid body shape that enhances maneuverability in their respective environments, with body height frequently surpassing standard length due to prominent fin structures. This compression facilitates navigation through dense vegetation or complex reef structures. In Pterophyllum species, the body is distinctly disc-shaped and triangular, featuring a short, deep profile that supports a vertically oriented posture.^[1] Marine angelfishes exhibit a similarly deep and compressed form, often described as oval or rectangular in outline, which aids in precise positioning among corals.^[21] Fin configurations vary distinctly between the groups, reflecting adaptations to their habitats. Freshwater angelfish possess long, filamentous dorsal and anal fins, with spiny rays progressively lengthening from front to rear and branched rays extending significantly to form a tall, triangular silhouette that can exceed 20 cm in height.^[1] In contrast, Pomacanthidae species have more rounded dorsal and anal fins, typically with trailing extensions in some genera like Pomacanthus, and a single continuous dorsal fin comprising 9–15 spines and 17–40 soft rays, contributing to a less elongated but still disc-like profile.^[22] Size ranges differ markedly, with Pterophyllum species attaining a maximum body length of about 15 cm total length, while marine angelfishes span 7–60 cm total length, exemplified by the gray angelfish (Pomacanthus arcuatus) reaching up to 60 cm.^[1]^[23]^[21] Specific anatomical adaptations include mouth positioning and gill structures tailored to feeding strategies. Freshwater angelfish have a terminal mouth oriented forward, suited for capturing prey in mid-water columns among vegetation.^[24] Marine species feature small mouths with brush-like dentition and short, stout gill rakers that complement jaw mechanics for nipping and scraping sessile organisms like algae and sponges from substrates.^[25] Skeletal features, such as the swim bladder, show group-specific variations; in Pomacanthidae, it lacks the anterior "horns" present in related families, potentially aiding buoyancy control in reef-associated maneuvering for smaller species.^[26]

Coloration and Sexual Dimorphism

Angelfish coloration arises primarily from specialized chromatophores in the skin. In freshwater species of the genus Pterophyllum, melanophores containing melanin granules produce the characteristic dark vertical bars, which become more prominent under stress as the pigment disperses throughout the cells. These bars typically number seven in juveniles and reduce to four in adults. In contrast, marine angelfish of the family Pomacanthidae rely on iridophores, which contain reflective guanine platelets, to generate metallic sheens and vibrant blue hues; for instance, the blue angelfish (Holacanthus bermudensis) exhibits a blue-brownish body with green iridescent tones derived from these structures.^[27]^[28]^[3]^[29]^[30] Species-specific patterns further distinguish angelfish. Freshwater Pterophyllum species display these vertical melanophore-based bars across a silvery base, creating a striped appearance that varies slightly by species such as P. scalare. Marine Pomacanthids feature diverse motifs, including bright spots and elongated filament-like extensions on the fins; the emperor angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator), for example, shows intricate blue and yellow scaling in adults, while the French angelfish (Pomacanthus paru) has yellow body scales rimmed in blue. These patterns are underlain by combinations of iridophores, xanthophores (for yellows), and melanophores.^[3]^[31]^[32] Sexual dimorphism in angelfish is subtle and often challenging to discern externally. In most species, there are no pronounced color differences between sexes, though breeding individuals may exhibit temporary enhancements in vibrancy. Size variations occur in some marine species, with males attaining larger maximum lengths than females in genera like Pomacanthus, such as P. arcuatus where adults reach up to 60 cm. In freshwater P. scalare, males can be identified during breeding by a more pointed genital papilla compared to the rounded one in females, with no consistent fin length differences reported.^[33]^[31]^[34] Ontogenetic color changes are particularly evident in marine angelfish, where juveniles often bear distinct patterns that differ markedly from adults. Many Pomacanthid juveniles, such as those of Pomacanthus species, display vertical blue-white bars or a prominent dark spot on the caudal peduncle, which serves as an eye-like ocellus; these transform into more complex adult colorations around 8-15 cm in length, involving shifts in chromatophore distribution and activity. Freshwater Pterophyllum juveniles similarly show more numerous vertical bars that consolidate with age, reflecting developmental adjustments in melanophore density.^[32]^[35]^[36]^[3]

Habitat and Distribution

Natural Environments

Freshwater angelfish (genus Pterophyllum) inhabit slow-moving rivers, swamps, and flooded forest areas characterized by dense aquatic and riverine vegetation, often in acidic blackwater environments with a pH range of 6.0-8.0 and temperatures between 24-30°C.^[1]^[37] These habitats feature clear or silty waters rich in decaying organic matter, providing shaded, vegetated cover that supports their benthopelagic lifestyle.^[1] Marine angelfish (family Pomacanthidae) occupy coral reefs and rocky substrates in shallow tropical waters, typically at depths of 1-50 m, with temperatures ranging from 24-28°C and salinity levels of 30-35 ppt.^[22]^[38] These environments offer complex structures like crevices and overhangs for shelter, while stable water conditions are essential for their reef-associated behavior.^[39] In freshwater settings, angelfish adapt to microhabitats such as leaf litter and submerged roots, which provide hiding spots and contribute to the tannin-stained, dimly lit conditions they prefer.^[40] Marine species utilize algae-covered rocks and coral outcrops for grazing on microalgae and sponges, enhancing their camouflage and foraging efficiency.^[41]^[42] Both freshwater and marine angelfish exhibit high sensitivity to ammonia, which can cause gill damage and stress even at low concentrations, necessitating pristine water quality in their habitats.^[43]^[44] Marine angelfish additionally require stable salinity to prevent osmoregulatory issues, as fluctuations can lead to dehydration or ionic imbalances.^[45]

Geographic Ranges

Freshwater angelfish of the genus Pterophyllum are endemic to the Amazon and Orinoco River basins in South America. Pterophyllum scalare, the common freshwater angelfish, is native to the Amazon basin, occurring in Peru, Colombia, and Brazil along the Ucayali, Solimões, and Amazon rivers, as well as in the rivers of Amapá (Brazil), the Rio Oyapock in French Guiana, and the Essequibo River in Guyana. Pterophyllum altum is restricted to the upper Negro River drainage in the Amazon basin and tributaries of the upper Orinoco River, including the Inírida and Atabapo rivers in Colombia and Venezuela. Pterophyllum leopoldi is native to the lower Amazon River basin in Brazil (along the Solimões River between Manacapuru and Santarém) and the Rupununi River in the Essequibo drainage, Guyana.^[8]^[12] These distributions reflect the isolation imposed by riverine geography, with no significant migration patterns beyond basin boundaries due to limited dispersal capabilities in freshwater systems. Marine angelfish, belonging to the family Pomacanthidae, inhabit tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific and Atlantic oceans. In the Atlantic, species such as Pomacanthus paru, the French angelfish, are widespread from Florida and the Bahamas through the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea to Brazil, with occasional records off Ascension Island in the eastern Atlantic.^[46] In the Indo-Pacific, dwarf angelfish like Centropyge loriculus, the flame angelfish, range from the Ryukyu Islands to the Great Barrier Reef and Tonga, extending north to the Ogasawara Islands and south to the Rowley Shoals and Austral Islands. These species exhibit broader geographic extents compared to freshwater counterparts, facilitated by oceanic connectivity. Range overlaps and isolations among angelfish species arise from distinct biogeographic barriers. In freshwater systems, allopatric speciation in Pterophyllum has been driven by river barriers such as waterfalls and interfluves in the Amazon and Orinoco basins, leading to genetic divergence among isolated populations without gene flow.^[47] Marine angelfish, conversely, experience vagrancy through larval dispersal via ocean currents, allowing occasional range extensions but maintaining species isolation via limited adult mobility and habitat specificity. Habitat preferences, such as reef associations in marine species and riverine vegetated zones in freshwater ones, further delineate these ranges. Historical range shifts in marine angelfish have been documented in the 21st century, with minor poleward expansions linked to warming ocean temperatures. For instance, Centropyge flavissima, a tropical pygmy angelfish, extended its range southward to Lord Howe Island, Australia, by 2009, representing a southward expansion of more than 1000 km from its previous southern limit, consistent with climate-driven redistribution patterns observed into the 2020s.^[48] Such shifts remain localized and do not yet indicate wholesale basin-wide changes for most Pomacanthidae species.

Behavior and Ecology

Freshwater angelfish of the genus Pterophyllum exhibit distinct social dynamics that shift with ontogeny. Juveniles form loose shoals, preferentially associating with familiar individuals to reduce predation risk, as demonstrated in studies on P. scalare. This assortative shoaling is influenced by social status, with subordinate juveniles favoring familiar subordinates while avoiding dominant ones, promoting group cohesion in vegetated Amazonian habitats.^[49] As they mature, individuals transition to territorial pairs that aggressively defend nesting and foraging areas against intruders, reflecting the cichlid family's emphasis on monogamous bonding for resource control.^[1] In terms of feeding ecology, Pterophyllum species are omnivorous ambush predators, primarily consuming small fish, macroinvertebrates such as insects and crustaceans, and plant matter like detritus in their slow-moving riverine environments.^[33] Foraging occurs mid-water or along the substrate, where they employ stealthy approaches to capture prey, often hovering among dense vegetation to intercept drifting invertebrates or small schooling fish.^[24] This opportunistic strategy allows efficient exploitation of patchy resources in flooded forests, with dietary composition varying seasonally to include more vegetable matter during low-invertebrate periods. Marine angelfish in the family Pomacanthidae display hierarchical social structures centered on harems, where a dominant male controls a group of 2–4 females within a defended territory on coral reefs.^[34] This protogynous system ensures reproductive success, as subordinate females can transition to males upon the dominant's removal, maintaining group stability across species like Holacanthus ciliaris and Centropyge argi.^[34] Territorial defense extends to foraging zones, with pairs or harems aggressively excluding competitors to secure sponge- and algae-rich patches. Pomacanthidae are predominantly omnivorous benthic feeders, with diets dominated by sponges (up to 90% by volume in species like H. tricolor), filamentous algae, and gorgonians, supplemented by minor amounts of bryozoans and tunicates.^[50] Specialized foraging involves territorial grazing along reef substrates, where they use a unique intramandibular joint to protrude and occlude jaws for nipping attached prey, enabling a grab-and-tear method ineffective for suction feeders.^[51] Juveniles often engage in cleaning symbiosis, removing ectoparasites from larger reef fish at stations on sand flats, as observed in Pomacanthus paru interacting with 31 client species including predators like groupers.^[52] This mutualism provides nutritional benefits while transitioning to adult diets.

Reproduction and Development

Freshwater angelfish of the genus Pterophyllum, such as P. scalare, exhibit monogamous mating systems where pairs form stable bonds for breeding, often selecting and defending spawning substrates like broad leaves or flat rocks.^[53] These pairs engage in courtship displays, including circling and quivering, before the female lays adhesive eggs—typically 200 to over 1,000 per spawn—directly onto the cleaned vertical surface, which the male then fertilizes externally.^[53]^[54] Following spawning, biparental care is intensive in Pterophyllum species; both parents guard the clutch, fan the eggs with their pectoral fins to oxygenate them and remove debris, and consume unfertilized or fungal-infected eggs to prevent disease spread.^[53] Eggs incubate for 2 to 3 days at temperatures of 26–28°C, hatching into larvae that initially remain attached to the substrate via a cement gland while absorbing their yolk sac over the next 4–7 days.^[53]^[55] Once free-swimming, the fry are led by parents to foraging areas, with care persisting for up to 8 weeks, though often reduced after 4 weeks to avoid aggression.^[53] In contrast, marine angelfish of the family Pomacanthidae display diverse mating systems, with many species exhibiting protogynous hermaphroditism where individuals mature as females before potentially changing to males upon dominance or size advantage.^[56]^[57] Breeding often occurs in harems dominated by a single male who mates with multiple females, though some form monogamous pairs; spawning involves courtship displays before releasing pelagic eggs into the water column.^[58]^[59]^[60] Parental care is minimal or absent in most Pomacanthidae, as eggs and larvae are planktonic and drift with currents, relying on environmental dispersal rather than protection. Development in marine angelfish proceeds rapidly in the larval phase; eggs hatch within 12–24 hours into larvae measuring 1.3–2.5 mm in total length, which feed on plankton while absorbing the yolk sac.^[61]^[62] The planktonic stage lasts 3–8 weeks, culminating in settlement and metamorphosis to the juvenile form at approximately 10–15 mm, when morphological changes include fin development and loss of larval traits.^[63]^[64] Social territories in reef environments can facilitate pair or harem formation by providing stable spawning grounds.^[65]

Human Interaction and Conservation

Aquarium Trade and Care

Angelfish, both freshwater and marine varieties, are among the most popular species in the global ornamental fish trade due to their striking appearance and relative ease of care in captivity. The freshwater angelfish Pterophyllum scalare dominates the market, with selectively bred varieties such as the veiltail, characterized by elongated, flowing fins, and the marble, featuring a mottled pattern of black, white, and gold, being particularly sought after by hobbyists.^[66] Dwarf marine angelfish like Centropyge potteri, known as Potter's angelfish for its brilliant orange body marbled with blue stripes, have gained popularity in recent years, especially with advancements in captive breeding that reduce reliance on wild collection.^[67]^[68] Appropriate tank setups are essential to replicate aspects of their natural environments while accommodating their size and behavior. For a pair of freshwater P. scalare, a minimum tank volume of 29 gallons (approximately 110 liters) is recommended, preferably tall to allow vertical swimming, with strong filtration to handle waste and moderate lighting to support plant growth or algae for marine species.^[69] Marine dwarf angelfish such as C. potteri require at least 70 gallons (approximately 265 liters) in a well-established system featuring live rock for grazing on microalgae and ample hiding spots to reduce stress.^[67] In captivity, angelfish thrive on a varied diet that includes high-quality flakes enriched with spirulina or krill for freshwater species and frozen brine shrimp or mysis for marine ones, fed in small amounts multiple times daily to prevent overfeeding.^[69]^[67] Disease prevention focuses on quarantine of new arrivals for at least two weeks and maintaining stable water parameters; common issues like ich (white spot disease) can be treated effectively with medications such as Ich-X in freshwater setups, while avoiding copper-based treatments in marine tanks with invertebrates.^[70]^[71] Breeding angelfish in captivity requires careful conditioning to mimic natural cues. For freshwater P. scalare, pairs often spawn successfully in slightly softer water (pH 6.8-7.8, hardness 3-8 dKH) after a period of improved diet and stable temperatures around 82°F, with females laying up to 1,000 eggs on vertical surfaces like broad-leaved plants.^[24]^[69] Marine dwarf species like C. potteri present sexing challenges due to their protogynous hermaphroditism, where individuals start as females and may change to males, making pair formation difficult without observing behavior in groups; captive breeding remains rare but has been achieved in specialized facilities.^[67]

Threats and Protection

Wild angelfish populations, encompassing both freshwater Pterophyllum species and marine Pomacanthidae, confront multiple anthropogenic threats that compromise their survival and habitat integrity. In the Amazon Basin, freshwater angelfish such as Pterophyllum scalare and Pterophyllum altum are particularly vulnerable to habitat loss driven by deforestation, mining activities, and hydroelectric dam construction, which fragment riverine ecosystems and alter water quality through sedimentation and pollution. ^[72] Overcollection for the international aquarium trade exacerbates these pressures, with wild-caught specimens comprising a notable portion of traded P. altum despite increasing captive breeding efforts; unregulated harvesting in remote river systems like the Orinoco can deplete local stocks, though overall impact remains moderate due to low trade volumes compared to other ornamentals. ^[73] Marine angelfish, inhabiting Indo-Pacific and Atlantic coral reefs, face intensified risks from climate-induced coral bleaching events, which degrade essential habitats by causing widespread coral mortality and reducing structural complexity for shelter and foraging. ^[74] Overexploitation through collection for the aquarium industry and incidental capture in fisheries further strains populations, particularly for high-value species in regions with weak regulatory enforcement. ^[75] Regarding conservation status, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies most angelfish species as Least Concern (assessed variously between 2009 and 2020), reflecting relatively stable populations for common taxa like Pterophyllum scalare and many Pomacanthidae members; however, species such as Pterophyllum altum are noted for localized vulnerabilities due to collection pressures. ^[8] Protective measures include the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs), such as Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, which safeguards coral reef habitats critical for Pomacanthidae species by restricting fishing and promoting ecosystem resilience against bleaching. ^[76] For freshwater species, while no Pterophyllum taxa are currently listed under CITES Appendices, broader Amazon conservation initiatives emphasize watershed protection; additionally, expanding aquaculture and captive breeding programs have reduced reliance on wild harvests, with 90-95% of traded freshwater angelfish now farm-raised. ^[77] Recent conservation efforts highlight sustainable breeding advancements for Pterophyllum species to bolster trade alternatives. ^[78]

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[PDF] Age-based demography and reproductive ontogeny of angelfishes ...
No validation on annual sagittal increments within the Pomacanthidae family has been done, however with confirmation of the annual nature of sagittal increments.
[35]
Pterophyllum, South America's Freshwater Angelfish
Dec 23, 2023 · The genus Plataxoides was selected considering Pterophyllum as a synonym, because it was believed that Pterophyllum was preoccupied, as some ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
[36]
Pomacanthus paru summary page
### Summary of Pomacanthus paru (French Angelfish) Description
[37]
Pomacanthus annularis (Blue ring angelfish) - Animal Diversity Web
P. annularis is a tropical, marine (salt water) fish that lives around coastal rocky coral reefs and other hard bottom coastal areas.
[38]
Keeping Freshwater Angelfish | Pterophyllum - FantaSEA Aquariums
Nov 15, 2018 · In order to make the angelfish feel at home, tint the aquarium water using plenty of leaf litter. Piles of driftwood, dimmed lighting and ...
[39]
French angelfish • Pomacanthus paru • Fish sheet - Fishipedia
Nov 20, 2023 · The french angelfish is most commonly found at depths of less than 100m. It is common in reefs and seagrass areas, feeding on algae, sponges, ...
[40]
Pomacanthidae (Angelfishes) - Reef App
Learn how to keep Angelfishes in aquaria. Get tips on how best to care for the individual species in the Pomacanthidae family.
[41]
Acute toxicity of ammonia and nitrite to angel fish (Pterophyllum ...
Oct 14, 2016 · As the salinity decreased from 35 to 5%, susceptibility of ammonia–N increased by 34.5, 47.88, 50.56, and 64.23% after 24, 48, 72, and 96 h ...
[42]
https://reefapp.net/en/encyclopedia/pomacanthidae
[43]
Difficult Fish to QT guide - Reef2Reef
Aug 16, 2019 · Angelfish (and their sensitivity to copper) I've never figured out ... Fish quarantine salinity is at 1.015 and is cycling as we speak.
[44]
https://www.wetwebmedia.com/FWSubWebIndex/fwangelbehfaqs.htm
[45]
Diversification of Neotropical Freshwater Fishes | Annual Reviews
Nov 2, 2020 · Phylogeography of Cuban Rivulus: evidence for allopatric speciation and secondary dispersal across a marine barrier. Mol. Phylogenetics Evol ...<|separator|>
[46]
Poleward range expansion of a tropical coral reef fish (Centropyge ...
Dec 15, 2010 · As global warming increases sea temperatures, some coral reef fishes can be expected to extend their geographical range beyond the tropics ( ...
[47]
Benefits of kin shoaling in a cichlid fish - Oxford Academic
Oct 9, 2015 · Juvenile P. taeniatus preferred shoaling with kin over shoaling with non-kin. Growth was significantly higher in kin-only groups than in mixed groups.
[48]
Shoaling Decisions in Angelfish: The Roles of Social Status and ...
Aug 6, 2025 · In this study, the relative importance of familiarity and social status (shoal factors) on the shoaling decision of juvenile angelfish, which ...
[49]
The feeding ecology of three species of Caribbean angelfishes ...
Aug 9, 2025 · The two Pomacanthus species also fed on gorgonians. The morphology of the dentition, jaws and gill rakers was similar in all three species.
[50]
Teleost Intramandibular Joint: A mechanism That Allows Fish to ...
May 21, 2015 · Rather, this IMJ allows angelfish to effectively procure sessile prey, such as sponges, using a grab-and-tear method. Further, while not ...
[51]
Cleaning Activity of Juvenile Angelfish, Pomacanthus paru, on the ...
Studies on fish cleaning symbiosis in the tropical western Atlantic concentrate on specialized cleaner gobies and wrasses. On the reefs of the Abrolhos Arc.
[52]
[PDF] Reproduction of Angelfish (Pterphyllum scalare) - AS-489
Pterophyllum scalare spawns freely under aquarium conditions. The altum angelfish has infre- quently but successfully bred under aquarium conditions. No ...
[53]
Fecundity, growth, and survival of the angelfish Pterophyllum ...
Sep 30, 2009 · pulex spawned between 857 and 959 eggs, whereas with "Wardley" (balance food) spawning reached only 363 eggs. Survival was of 91% fed with D.
[54]
Larval Development of The Freshwater Angelfish Pterophyllum ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Embryonic developmental stage was completed at day 3 after spawning at 24 +/- 1 degrees C. The newly hatched larvae had 4.24 +/- 0.28 mm total ...
[55]
[PDF] Evolutionary Perspectives on Hermaphroditism in Fishes
Among the sequential hermaphrodites are protogynous species in which an individual begins reproductive life as a female and later may switch to male, ...
[56]
[PDF] the evolutionary history of sexual systems in fish - bioRxiv
Bruce, R.W. (1980) Protogynous hermaphroditism in two marine angelfishes. ... dichromatic protogynous angelfish Centropyge ferrugata (Pomacanthidae) males.
[57]
Holacanthus ciliaris - queen angelfish - Animal Diversity Web
Harems generally consist of 1 male and up to 4 females. A male courts a female by displaying his pectoral fins, flicking them outward every few seconds. The ...Scientific Classification · Physical Description · Reproduction<|separator|>
[58]
Centropyge potteri (Potter's angel) - Animal Diversity Web
A single male maintains a harem in his territory and will fertilize the eggs of several females within a single spawning season. Mating System; polygynous<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
Captive spawning and embryonic development of marine ...
Mar 20, 2014 · The breeding behaviour consisted of cleaning, biting the egg depositing substrata (earthen tiles) and rubbing the surface of nest site with ...
[60]
(PDF) Natural spawning, early development and first feeding of the ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Each female laid an average of 230 000 eggs during the spawning period. Fertilized eggs were spherical, transparent and buoyant and had a mean ...
[61]
Natural spawning, early development and first feeding of the ...
Jun 2, 2009 · 3e) and had a well-developed swim bladder. ... Pomacanthus semicirculatus is one of the few marine angelfish that will readily spawn voluntarily ...
[62]
Marine Angelfish Life Stages: Photos and Overview - Frank Baensch
Mar 8, 2019 · Larvae hatch 12 to 18 hours, at a size of approximately 1.5-2 mm. The larvae typically spend 3-8 weeks in the plankton before settling on reefs, ...Missing: metamorphosis | Show results with:metamorphosis
[63]
Aquaculture and early life stages of the Hawaiian Potter's angelfish ...
May 11, 2025 · They are a strikingly beautiful species of marine dwarf angelfish ... swim bladder control, and erratic swimming sometimes leading to death.1.2 Dwarf Angelfish · 2.1 Broodstock · 3 Results
[64]
Pomacanthus paru (French Angelfish) - Animal Diversity Web
Reproduction. Maturity is reached at an age of 3.4 years. Reproduction is a pair-spawning, egg-scattering process. The egg-filled female travels with the ...
[65]
10 Best Angelfish for Freshwater Aquariums - The Spruce Pets
May 24, 2025 · The group of freshwater angelfish consists of three native species in the genus Pterophyllum: P. scalare, P. leopoldi, and P. altum. Those ...
[66]
Potter's Angelfish: Saltwater Aquarium Fish for Marine ... - LiveAquaria
Out of stockThe Potter's Angelfish requires at least a 70 gallon, well-established tank with multiple hiding places and live rock for grazing on microalgae.Missing: trade | Show results with:trade
[67]
Biota Unveils Captive Bred Potter's Angelfish - Reef Builders
May 5, 2023 · Thanks to the team's efforts, this popular and long-awaited dwarf angelfish has been reintroduced to the aquarium trade.” “Since this first ...Missing: marine | Show results with:marine
[68]
Care Guide for Freshwater Angelfish – The Feisty Angel of the Aquarium
### Freshwater Angelfish Care Summary
[69]
https://www.aquariumcoop.com/blogs/aquarium/angelfish-care-guide
[70]
Freshwater Ich - Fritz Aquatics
Prevention. The best way to avoid Ich is to quarantine all new fish in a separate tank for two weeks before moving them to the regular tank.
[71]
The Amazon in crisis: Forest loss threatens the region and the planet
Nov 8, 2022 · The Amazon is in crisis as forests are threatened by deforestation, fires, and degradation; surface water has been lost; and rivers are ...
[72]
Altum Origins: the Supply Chain of Wild Altum Angels
Wild Altums are collected in the Orinoco basin, go to Puerto Inirida, then to Bogota, held in ponds, then aquariums before being shipped.Missing: threats | Show results with:threats
[73]
Impacts of coral bleaching on reef fish abundance, biomass and ...
Sep 24, 2023 · Coral bleaching immediately impacts the reef benthos, but effects on fish communities are less well understood because they are often ...
[74]
[PDF] Kenya's trade in ornamental marine fish - Traffic.org
Unregulated collection of marine fish for the ornamental trade may negatively impact coral reef ecosystems and threaten wild populations of marine fish species.
[75]
[PDF] Scribbled Angelfish - Australian Marine Conservation Society
Oct 8, 2025 · In 2003, AMCS and allies protected Ningaloo, Australia's largest fringing reef, from a major marina development, then secured 34% of the.
[76]
[PDF] Wild caught ornamental fish The trade, the benefits, the facts
Dec 29, 2017 · 5-10% of freshwater and 90% of marine ornamental fish are wild-caught, providing livelihoods, supporting local economies, and helping maintain ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[77]
Reproductive success and female preference in the amazonian ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The angel fish, Pterophyllum scalare is a cichlid native to the Amazon Basin of Brazil and is exported as an ornamental fish.