Arthur
Arthur, traditionally dated to the late fifth and early sixth centuries CE, is a legendary Romano-British leader and monarch central to the Matter of Britain, a body of medieval literature depicting him as a unifier of the Britons who repelled Anglo-Saxon invasions through a series of battles, including the pivotal victory at Mount Badon.[1][2] In these accounts, Arthur wields the sword Excalibur, presides over the Knights of the Round Table at Camelot, and is aided by the wizard Merlin, embodying ideals of chivalry, justice, and heroism that later evolved to include quests for the Holy Grail and themes of courtly love.[1][2] The earliest references to Arthur appear in ninth- and tenth-century Welsh texts, such as the Historia Brittonum and Annales Cambriae, which portray him as a dux bellorum (war leader) rather than a king, with no contemporary records from his purported era mentioning him by name.[2][1] Scholarly consensus holds that while a historical kernel—possibly a composite of fifth-century warlords resisting Saxon incursions—may underlie the figure, no archaeological evidence or direct historical corroboration supports the legendary Arthur's existence, rendering him a product of retrospective myth-making amid post-Roman Britain's instability.[3][2] The legends were substantially elaborated in the twelfth century by Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudo-historical Historia Regum Britanniae, influencing subsequent European romance traditions despite its acknowledged fictional elements.[2]
Etymology
Primary Theories
The etymology of the name Arthur is debated among philologists, with no consensus due to the absence of pre-medieval attestations directly linking it to ancient forms; the earliest recorded uses appear in Welsh poetry, such as the late 6th-century Y Gododdin, and later annals like the 9th-century Annales Cambriae. Two principal hypotheses dominate: a Celtic derivation from Proto-Celtic *artos ("bear"), potentially compounded with elements like *wiros ("man") or *rix ("king") to form constructs such as "bear-man" or "bear-king," and a Roman origin from the gens nomen Artorius, attested in Latin inscriptions from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE.[4][5] The Celtic theory posits that Arthur evolved from *artos, a root well-attested in early Celtic languages for "bear" (cf. Old Irish art, Middle Welsh arth, Old Breton arzh), evoking a totemic or warrior archetype associated with strength and ferocity in Indo-European traditions. Compounds like *Arto-wiros ("bear-man") or *Arto-rixos ("bear-king") align phonetically with Brittonic evolution, where intervocalic /t/ could weaken, though direct evidence is inferential and relies on comparative linguistics rather than inscriptions. This view, supported by some Celticists, encounters challenges from the rarity of such compounds in surviving onomastics and the potential taboo deformation of bear names in Indo-European cultures, which obscured direct attestations.[6][7] The Roman Artorius hypothesis, first systematically proposed by Stefan Zimmer in 1890, traces Arthur to the Latin family name borne by members of the plebeian gens Artoria, evidenced in epigraphic records including the 2nd-century CE British commander Lucius Artorius Castus, whose career in Roman Britannia provides a plausible transmission vector to post-Roman elites. Artorius may derive from Etruscan Arnthur or imply agrarian connotations like "ploughman" via Italic roots, fitting Romano-British hybrid naming practices, though its Celtic substrate cannot be ruled out—Zimmer himself suggested Artorius as a Latinization of a hypothetical Celtic *Artorī- from *artos. This theory gains traction from the phonetic stability of Artorius to Brittonic Arthur (with /r/ preservation and vowel shifts) and the historical presence of the name in Britain, predating known Arthur usages by centuries, yet it falters on the scarcity of Artorius continuity into Dark Age Britain and alternative Celtic explanations for the gens name itself.[5][8][9]Relation to the Legend
The etymological roots of Arthur, traced to Proto-Celtic artos ("bear") combined with -wiros ("man"), yielding a meaning of "bear-man" or "bear-like hero," existed independently in early Celtic nomenclature but evidenced scant usage in pre-medieval records.[10] This obscurity persisted despite potential folkloric undertones, with the name appearing only sporadically in retrospective Welsh sources, underscoring its marginal status absent literary elevation.[11] The Annales Cambriae, a Latin chronicle compiled in the 10th century at St. David's in Wales from earlier annals, provides the earliest datable references to an "Arthur" as a battle leader: in 516 AD at Mons Badonis, where he reportedly bore Christ's cross for three days amid British victories over Saxons, and in 537 AD at Camlann, marking his and Medraut's death.[12] These entries, however, derive from non-contemporary syntheses of oral or lost records, lacking archaeological or independent corroboration from the 6th century, and reflect 9th-10th century monastic compilation rather than direct historical attestation.[13] Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) catalyzed the name's prominence by portraying Arthur as a conquering British monarch from a prophesied lineage, merging vague early traditions with extensive fabrication to assert a grand imperial past.[14] This pseudohistorical narrative, disseminated widely in Latin and vernacular translations, shifted Arthur from a peripheral Celtic epithet to a pan-European emblem of knighthood and resistance, independent of its etymological origins yet causally driving its cultural endurance through cycles of romance literature.[15] Scholarly consensus attributes this surge not to verified biography but to Geoffrey's inventive synthesis, tailored for Norman-era audiences seeking British antiquity amid conquest.[14]Historical Figures
Verified Rulers and Nobles
Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (29 March 1187 – c. April 1203), posthumous son of Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany, and Constance, inherited the duchy in 1196 at age nine and was designated heir presumptive to his uncle, King Richard I of England.[16] Following Richard's death in 1199, Arthur contested the English throne against his uncle John, allying with King Philip II of France, which prompted John to capture him near Mirebeau in 1202.[17] Imprisoned at Falaise Castle, Arthur was likely murdered there on John's orders, with contemporary chroniclers reporting his blinding and castration or direct killing, though his body was never confirmed found.[17][18] Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales (19 or 20 September 1486 – 2 April 1502), eldest son of King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York, was created Prince of Wales in 1489 and positioned as heir to unify Yorkist and Lancastrian claims through his symbolic name evoking British legend.[19] Educated at Ludlow Castle and betrothed to Catherine of Aragon to secure the Anglo-Spanish alliance, he married her by proxy in 1499 and in person on 14 November 1501 at St. Paul's Cathedral.[20] Arthur's death at age 15, attributed to consumption or sweating sickness shortly after the wedding, shifted the succession to his brother Henry and fueled later debates over Catherine's widowhood.[21] Arthur Plantagenet, 1st Viscount Lisle (born c. 1472 – 3 June 1542), illegitimate son of King Edward IV of England with Lady Elizabeth Shore or another mistress, entered royal service under Henry VII in 1501 as a page to Queen Elizabeth of York.[22] Elevated to Viscount Lisle in 1523 by Henry VIII, his half-nephew, he governed Calais as deputy from 1533, managing fortifications and diplomacy amid French tensions.[23] Arrested for treason in 1538 over intercepted letters suggesting disloyalty, Plantagenet endured 18 months in the Tower of London before release in March 1540 due to lack of evidence, dying weeks later from stress-induced illness.[22][23] Arthur MacMorrough Kavanagh (25 March 1831 – 25 December 1889), scion of the ancient Kavanagh sept claiming descent from the kings of Leinster, inherited Borris House and 30,000 acres in County Carlow despite congenital absence of arms below the elbows and legs below the knees.[24] Active in estate management and local governance, he rode horseback, shot game, and traveled globally, including to India and the Middle East, using custom prosthetics.[25] Elected MP for County Carlow in 1868 as a Conservative, he advocated poor law reforms and drainage works, resigning in 1880 after electoral defeat but continuing as a magistrate until his death.[24][26]Influence on Name Adoption
The prestige of confirmed historical figures named Arthur, particularly Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (1187–1203), son of Geoffrey Plantagenet and grandson of Henry II of England, contributed to the name's adoption among Celtic and Anglo-Norman nobility following the 12th century.[27] As a ducal heir with claims to the English throne amid Breton assertions of descent from ancient British rulers, his naming exemplified how regional power structures leveraged the name's connotations of sovereignty, prompting emulation in interconnected noble networks spanning Brittany, England, and Wales.[28] This dynastic usage aligned with Plantagenet interests, where the name appeared in familial contexts tied to territorial ambitions in western regions.[28] Charters and administrative records provide evidence of the name's gradual integration into English and Welsh naming practices during the 13th–15th centuries. In England, Latin forms like Artur are attested as early as 1189 in surveys and legal documents, with sporadic but increasing occurrences among gentry and lesser nobility by the 13th century, reflecting courtly dissemination from Anglo-Norman elites.[28] Welsh variants, such as Arthyr, emerge in 14th–15th-century registers, often among families in border regions where the name evoked martial heritage against external pressures.[28] Chronicles from these periods, including those documenting Plantagenet kin, further record noble bearers, underscoring a pattern of adoption driven by prestige rather than ubiquity—the name remained uncommon overall but gained traction where historical Arthurs symbolized resilient leadership.[28] The persistence of Arthur in these contexts arose from causal linkages to political utility: noble families adopted it to invoke archetypes of defiance against invaders, as seen in Breton-Welsh cultural spheres, where associations with 6th-century British resistance bolstered identity amid Anglo-Norman expansion.[27] This pragmatic emulation, evidenced by the name's concentration in prestige-bearing lineages like the later Arthur Plantagenet (c. 1480–1542), illegitimate son of Edward IV, prioritized symbolic capital over mere tradition, enabling its endurance despite limited frequency in broader populations.[28]Legendary Figures
King Arthur and the Matter of Britain
The Arthurian legend, central to the Matter of Britain—a medieval literary cycle focused on stories of ancient Britain—first emerges in early Welsh texts. The poem Y Gododdin, composed around 600 AD by the bard Aneirin, contains the earliest surviving reference to Arthur, praising a warrior named Gwarchmei who fought "after feasting on mead in the hall" and was "no Arthur" in prowess, implying Arthur as a benchmark of martial excellence.[29] This allusion situates Arthur within a context of heroic commemoration tied to battles against northern invaders, reflecting oral traditions predating written records.[30] Subsequent Welsh prose tales expand Arthur's role as a formidable leader. In Culhwch and Olwen, preserved in 11th-century manuscripts but drawing from older oral sources, Arthur appears as a king who mobilizes his court, including figures like Kay and Bedwyr, to fulfill impossible tasks involving supernatural adversaries and magical aids, such as the hunt for the boar Twrch Trwyth.[30] These narratives emphasize Arthur's authority over a warrior band in a mythic landscape, blending heroism with otherworldly challenges, without the later romantic elaborations.[31] The legend evolves significantly in 12th-century French romances, particularly those by Chrétien de Troyes, who adapted Celtic motifs into verse narratives promoting chivalric ideals. Chrétien's works, including Erec and Enide (c. 1170) and Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart (c. 1177), introduce courtly love, knightly quests, and adulterous passion between Lancelot and Guinevere, while Perceval, the Story of the Grail (c. 1180) features the first literary depiction of the Grail as a mystical object sought in Arthur's court.[32] These adaptations reflect feudal society's emphasis on loyalty to lord and lady, transforming folklore into structured tales of personal honor and social order.[33] Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur (printed 1485) synthesizes prior strands into a comprehensive English prose epic, incorporating the Round Table as a symbol of equality among knights, Excalibur as Arthur's divinely granted sword, Merlin as prophetic advisor, and the Grail quest as a spiritual pinnacle amid courtly intrigue and civil war.[34] Malory draws from French and English sources to narrate Arthur's rise from obscure birth, unification of Britain, and tragic fall due to betrayal, underscoring themes of unity and its fragility.[35] Across these developments, the legends causally stem from post-Roman British folklore, which mythologized resistance to Saxon incursions amid institutional collapse, later reshaped by medieval authors to mirror contemporary feudal hierarchies and virtues like prowess and piety.[36][34]Historicity and Scholarly Debate
No contemporary accounts from the fifth or sixth centuries, the purported era of Arthur's activity, reference a figure by that name, despite detailed chronicles of the period's upheavals, such as Gildas's De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (c. 540 AD), which attributes Saxon advances to British leaders like Ambrosius Aurelianus without mentioning Arthur.[37] This evidentiary void persists in later sources like Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People (731 AD), which surveys post-Roman Britain and its key actors but omits Arthur entirely, suggesting the figure's prominence emerged only retrospectively.[38] The earliest explicit mention occurs in the Historia Brittonum, compiled around 828 AD and traditionally attributed to Nennius, which enumerates twelve battles led by Arthur culminating at Badon but relies on oral traditions without independent verification, rendering it unreliable as history due to its propagandistic intent to bolster Welsh identity against Anglo-Saxon dominance.[39] Scholars note the text's compilation over two centuries after the events it describes, incorporating fabulous elements like Arthur carrying a cross into battle, which aligns more with hagiographic invention than empirical record-keeping.[40] Archaeological efforts at sites tied to Arthurian lore, including Tintagel in Cornwall—linked to his conception in twelfth-century texts—uncover post-Roman settlements with carbon-dated artifacts from the fifth to seventh centuries, such as imported Mediterranean pottery indicating elite trade networks, yet provide no inscriptions, structures, or artifacts directly attributable to an Arthur.[41] The "Artognou" stone (sixth century) prompted speculation of Arthurian ties, but linguists dismiss it as unrelated, deriving from Celtic roots unrelated to "Arthur," highlighting how later romantic associations overlay sparse, non-specific material evidence.[39] In scholarly assessment, the consensus leans against a historical Arthur, with historians like Nicholas J. Higham positing him as a ninth-century literary fabrication euhemerizing disparate Celtic warlord motifs into a unifying folk hero, devoid of traceable causal connections to sub-Roman events; Higham critiques proposed candidates (e.g., dux bellorum figures) for lacking contemporaneous attestation and argues the legend's rapid embellishment precludes a factual core.[2] This view counters romantic "lost king" hypotheses by emphasizing the burden of proof: without primary sources or corroborated artifacts, Arthur functions as a composite myth rather than a recoverable individual.[39]Notable Individuals
Pre-Modern Thinkers and Creators
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769–1852), was an Anglo-Irish military commander renowned for his strategic acumen and disciplined leadership during the Napoleonic Wars.[42] Born in Dublin to an aristocratic family, he rose through the British Army ranks, achieving key victories in India, including the Battle of Assaye in 1803, and in the Peninsular War against French forces from 1808 to 1814.[43] His most celebrated triumph came at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815, where, commanding a coalition army, he decisively defeated Napoleon Bonaparte in alliance with Prussian forces under Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, employing meticulous planning, terrain advantage, and troop positioning to counter numerical disadvantages.[42] Wellesley's approach emphasized logistical preparation, soldier welfare, and pragmatic decision-making, earning him the nickname "Iron Duke" for his resolute command style that prioritized empirical assessment over speculative risks.[42] Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) developed a metaphysical system grounded in the primacy of an irrational "will" as the underlying reality of existence, positing it as a blind, striving force manifesting in perpetual suffering and conflict.[44] Born in Danzig (now Gdańsk), he published his seminal work The World as Will and Representation in 1819, arguing that the phenomenal world is mere representation shaped by human cognition, while the noumenal essence is this insatiable will, rejecting the optimistic rationalism of contemporaries like Hegel and Fichte as illusory projections disconnected from observable human misery.[44] Schopenhauer's philosophy critiqued unbridled optimism by highlighting life's inherent frustrations—endless desire without lasting satisfaction—drawing on Kantian epistemology but substituting will for the unknowable thing-in-itself, thus advocating ascetic denial or aesthetic contemplation as temporary escapes from suffering's causality.[44] His ideas profoundly shaped Friedrich Nietzsche's early thought, particularly concepts of self-overcoming and the Dionysian will to power, though Nietzsche later diverged by affirming life's tragic vitality over Schopenhauer's resignation.[44] Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930), a Scottish physician and author, created the detective Sherlock Holmes, embodying deductive rationalism and empirical observation in fiction.[45] Trained in medicine at the University of Edinburgh, Doyle introduced Holmes in the novel A Study in Scarlet serialized in 1887, portraying the character as a methodical investigator relying on forensic science, logical inference, and rejection of superstition to solve crimes.[45] This creation contrasted sharply with Doyle's later personal embrace of spiritualism, particularly after World War I losses including his son Kingsley's death in 1918, leading him to advocate for mediums, ectoplasm, and communication with the dead as empirically verifiable phenomena despite lacking rigorous scientific validation.[46] Doyle's dual pursuits highlight a tension between Holmes's archetype of skeptical materialism and his own claims of evidence-based supernatural encounters, which drew skepticism from contemporaries like Harry Houdini who exposed fraudulent mediums Doyle endorsed.[47]Modern and Contemporary Figures
Arthur Miller (October 17, 1915 – February 10, 2005) was an American playwright whose tragedy Death of a Salesman (1949) earned the Pulitzer Prize for Drama and depicted the erosion of the American Dream through the lens of a failing salesman's personal and familial collapse.[48] His subsequent work The Crucible (1953) served as an allegory for the McCarthy-era anticommunist purges, drawing from the Salem witch trials to critique mass hysteria and institutional overreach.[49] Miller's refusal to identify suspected communists during his 1956 testimony before the House Un-American Activities Committee resulted in a conviction for contempt of Congress, which was overturned on appeal, underscoring his commitment to individual conscience amid political pressure.[48] While lauded for illuminating human vulnerability and ethical conflicts rooted in everyday existence, Miller drew criticism for his documented left-wing sympathies, including attendance at communist-front events and associations with Marxist intellectuals, though he consistently denied formal party membership and emphasized humanistic rather than ideological motivations.[49][50] Arthur D. Levinson (born March 31, 1950), a biochemist with a Ph.D. from Princeton University, led Genentech as CEO from 1995 to 2009, overseeing breakthroughs in monoclonal antibodies and recombinant therapeutics that treated conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and certain cancers through rigorous empirical validation.[51] Appointed chairman of Apple Inc.'s board in 2011 following Steve Jobs's death, Levinson guided strategic decisions amid the company's expansion into health technologies like the Apple Watch's ECG monitoring.[51] In 2013, he assumed the role of CEO at Calico, an Alphabet subsidiary dedicated to longevity research, prioritizing causal mechanisms of aging via genomic sequencing and model organism studies to identify interventions grounded in biological data.[52] Levinson's tenure has advanced data-driven biotech paradigms but faced scrutiny over Apple's handling of user privacy in health data aggregation and ethical debates surrounding Calico's pursuit of life-extension goals, including potential overpromising on unproven therapies.[51][52] The name Arthur has experienced a revival since 2020, aligning with broader preferences for classic, bear-derived appellations evoking strength and historical resonance, ranking #105 among U.S. male births in 2024 per Social Security Administration data and securing a top-10 position in England and Wales, where it placed fourth overall for boys.[53][54] This uptick coincides with emerging professionals bearing the name, such as Arthur Bernard, who founded Athletico Ventures in 2020 to facilitate athlete investments in startups, leveraging sports-derived discipline for venture capital outcomes.[55] Similarly, young athletes like Arthur Leclerc, a Monegasque Formula 1 driver who debuted full-time with Ferrari's affiliate in 2022, represent the name's adoption among post-2020 talents in high-performance fields requiring precision and resilience.[56]Fictional Characters
Literary and Media Depictions
Arthur Dent serves as the protagonist in Douglas Adams' science fiction comedy The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, first published in 1979, where he is portrayed as an unassuming English everyman whose home planet is demolished for a hyperspace bypass, propelling him into chaotic cosmic adventures.[57] This depiction underscores an archetype of bewildered normalcy amid absurdity, with Dent's perpetual confusion reflecting themes of existential disorientation and human irrelevance in an indifferent universe.[58] In T. H. White's Arthurian novel The Once and Future King, published in 1958, King Arthur emerges as a visionary monarch educated by Merlin to prioritize might for right, yet ultimately undone by personal betrayals and the cycle of violence, blending chivalric fantasy with allegorical warnings against totalitarian impulses and the fragility of enlightened governance.[59] White's Arthur embodies a tragic idealist archetype, aspiring to a merit-based realm free of might-makes-right brutality, though constrained by inevitable human failings like Lancelot's affair with Guinevere.[60] Animated adaptations highlight youthful heroic potential, as in Disney's The Sword in the Stone (1963), which follows orphan Wart—revealed as Arthur—under Merlin's tutelage, culminating in his extraction of Excalibur to claim kingship amid rival claims.[61] The film stresses transformative education and innate destiny, portraying Arthur as a humble squire evolving through magical trials into a destined leader.[62] Television reimaginings include BBC's Merlin (2008–2012), featuring Prince Arthur Pendragon, portrayed by Bradley James as a skilled warrior-prince who matures into Camelot's king, navigating paternal tyranny, sorcery threats, and loyalty to servant Merlin while upholding chivalric duties.[63] This version accentuates bromantic camaraderie and redemptive heroism, with Arthur confronting prejudices against magic en route to uniting realms.Archetypes and Themes
In fictional depictions, the Arthur archetype frequently embodies the noble leader whose trajectory as a tragic hero critiques hubris rather than extolling unblemished virtue, with causal chains linking overreach to downfall as seen in medieval romances where imperial quests precipitate betrayal and fragmentation of the realm.[64] This pattern echoes broader tragic structures, where excessive pride—manifest in decisions like expansive conquests—overrides prudence, yielding realistic consequences such as internal discord and loss of legitimacy, as prophetic warnings in narratives underscore the self-inflicted nature of ruin.[65] Failures akin to those of figures like Uther Pendragon, driven by unchecked desire, recur in Arthur's arc, illustrating how personal flaws erode collective ideals of unity and justice.[66] Recurring themes juxtapose destiny against free will, portraying power's corruptibility as an outcome of choices that defy or embrace foretold paths, thereby challenging sanitized chivalric myths with depictions of moral decay under authority's weight.[67] Prophecies in these stories function not as inexorable fate but as catalysts testing agency, where yielding to ambition fosters hubris-induced collapse, reflecting empirical patterns of leadership failure across eras rather than predestined heroism.[68] Modern deconstructions amplify this by emphasizing systemic vulnerabilities—such as factional intrigue and ethical lapses—that power amplifies, countering romantic overtones with causal analyses of how free will's misapplication invites entropy.[69] These archetypes influence genres from fantasy quests, which adapt medieval motifs of heroic assembly and trial to explore governance's practical limits, to psychological dramas probing isolation in command.[70] Grounded in sources like Malory's synthesis of earlier tales, such evolutions empirically mirror audience contexts—shifting from 15th-century feudal anxieties to 20th-century reflections on totalitarianism—while preserving narrative realism in linking virtues like loyalty to their potential subversion.[71] This adaptability sustains Arthurian motifs as versatile frameworks for dissecting power dynamics, prioritizing observable human behaviors over idealized triumphs.[72]Variants and Translations
International Forms
The name Arthur, derived from the Proto-Celtic *artos meaning "bear", exhibits phonetic adaptations in international forms that generally retain the core "art-" syllable while accommodating local orthographic and prosodic conventions across Indo-European languages.[73] This preservation reflects the name's transmission via medieval Latin and vernacular literatures, with variations arising from vowel shifts, diminutives, or assimilations to native phonology, as evidenced in historical onomastic records.[10] In Romance languages, the form Arturo predominates in Spanish and Italian, incorporating a Romance masculine suffix -o for nominative alignment, traceable to 12th-century Iberian and Tuscan texts.[74] Portuguese and Catalan favor Artur, a truncated variant omitting the final vowel, consistent with patterns in medieval Galician-Portuguese chronicles.[75] Germanic and Slavic adaptations emphasize Artur, seen in German, Polish, Czech, and Estonian usage, where the unvoiced final consonant aligns with alveolar tendencies in these families; this spelling appears in 13th-century Germanic epics and Slavic hagiographies.[76] Finnish employs Artturi, doubling the 't' for gemination typical in Uralic phonetics under Germanic influence.[77] Hungarian renders it as Artúr, with an acute accent on the 'u' to denote long vowel quality, as documented in 15th-century Magyar name registers.[74]| Language Group | Primary Variants | Notes on Adaptation |
|---|---|---|
| Romance | Arturo (Spanish, Italian), Artur (Portuguese, Catalan) | Suffixation or truncation for grammatical fit; vowel retention from Latin Artorius.[74] |
| Germanic/Slavic | Artur (German, Polish, Czech, Estonian) | Consonant preservation; common in 19th-century national name inventories.[76] |
| Finno-Ugric | Artturi (Finnish), Artúr (Hungarian) | Gemination or diacritics for prosody; reflects substrate influences.[77] |