Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Basilar invagination

Basilar invagination is an abnormality at the craniovertebral junction, either congenital or degenerative, resulting in the odontoid prolapsing into the already limited space of the foramen magnum.^[1] This condition can lead to compression of the brainstem and upper cervical spinal cord, often associating with Chiari malformation, syringomyelia, and Klippel-Feil syndrome, and manifesting in symptoms ranging from chronic headaches to acute neurologic deterioration.^[1] The etiology of basilar invagination primarily involves instability of the C1-C2 facets, congenital osseous defects, or degenerative processes, such as those seen in approximately 20% of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.^[1] It represents the most common malformation of the craniovertebral junction, accounting for 52.3% of such anomalies.^[1] Pathophysiologically, it is classified into two groups: Group A, driven by atlantoaxial facet instability causing odontoid migration, and Group B, resulting from congenital dysgenesis that crowds the posterior fossa.^[1] Patients with associated Chiari malformation typically present later in life, with 20% in the second decade, 44% in the third, and 24% in the fourth, often exhibiting slower symptom progression compared to isolated cases.^[1] Clinically, basilar invagination commonly presents with neck pain in 80% of cases, alongside lower cranial nerve dysfunctions such as weakness, numbness, paresthesia, gait instability, spasticity, dysphagia, and dysarthria.^[1] Physical findings frequently include a short neck in 78% of patients and torticollis in 68%, with exertional cough headaches being a notable symptom.^[1] Diagnosis relies on radiographic criteria, including Chamberlain’s line (odontoid tip >5 mm above the line), McGregor’s line (>7 mm), or McRae’s line, supplemented by CT for bony details and MRI for assessing cord compression and cerebrospinal fluid flow.^[1] Dynamic CT imaging is essential to evaluate instability.^[1] Management focuses on foramen magnum decompression, craniovertebral junction alignment, and restoration of cerebrospinal fluid flow, often through cervical traction, posterior fixation-fusion, or endoscopic endonasal approaches.^[1] Approximately 90% of patients undergoing endoscopic endonasal surgery demonstrate neurologic improvement.^[1] Prognosis varies, with surgical intervention alleviating some symptoms but rarely achieving complete recovery, leaving residual deficits common in many cases.^[1]

Definition and Classification

Definition

Basilar invagination is an abnormality at the craniovertebral junction characterized by the upward prolapse of the odontoid process of the C2 vertebra or adjacent upper cervical vertebral elements into the foramen magnum, which reduces the available space within this bony opening and may lead to compression of the brainstem.^[1] This condition involves key anatomical structures including the foramen magnum—the large opening at the base of the skull through which the brainstem and upper spinal cord pass—the clivus (the sloping bony plate anterior to the foramen magnum), and the odontoid process (a peg-like projection from the axis vertebra that articulates with the atlas).^[2] These elements are critically related, as the invaginated odontoid can encroach upon the brainstem and upper cervical spinal cord, altering their spatial relationships and potentially disrupting normal cerebrospinal fluid dynamics.^[1] The condition is distinct from basilar impression, which refers to an upward displacement of the skull base itself due to softening or erosion of bone, without the prolapse of cervical vertebral elements into the foramen magnum.^[2] Similarly, it differs from platybasia, defined as an abnormal flattening of the skull base angle (typically exceeding 143 degrees at the junction of the clivus and anterior cranial fossa), which does not involve invagination but may coexist with it.^[3] Historically, basilar invagination was first described in 1790 by Rudolf Ackermann in patients with cretinism, though early accounts date to 1855 by Anders Retzius and Frederik Theodor Berg.^[4] Its recognition advanced in the early 20th century through radiographic studies, with Arthur Schüller providing the first in vivo radiological diagnosis in 1911, followed by W. Edward Chamberlain's refinements in measurement lines by 1939.^[1] Contemporary understanding emphasizes its role within broader craniovertebral junction anomalies, often associating it with conditions like Chiari malformation type I.^[5]

Classification

Basilar invagination is classified using several established systems that aid in diagnosis and guide treatment strategies, with Goel's classification serving as a cornerstone for distinguishing variants based on underlying instability. Goel's classification, proposed by neurosurgeon Atul Goel, categorizes basilar invagination into two primary groups depending on the presence or absence of atlantoaxial instability. Group A encompasses the reducible form, characterized by atlantoaxial dislocation where the odontoid process prolapses into the foramen magnum due to instability, frequently linked to post-traumatic, inflammatory, or degenerative etiologies such as rheumatoid arthritis.^[6] In Group A, dynamic imaging reveals mobility at the atlantoaxial joint, allowing for potential reduction. Group B, conversely, represents the irreducible form arising from congenital osseous dysgenesis, where the invagination occurs without demonstrable atlantoaxial instability, often involving assimilation of the atlas or dysplastic changes at the craniovertebral junction.^[6] Traditional radiographic classifications, developed by Chamberlain, McRae, and colleagues, rely on the position of the odontoid process relative to key skull base lines to diagnose basilar invagination. The Chamberlain line extends from the posterior edge of the hard palate to the posterior margin of the foramen magnum; protrusion of the odontoid tip more than 5 mm above this line suggests invagination.^[1] The McRae line, drawn from the basion to the opisthion, normally positions the odontoid tip about 5 mm below it, with superior displacement indicating the condition. These lines provide objective metrics for assessing the degree of impaction, though they do not differentiate reducibility.^[1] A broader dichotomy classifies basilar invagination as primary (congenital), stemming from embryonic malformations of the craniovertebral junction, or secondary (acquired), resulting from erosive processes like infections, tumors, or metabolic disorders. Primary forms may briefly associate with syndromes such as Klippel-Feil, detailed under congenital causes.^[2] These classifications carry direct clinical implications for management. Group A lesions often respond favorably to reduction maneuvers, such as traction or intraoperative manipulation, followed by atlantoaxial fixation to prevent recurrence. Group B cases, lacking reducibility, necessitate bony decompression, typically via foramen magnum decompression with or without occipitocervical fusion.^[6]

Etiology

Congenital Causes

Congenital basilar invagination primarily stems from aberrant embryological development of the craniovertebral junction, involving faulty resegmentation of the proatlas—a transient structure derived from the fusion of the caudal fourth occipital somite and cranial fifth somite. This process normally contributes to key elements such as the anterior tubercle of the clivus, the tip of the odontoid process, the apical ligament, parts of the foramen magnum, the occipital condyles, and structures of the atlas; disruptions lead to upward displacement of the odontoid into the foramen magnum. Common manifestations include a short clivus resulting from hypoplasia of the basioccipital bone, which tilts the foramen magnum and reduces posterior fossa volume, or an assimilated odontoid due to atlanto-occipital fusion anomalies where the atlas sclerotome adopts an occipital identity. These defects often arise from homeotic transformations regulated by Hox genes (e.g., Hoxd-3 mutations causing anterior shifts) or underdevelopment of exoccipital sclerotomes, elevating the dens.^[7]^[8] Genetic factors play a central role in these malformations, particularly mutations in genes controlling somite segmentation and collagen synthesis. Hox and Pax gene dysregulation governs proatlas resegmentation, while polymorphisms like MTHFR 677C→T and mutations in COL2A1 contribute to craniovertebral instability and bony anomalies.^[7] In osteogenesis imperfecta, mutations in collagen genes such as COL1A1 weaken connective tissues and cause bone softening, predisposing to basilar invagination in approximately 25% of cases.^[1] Similar ligamentous laxity and skeletal dysplasias in conditions like achondroplasia (due to FGFR3 mutations) and Morquio syndrome (mucopolysaccharidosis type IV, involving GALNS gene defects) further promote these congenital deformities by altering endochondral ossification at the skull base.^[1]

Acquired Causes

Acquired basilar invagination arises from non-congenital processes that compromise the structural integrity of the craniovertebral junction over time, often leading to upward displacement of the odontoid process into the foramen magnum.^[1] These secondary forms contrast with congenital variants by their association with modifiable risk factors such as chronic inflammation, trauma, or metabolic disturbances, typically manifesting in adulthood.^[2] Many acquired cases fall into Group A classification, characterized by reducible invagination due to ligamentous instability rather than fixed bony deformity.^[9] Inflammatory and degenerative conditions represent prominent acquired etiologies. Rheumatoid arthritis frequently contributes through chronic synovitis at the atlantoaxial joint, resulting in pannus formation—a hypertrophic synovial tissue that erodes the odontoid process and C1-C2 articulations, thereby destabilizing the junction and promoting invagination.^[1] This involvement occurs in up to 80% of long-standing rheumatoid arthritis cases affecting the cervical spine, with basilar invagination emerging as a severe complication in advanced disease.^[10] Paget's disease of bone similarly predisposes to invagination by causing irregular osteolytic and sclerotic remodeling, particularly softening the skull base and leading to impression of the odontoid.^[11] Traumatic mechanisms induce basilar invagination via direct or indirect disruption of craniovertebral stability. Post-traumatic instability often follows untreated or inadequately managed fractures, such as C1 arch disruptions, which allow progressive upward migration of the dens.^[12] Iatrogenic causes arise from prior cervical surgeries, including complications like rod breakage in occipitocervical fusions or proximal junctional failure after kyphosis correction, both of which can precipitate atlantoaxial dislocation and invagination.^[13] Approximately 60% of instability-related cases experience acute symptom exacerbation following head or neck trauma, highlighting the role of injury in unmasking latent vulnerabilities.^[1] Other acquired factors include infections, tumors, and metabolic disorders that erode or weaken osseous structures. Osteomyelitis at the skull base or upper cervical spine can lead to local bone destruction and instability, facilitating invagination as a rare sequela.^[14] Tumors such as chordomas erode the clivus through direct bone-dissolving activity and osteoclast activation, compromising the ventral craniovertebral support.^[15] Metabolic conditions like primary hyperparathyroidism promote generalized bone resorption, including subperiosteal erosion at the skull base, which softens the bone and results in secondary basilar impression.^[16] These etiologies underscore the diverse pathways by which acquired processes culminate in invagination during adulthood.^[17]

Pathophysiology

Mechanisms in Group A

Group A basilar invagination is characterized by reducible deformities driven primarily by atlantoaxial instability, where dislocation or subluxation of the facet joints at the C1-C2 level permits anterior and upward migration of the odontoid process into the foramen magnum, resulting in ventral compression of the brainstem.^[1] This instability arises from pathological hypermobility of the atlantoaxial joint, often manifesting as listhesis similar to that observed in lumbosacral pathology, which can be reduced through distraction techniques.^[18] Ligamentous laxity plays a central role in this process, particularly incompetence or rupture of the transverse atlantal ligament, which normally restrains the odontoid process and maintains atlantoaxial alignment. In acquired cases such as rheumatoid arthritis, progressive pannus formation from synovial inflammation erodes the lateral masses of the atlas and surrounding ligaments, including the transverse ligament, leading to cranial settling and further odontoid prolapse.^[19] This erosion increases the anterior atlantodental interval, exacerbating subluxation and contributing to the instability seen in approximately 20% of rheumatoid arthritis patients.^[1] Biomechanically, the instability generates increased shear forces across the C1-C2 articulation, promoting ventral impingement on the brainstem and lower cranial nerves, which can produce neurological deficits. These forces result from facet joint malalignment and ligamentous incompetence, creating a dynamic compression that is often reversible; skeletal traction or manual distraction can realign the facets in the majority of cases, with clinical improvement noted in up to 82% of patients following such interventions.^[1]^[18] The altered cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics at the craniocervical junction due to this instability frequently lead to syringomyelia, which is associated with basilar invagination in approximately 25% to 35% of cases alongside other neuraxis abnormalities.^[2] Obstruction or disruption of normal CSF flow at the foramen magnum by the prolapsed odontoid contributes to syrinx formation, and stabilization procedures have been shown to reverse syringomyelia in select cases by restoring physiological flow.^[20]^[18]

Mechanisms in Group B

Group B basilar invagination is characterized by irreducible structural defects arising from congenital anomalies that result in fixed crowding at the craniovertebral junction. These defects primarily involve congenital assimilation of the atlas to the occiput or a short clivus, which significantly reduces the volume of the posterior fossa and leads to persistent protrusion of the odontoid process into the foramen magnum. This fixed invagination creates a static compressive environment on neural structures without the dynamic instability seen in other forms.^[21]^[1] A key mechanism in Group B is the chronic herniation of the cerebellar tonsils, akin to that observed in Chiari malformation, which intermittently obstructs cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow and contributes to central cord syndrome through medullary compression. This herniation exacerbates the congenital crowding, leading to progressive syringomyelia in many cases. Additionally, progressive kyphosis at the craniovertebral junction further intensifies neural compression over time by altering the alignment and increasing the mechanical load on the brainstem and upper spinal cord.^[21]^[1]^[2] The obstruction of CSF pathways in Group B also poses a substantial risk of hydrocephalus, which is among the neuraxis abnormalities associated with basilar invagination in approximately 25-35% of cases due to blockage of the fourth ventricle outflow.^[11]^[2] This complication arises from the narrowed foramen magnum and distorted ventricular dynamics, often requiring urgent intervention to prevent irreversible neurological damage.

Epidemiology and Associated Conditions

Prevalence and Demographics

Basilar invagination represents the most common anomaly among craniovertebral junction malformations, accounting for 52.3% of cases in series evaluating such defects.^[7] In the general population, basilar invagination is rare. The incidence of BI combined with Chiari malformation type I is estimated at 2.4 per 100,000 in children and 9.6 to 19.7 per 100,000 in adults (as of 2025).^[22] Demographically, some studies report a slight female predominance in basilar invagination. Age at diagnosis typically peaks in young adulthood, ranging from 20 to 40 years for cases associated with Chiari malformation, while isolated congenital variants often present earlier, between 10 and 20 years.^[7] Geographic variations are noted, with higher prevalence in regions exhibiting elevated rates of consanguinity, attributable to increased occurrence of underlying genetic syndromes such as osteogenesis imperfecta, where basilar invagination affects up to 13% of patients.^[23] Incidence trends for basilar invagination have remained stable over time, but detection rates have risen since the early 2000s due to widespread adoption of advanced imaging modalities like MRI and CT, which are more sensitive than conventional radiography.^[1]

Associated Syndromes

Basilar invagination frequently co-occurs with Chiari malformation type I, where tonsillar herniation is observed in 33-38% of cases presenting with suboccipital symptoms.^[1] This association often leads to syringomyelia in up to 50% of affected individuals due to altered cerebrospinal fluid dynamics at the craniocervical junction.^[6] Klippel-Feil syndrome, characterized by congenital cervical segmentation defects, is commonly linked to basilar invagination, heightening the risk of craniocervical instability through fused vertebrae and associated skeletal anomalies.^[1] These defects contribute to progressive compression and neurological compromise in the majority of cases.^[24] In Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, connective tissue weakness predisposes individuals to basilar invagination via ligamentous laxity and craniocervical instability, often manifesting as ventral brainstem compression.^[25] This laxity exacerbates the upward migration of the odontoid process, complicating structural integrity at the skull base.^[26] Down syndrome exhibits a higher incidence of atlantoaxial instability (up to 15-20% in screened populations) attributable to ligamentous hypotonia, which overlaps with risks for basilar invagination.^[27] Symptomatic spinal cord compression occurs in approximately 1-2% of cases.^[28] These associated syndromes collectively delay diagnosis through overlapping nonspecific symptoms and complicate management by necessitating tailored surgical approaches to address both invagination and syndromic features.^[1]

Clinical Presentation

Signs and Symptoms

Basilar invagination manifests through a variety of neurological symptoms primarily due to compression at the craniovertebral junction, affecting multiple systems. Cranial nerve involvement is common, particularly lower cranial nerves (IX-XII), leading to dysphagia and hoarseness in approximately 40% of cases associated with conditions like osteogenesis imperfecta.^[29] The eighth cranial nerve may also be affected, resulting in vertigo and nystagmus from vestibular dysfunction.^[1] Spinal symptoms arise from cervical myelopathy and include neck pain, reported in about 80% of patients, and torticollis in around 40%.^[1] Progressive quadriparesis, spasticity, and gait ataxia often develop due to spinal cord compression, alongside sensory disturbances such as numbness and paresthesia.^[1] Presentations vary by classification, such as in Goel's system. Group A basilar invagination typically features acute onset following trauma, with sudden weakness and signs of direct brainstem compression.^[1] In contrast, Group B presents insidiously with chronic headaches, sensory numbness, and symptoms related to posterior fossa crowding or associated syringomyelia.^[1] Autonomic dysfunction can occur from brainstem involvement, manifesting as syncope, particularly triggered by maneuvers like sneezing, or respiratory issues such as dyspnea due to medullary compression.^[30]^[31] Bowel and bladder disturbances are noted in up to 28% of cases without Chiari malformation.^[1]

Complications

Basilar invagination can lead to several neurological complications due to chronic compression at the craniocervical junction. One common secondary effect is chronic syringomyelia, a fluid-filled cyst within the spinal cord resulting from obstructed cerebrospinal fluid flow, reported in approximately 25-50% of cases across surgical series.^[32]^[33] Hydrocephalus may occur due to similar CSF dynamics disruption, potentially exacerbating intracranial pressure.^[1] Irreversible myelopathy from prolonged brainstem and spinal cord impingement may progress to spastic quadriparesis or paralysis, with sensory and motor deficits becoming permanent if untreated.^[1] Vascular complications arise from mechanical distortion of the vertebrobasilar system by the upward displacement of the odontoid process. This can induce vertebrobasilar ischemia through arterial compression or kinking, potentially causing posterior circulation strokes, often presenting as vertigo, ataxia, or acute neurological deficits.^[34]^[1] Respiratory issues stem from bulbar dysfunction due to medullary compression, a mechanism involving brainstem impingement. Central sleep apnea is prevalent, with polysomnographic studies showing abnormal respiratory events in up to 72% of patients, including frequent apneic episodes.^[35] Bulbar involvement also heightens the risk of aspiration pneumonia from impaired swallowing coordination.^[1] Untreated basilar invagination often results in progressive disability, with cumulative neurological deterioration leading to severe mobility limitations and dependency. Mortality can occur in unmanaged cases, primarily from acute brainstem failure or secondary complications like respiratory arrest.^[1]^[36]

Diagnosis

Clinical Evaluation

The clinical evaluation of suspected basilar invagination commences with a thorough history taking to identify potential etiologies and symptom progression. Patients are routinely questioned about any prior trauma, which serves as a precipitating factor in approximately 48% of cases without associated Chiari malformation. Inquiries into family history of genetic syndromes, such as osteogenesis imperfecta or other connective tissue disorders, are crucial given their established associations with the condition. Progressive neurological complaints, including worsening gait instability, spasticity, weakness, or paresthesia, are common and should be detailed to assess the tempo of symptom evolution, often described as slowly progressive in congenital forms.^[1] Physical examination focuses on evaluating neck mobility, neurological integrity, and cranial nerve function. Limited neck motion is a frequent finding, often accompanied by pain or spasms indicative of underlying instability. Neurological assessment commonly reveals pyramidal tract signs, such as hyperreflexia and a positive Babinski sign, reflecting upper motor neuron involvement from brainstem compression. Sensory deficits, including altered kinesthesia or spinothalamic dysfunction, along with ataxia or dysmetria, may be evident. Cranial nerve evaluation is essential, as palsies can manifest as dysphagia, dysarthria, or nystagmus due to medullary impingement.^[1]^[1] Red flags warranting urgent attention include sudden neurologic deterioration, such as acute weakness suggesting craniocervical instability, or exertional headaches that may signal associated complications like cerebrospinal fluid obstruction. A history of trauma or inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, further heightens suspicion.^[1] Differential diagnosis during clinical assessment involves distinguishing basilar invagination from related entities like platybasia or isolated Chiari malformation through targeted history elements, such as the absence of trauma or the presence of slowly progressive symptoms without acute pyramidal features. Conditions mimicking neurological deficits, including multiple sclerosis, can be preliminarily ruled out by inquiring about a relapsing-remitting course versus insidious progression.^[1]

Imaging and Measurements

Computed tomography (CT) serves as the gold standard imaging modality for evaluating basilar invagination due to its superior depiction of bony structures, including the precise assessment of osseous defects at the craniovertebral junction.^[1] CT scans, particularly with sagittal and coronal reconstructions, allow for accurate quantification of the odontoid process position relative to key craniometric lines, facilitating definitive diagnosis and preoperative planning.^[1] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) complements CT by providing detailed visualization of soft tissue abnormalities, such as brainstem compression, neural impingement, and associated conditions like syringomyelia.^[1] Sagittal T1- and T2-weighted MRI sequences are essential for identifying ventral indentation of the brainstem by the odontoid tip and evaluating cerebrospinal fluid flow dynamics at the foramen magnum.^[1] Diagnosis of basilar invagination relies on established craniometric lines measured on midsagittal CT or MRI images. Chamberlain's line, drawn from the posterior margin of the hard palate to the posterior margin of the foramen magnum (opisthion), indicates basilar invagination when the odontoid tip protrudes more than 5 mm above it.^[1] McGregor's line, connecting the posterior margin of the hard palate to the undersurface of the occiput, shows abnormality with the odontoid tip more than 7 mm above the line.^[1] McRae's line, extending from the basion to the opisthion, is violated when the odontoid tip lies above it, signifying prolapse into the foramen magnum.^[1] The Wackenheim line, aligned along the clivus to the spheno-occipital synchondrosis, demonstrates deviation in basilar invagination, with the odontoid tip positioned anterior to the line in cases of significant cranial settling.^[1] Advanced imaging techniques enhance diagnostic precision and surgical utility. Dynamic CT with flexion-extension views assesses reducibility of the odontoid protrusion, particularly in Group A basilar invagination characterized by atlantoaxial instability.^[1] Three-dimensional CT reconstructions provide comprehensive visualization of the craniovertebral junction anatomy, aiding in the evaluation of facet joint orientation and vertebral artery trajectories for operative intervention.^[1]

Treatment

Conservative Management

Conservative management is primarily indicated for patients with asymptomatic basilar invagination or mild symptoms without neurological progression, particularly in cases of minimal compression at the craniovertebral junction. It is often employed as an initial strategy or temporary measure prior to considering surgical options in stable, non-severe presentations.^[37]^[38]^[39] Pharmacotherapy focuses on symptomatic relief, utilizing non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin or ibuprofen to address pain and inflammation associated with the condition. In basilar invagination linked to rheumatoid arthritis, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) are incorporated to control underlying inflammation, while short courses of corticosteroids may be prescribed for acute flares to mitigate pannus formation and joint instability. Analgesics and muscle relaxants, such as gabapentin for neuropathic pain or baclofen for spasticity, provide additional support in managing associated symptoms.^[36]^[40]^[41] Physical therapy plays a key role in conservative care, emphasizing cervical stabilization exercises to strengthen supporting musculature and improve proprioception, alongside posture training to minimize strain on the upper cervical spine. These interventions aim to enhance functional mobility and reduce headache or neck pain without addressing the structural deformity.^[37]^[39]^[42] Ongoing monitoring is essential, involving serial neuroimaging with MRI or CT scans at regular intervals to evaluate for progression of invagination or development of complications like syringomyelia. In reducible cases, particularly those with associated atlantoaxial instability, temporary immobilization using a halo vest or cervical collar may be applied to maintain alignment and prevent worsening during observation.^[1]^[43]^[44] The efficacy of conservative management lies in achieving symptomatic relief and stabilizing mild cases, with reports indicating improvement in pain and function in select patients through pharmacotherapy and rehabilitation; however, it does not reverse the anatomical invagination and is less effective for progressive or severe disease. In mild presentations without fixed deformity, such approaches can provide benefit in select cases, though long-term success depends on close follow-up to detect instability early.^[42]^[45]^[5]

Surgical Interventions

Surgical interventions for basilar invagination are indicated for symptomatic or progressive cases, focusing on neural decompression and craniovertebral junction stabilization. The strategy is guided by the Goel classification, distinguishing reducible cases with instability (Group A) from those with irreducible ventral compression (Group B).^[33] In Group A basilar invagination, a posterior occipitocervical fusion addresses instability through distraction, reduction, and fixation. Preoperative skull traction facilitates partial realignment, followed by a single-stage posterior approach using C1 lateral mass screws, C2 pedicle screws, or C1-C2 transarticular screws with rod-plate systems and bone grafting for fusion. Recent posterior-only techniques, such as facet distraction and joint remodeling, enable reduction without anterior access, minimizing surgical morbidity while achieving anatomical correction.^[1]^[46] For Group B with irreducible ventral compression, anterior decompression is essential, typically via transoral atlantoaxial reduction plate fixation or endoscopic endonasal odontoidectomy. The transoral approach involves posterior pharyngeal incision, odontoid resection, and scar tissue release under traction, often combined with immediate plating and grafting. Endoscopic endonasal techniques use transnasal access with neuronavigation to resect the odontoid and anterior C1 arch, incorporating dural patching for watertight closure to mitigate cerebrospinal fluid leakage. Posterior fusion is commonly staged subsequently for residual instability.^[47]^[48] Key techniques across approaches include intraoperative neuromonitoring to prevent neurological worsening during reduction and the use of 3D fluoroscopy for precise hardware placement. Ventral decompressions emphasize complete odontoid removal to restore cerebrospinal fluid pathways, while posterior fixations prioritize rigid immobilization to promote fusion.^[1]^[49] Reported risks encompass cerebrospinal fluid leak, occurring intraoperatively in up to 30% and postoperatively in 5% of endoscopic endonasal cases; infection in 5-10%; and hardware failure or nonunion in approximately 10%. These complications are managed with lumbar drainage for leaks, antibiotics for infections, and revision surgery for failures.^[1]^[50] Postoperative care routinely incorporates skull traction to maintain reduction, with endoscopic endonasal series demonstrating neurologic improvement in 90% of cases; patients receive antibiotics, nasogastric support, and imaging surveillance for fusion.^[1]^[33]

Prognosis and Outcomes

Surgical Outcomes

Surgical outcomes for basilar invagination following surgical intervention demonstrate symptom resolution rates of 73% to 79% for pain and neurological deficits at 3-month follow-up, with higher rates of improvement observed in cases treated with foramen magnum decompression alone compared to those requiring fusion.^[51] Outcomes vary by classification, with Group A basilar invagination (associated with atlantoaxial dislocation) achieving stabilization through posterior atlantoaxial fixation, whereas Group B (without dislocation) shows decompression success via posterior approaches without ventral resection.^[52] Early surgical intervention significantly enhances functional independence in patients operated on promptly after diagnosis, while treatment delays are linked to residual neurological deficits, including persistent ataxia.^[53] Key metrics include improvements on the Japanese Orthopaedic Association (JOA) scale in the majority of patients, reflecting enhanced motor and sensory function.^[47] Recent data from studies post-2023 highlight the advantages of posterior approaches, which exhibit lower complication rates compared to transoral methods, primarily due to reduced risks of infection and respiratory issues.^[54] These approaches contribute to progression-free survival rates of 81% to 83% at 10 years, underscoring their role in long-term neural preservation.^[51] Recent studies as of 2025 have also explored revision strategies for surgical failures, such as posterior fossa decompression revisions, and novel anterior implant techniques, potentially improving outcomes in complex cases.^[55]

Long-term Follow-up

Long-term follow-up for patients treated for basilar invagination emphasizes ongoing surveillance to detect any progression, hardware complications, or residual neurological issues. Protocols typically include periodic clinical and neurological examinations, supplemented by imaging such as X-rays, CT scans, and MRI to evaluate bony fusion, construct stability, and alignment at the craniocervical junction. In a series of 190 surgically treated patients, follow-up durations ranged from 2 months to 9 years, with an average of 43 months, involving both retrospective and prospective assessments of symptoms and radiological parameters.^[33] Similarly, in a study of occipitocervical fixation cases, mean follow-up was 35.1 months (range 0-123 months), incorporating functional scales like the Japanese Orthopaedic Association score and Barthel Index alongside serial imaging.^[56] Management of residual symptoms focuses on addressing persistent deficits, which are common following surgery. Residual neurological impairments, such as myelopathy or gait disturbances, may require physical therapy to improve mobility and function, while hardware failures or adjacent segment degeneration can necessitate revision procedures like additional fixation or decompression.^[1] In cases with associated hydrocephalus, ventriculoperitoneal shunting is employed if symptoms persist postoperatively, though specific incidence rates vary by underlying etiology.^[1] For instance, in a long-term case of cranial vault suspension, revision surgery at 4 years addressed fractured plates, leading to resolution of residual head pain.^[57] Recurrence risks after surgical stabilization are generally low but depend on fusion success and patient factors. Non-union rates have been reported at approximately 7% in occipitocervical fixation series, with overall complication rates around 10%, including vascular injuries or junctional issues that may lead to reoperation.^[58] Neurological recurrence rates stand at 7% after 5 years and 8.7% after 10 years in patients undergoing posterior fossa decompression, often linked to arachnoid scarring or incomplete reduction.^[59] In non-fused or unstable cases, re-invagination can occur, with higher radiographic progression noted without adequate stabilization, though this is mitigated by proper fusion techniques.^[57] Quality of life outcomes are favorable for most patients post-treatment, with significant symptom relief enabling functional independence. In one cohort, 93% of patients improved following transoral surgery and fixation, while another series reported symptom amelioration in 86% and fusion success in 94%.^[33]^[56] Long-term follow-up in a specialized case demonstrated sustained neurological stability and the ability to pursue education and employment 9.5 years after intervention, highlighting potential for return to normal activities in a majority of cases despite occasional residuals like hearing loss.^[57] Psychological support may be beneficial for managing any chronic pain, though comprehensive multidisciplinary care is key to optimizing long-term well-being.

References

[1]
Basilar Invagination - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Basilar invagination is an abnormality at the craniovertebral junction, either congenital or degenerative, resulting in the odontoid prolapsing into the already ...
[2]
Basilar invagination | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
Jul 5, 2025 · Basilar invagination, also called basilar impression or atlantoaxial impaction, is a congenital or acquired craniocervical junction abnormality.Platybasia and basilar... · Basilar invagination (mnemonic) · Platybasia
[3]
Platybasia and Basilar Invagination - Karger Publishers
May 4, 2007 · Virchow [4] coined the term 'platybasia' to describe an abnormal flattening of the skull base, a defect which heattributed to abnormal bone ...Introduction · Basilar Impression Or... · Anders Retzius (1796--1860)
[4]
Management of basilar invagination: A historical perspective - PMC
Basilar invagination has been defined as a prolapse of the vertebral column into the spinal cord. Platybasia is defined as an abnormal obtuse angle between the ...
[5]
Basilar invagination associated with chiari malformation type I
Apr 4, 2019 · Basilar invagination (BI) is an important occipitocervical malformation characterized by odontoid apophysis displacement of the axis inwards ...
[6]
Basilar invagination, Chiari malformation, syringomyelia: a review
Patients with basilar invagination were categorized into two groups based on the presence (Group A) or absence (Group B) of clinical and radiological evidence ...
[7]
Basilar invagination: a study based on 190 surgically treated ...
Basilar invagination: a study based on 190 surgically treated patients. Atul Goel. Atul Goel ... classification and management. Neurosurgery 37:1069–1074 ...
[8]
Embryological considerations and evaluation of congenital ...
Oct 15, 2020 · The most common anomaly was basilar invagination (52.3%), followed by atlanto-occipital assimilation (33.3%), and Arnold–Chiari malformation is ...
[9]
https://www.medlink.com/articles/basilar-impression
[10]
Platybasia and Basilar Invagination - ResearchGate
Aug 10, 2025 · So far, only about 20 % of patients with basilar invagination have Chiari malformation [ 105 ] . ... ... Prevalence of primary basilar ...
[11]
Basilar impression | MedLink Neurology
The first ante-mortem cases in patients were described in Europe in the early 20th century (49; 25). Basilar impression emerged in the American literature ...
[12]
Rheumatoid Arthritis of the Cervical Spine - Medscape Reference
Oct 29, 2025 · The prevalence of cervical spine involvement in RA ranges from 25% to 80%, depending on the diagnostic criteria applied. However, only 7% to 34% ...
[13]
Basilar Invagination - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Basilar invagination is defined as an occipital dysplasia characterized by the upward displacement of the margins of the foramen magnum, often resulting in ...
[14]
Novel treatment of basilar invagination resulting from an untreated C ...
A unique surgical technique was used to address simultaneously the C1-2 instability, the displaced C-1 fracture, and basilar invagination without having to ...
[15]
Revision surgery after rod breakage in a patient with occipitocervical ...
Rod breakage after occipitocervical fusion (OCF) has never been described in a patient who has undergone surgery for basilar invagination (BI) and ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[16]
skull base osteomyelitis: Topics by Science.gov
Chordomas are rare primary bone tumors that ... infections requiring surgery, but one patient underwent secondary grafting for partial bone resorption.
[17]
Chordoma cells possess bone-dissolving activity at the bone ... - NIH
Apr 23, 2024 · In chordoma, we propose that in addition to conventional bone resorption by osteoclasts, chordoma cells possess bone-dissolving activity at the tumor-bone ...Missing: basilar invagination osteomyelitis hyperparathyroidism<|separator|>
[18]
Osseous Manifestations of Primary Hyperparathyroidism: Imaging ...
Subperiosteal bone resorption corresponds to destruction of the bone underneath the cortical periosteum of long bones; it is due to increased bone turnover. The ...Missing: basilar invagination osteomyelitis chordoma
[19]
[PDF] A rare case with basilar invagination anomaly in craniocervical ...
Additionally, it could be acquired, e.g. in the following circumstances: rheumatoid arthritis, Paget's disease, traumatic injuries, hyperparathyroidism, and ...
[20]
Basilar Invagination: Instability Is the Cause and Stabilization ... - PMC
Sep 30, 2020 · Basilar invagination was associated with 'fixed' or 'irreducible' atlantoaxial joint and decompression was considered to be the treatment.Missing: definition symptoms
[21]
Rheumatoid Arthritis Affecting the Upper Cervical Spine - NIH
Oct 18, 2017 · This investigation aimed at analyzing these intervals during motion of cervical spine, when transverse and alar ligaments are damaged.
[22]
Basilar Impression - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Basilar impression is an acquired invagination of the odontoid process into the base of the skull. The depth of invagination is again described by the height ...
[23]
Basilar invagination, Chiari malformation, syringomyelia: A review
Basilar invagination forms a prominent component of the craniovertebral anomalies. Chiari malformation and syringomyelia are common associates of basilar ...
[24]
Incidence and Management of Basilar Invagination With Associated
CONCLUSION · The incidence of BI and CMI combined varies in different parts of the world: in Western Europe and United States it can be estimated at 8/100,000 ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[25]
Prevalence and natural course of craniocervical junction anomalies ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Of the three types of anomalies, basilar invagination was seen in 13%, basilar impression in 15%, and platybasia in 29% of the patients. From ...
[26]
Treatment of Basilar Invagination With Klippel-Feil Syndrome
In patients with KFS with basilar invagination (BI), compression of the brainstem and upper cervical cord results in neurological deficits, and decompression ...
[27]
Craniocervical instability in patients with Ehlers-Danlos syndromes
Jan 2, 2024 · ... Chiari malformation and basilar invagination (n = 63). Detailed CT measurements of the occipito-atlantal joints demonstrated significantly ...
[28]
Craniocervical Instability in Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome—A Systematic ...
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome (EDS) comprises a spectrum of connective ... basilar invagination and various spinal deformities, for example, segmental kyphosis.
[29]
Craniovertebral abnormalities in Down's syndrome - PubMed
The ligamentous laxity associated with atlantoaxial subluxation has been assumed as a normal occurrence in 15-20% of Down's syndrome patients.
[30]
Basilar invagination in osteogenesis imperfecta and ... - PubMed
Basilar invagination is an uncommon but devastating complication of this disease. The authors present a comprehensive strategy for management of craniovertebral ...
[31]
'Sneeze syncope', basilar invagination and Arnold-Chiari type I ... - NIH
Syncope precipitated by sneezing in an adult male associated with an Arnold-Chiari type I malformation and basilar invagination presents a clinical problem.
[32]
Dysphagia as a primary manifestation of basilar impression
The clinical course is usually progressive and the most common symptoms are asthenia, cervical pain and restricted movement, but also dysphonia, dyspnoea and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[33]
Chiari malformation and types of basilar invagination with/without ...
Prevalence of basilar invagination Type 1 signs and symptoms. Graph 3: Graph ... Goel A. Basilar invagination, chiari malformation, syringomyelia: A review.
[34]
Basilar invagination: a study based on 190 surgically treated patients
The angle of the odontoid process was measured on this line. Syringomyelia was present only in. Group II; a syrinx was identified in 51 (50%) of these cases.Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[35]
Rotational vertebral artery occlusion in a patient with basilar ...
Jan 17, 2019 · Compression of neural structures is the most relevant complication of BI. However BI is also a rare cause of ischemic stroke.
[36]
Polysomnographic respiratory findings in patients with Arnold-Chiari ...
The other two had basilar invagination. Ninety percent of these patients complained of sleep problems (snoring, choking, and witnessed apneas) and 72% presented ...
[37]
Basilar Invagination | Cedars-Sinai
It also occurs in patients with bone diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, tumors or Paget's disease.Missing: acquired infections hyperparathyroidism
[38]
Basilar Invagination - Spine Care - UCLA Health
It can be associated with a number of other conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, Chiari malformation, syringomyelia, C1-2 instability, or congenital ...
[39]
Basilar Invagination | Boston Children's Hospital
Basilar invagination is a rare condition that happens when the top of the spine presses into the base of the skull. The condition can be mild or severe.Missing: geographic consanguinity
[40]
Basilar Invagination Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments - UPMC
Basilar invagination can be mild or severe. Severe cases may need surgery. Other treatments include medication and physical therapy. Learn about the treatment ...
[41]
Craniocervical instability associated with rheumatoid arthritis
The primary goal of conservative treatment is to improve the quality of controlled motion, to limit progression, to prevent neurologic injury, and to avoid ...
[42]
A Pragmatic Neuro-Rehabilitation Approach for Basilar Invagination
Jul 15, 2023 · The chief complaints of the patient were restricted overhead activities, restricted neck ... motion in all six planes of the joint. The ...
[43]
A Pragmatic Neuro-Rehabilitation Approach for Basilar Invagination
Jul 15, 2023 · Active range of motion testing was done for the cervical and shoulder joints, which revealed decreased range of motion in all six planes of the ...
[44]
Surgical treatment of Klippel–Feil syndrome with basilar invagination
Klippel–Feil syndrome (KFS) is a congenital cervical vertebral union caused by a failure of segmentation during abnormal development and frequently accompanies ...
[45]
Diagnosing and Treating Basilar Invagination - Neurological Surgery
A primary care doctor may suspect basilar invagination based on symptoms, but an MRI or CT scan is required to confirm the diagnosis.Missing: increased | Show results with:increased
[46]
Comprehensive and integrated management of basilar impression ...
The most common causes of anomalies in the CVJ are acquired causes (such as injuries, rheumatoid arthritis, Paget's disease, and metastatic cancers) and ...<|separator|>
[47]
Posterior Only Reduction and Fixation of The Basilar Invagination ...
Aug 27, 2025 · The described posterior-only approach offers a viable and less invasive alternative for treating basilar invagination in rheumatoid ...
[48]
Surgical treatment for basilar invagination with irreducible ...
Dec 8, 2020 · Basilar invagination (BI) is a relatively common congenital or developmental anomaly of the craniocervical junction characterised by prolapse of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
Endoscopic endonasal odontoidectomy for basilar invagination in ...
Such endoscopic approach allows for a less invasive anterior decompression and seems to guarantee a better patient comfort and faster recovery than the ...
[50]
[PDF] endonasal odontoid and clivus resection for treatment of basilar ...
Oct 11, 2021 · Basilar invagination (BI) resulting in cord compression is often associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), Chiari malformations (CM), Down ...
[51]
A Review of Complications Associated With Craniocervical Fusion ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Reported complications related to this procedure include CSF leak, infection, instrumentation failure, vertebral artery injury, or C2 nerve ...
[52]
Surgery for basilar invagination with and without Chiari I ...
Regarding syringomyelia, 34.7% of patients with basilar invagination and an associated Chiari I malformation presented with a central canal dilatation without a ...CONCLUSIONS · Methods · Results · Discussion
[53]
Basilar invagination: Surgical results - PMC
### Summary on Basilar Invagination and Hydrocephalus Risk or Prevalence
[54]
Cervicomedullary angle as an independent radiological predictor of ...
Dec 18, 2019 · Type A basilar invagination is characterized by atlantoaxial instability, accompanied by dislocation of the odontoid process into the foramen ...Missing: incidence trends
[55]
Mapping, classification, and surgical strategy for vertebral artery ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Postoperative Modified Rankin Scale(mRS) and NIHSS scores are visualized using histograms. Results Ultimately, 38 patients met the inclusion ...
[56]
A Novel Technique for Basilar Invagination Treatment in a Patient ...
Basilar invagination (BI) is a congenital condition that can compress the cervicomedullary junction, leading to neurological deficits. Severe cases require ...
[57]
Long-term results of treatment of a patient with basilar invagination ...
Our objective is to study the clinical results after occipitocervical fixation with long-term follow-up and assess factors contributing to clinical success.<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
Cranial vault suspension for basilar invagination in patients ... - NIH
Nov 27, 2023 · The patient remained neurologically stable, with only residual hearing loss, and remains functionally independent. Additionally, she had a ...
[59]
[PDF] Surgical Treatment of Craniovertebral Junction Instability
Jun 21, 2010 · According to these fusion criteria, overall fusion rate was achieved in 28 patients (93%) and non-union in 2 patients (7%) at last follow-up.
[60]
Basilar invagination - Neurosurgery Blog
Patients with basilar invagination (BI) can be treated with several surgical options, ranging from simple posterior decompression to circumferential ...<|control11|><|separator|>