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Binary phase

In materials science and chemistry, a binary phase is a homogeneous portion of a material system composed of two distinct chemical elements, with uniform physical and chemical properties throughout.^[1] These phases form the building blocks of many materials and are essential in fields such as chemistry, materials science, and engineering, where they can exhibit diverse bonding types including ionic, covalent, and metallic.^[2] In materials science, binary phases are particularly studied through phase diagrams, which map their stability as a function of composition and temperature under equilibrium conditions.^[2] Binary phases can include solid solutions, intermetallic compounds, and stoichiometric compounds, and they participate in phenomena such as eutectic reactions that form mixtures influencing properties like melting points, hardness, and electrical conductivity in alloys.^[3] Notable examples include sodium chloride (NaCl), an ionic binary phase used in chemical processing, and nickel aluminide (Ni3Al), an intermetallic binary phase critical for high-temperature applications in aerospace materials.^[2] Their study enables the design of advanced materials, such as semiconductors and catalysts, by predicting phase transformations and stability under varying conditions.^[4]

Fundamentals

Definition and Terminology

A binary phase is defined as a homogeneous and physically distinct portion of matter within a thermodynamic system consisting of exactly two chemical components, such as elements or compounds, where distinct phases like solids, liquids, or gases may coexist in equilibrium. In this context, each phase maintains uniform intensive properties throughout, enabling it to be mechanically separated from other phases in the system.^[5] Key terminology in binary phase studies includes component, which denotes a chemically independent species that cannot be formed or broken down by reactions within the system; phase, referring to a region of uniform composition and physical state bounded by interfaces; and binary, indicating restriction to precisely two components. The general compositional form of such a system is expressed as A_x B_y, where A and B represent the two components and x and y denote their stoichiometric ratios, though phases may exhibit variable compositions in non-stoichiometric solutions.^[6] These terms underpin the analysis of phase stability and transitions in two-component equilibria. The foundational concept of the binary phase traces its origins to J. Willard Gibbs' development of the phase rule in the late 19th century, specifically in his 1876–1878 treatise On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, which formalized the conditions for phase coexistence in multicomponent systems.^[7] The first systematic experimental studies of binary phases emerged in the 1890s through the work of Dutch chemist Hendrik Willem Bakhuis Roozeboom, who applied Gibbs' rule to investigate heterogeneous equilibria in binary salt systems, such as ammonium bromide-ammonia mixtures, and published comprehensive analyses in Die heterogenen Gleichgewichte (1901–1904).^[8] Roozeboom's projections of phase relations onto temperature-composition planes laid the groundwork for modern binary phase representations.

Binary Systems vs. Unary Systems

Unary systems, also known as one-component systems, involve a single chemical substance, such as pure water, where phase equilibria are determined solely by temperature and pressure without compositional variation./23:_Phase_Equilibria/23.01:_A_Phase_Diagram_Summarizes_the_Solid-Liquid-Gas_Behavior_of_a_Substance) In these systems, phase transitions, like melting or boiling, occur at fixed points under specified conditions; for instance, pure water freezes at 0°C and 1 atm, marking the boundary between solid ice and liquid phases.^[9] The phase diagram for a unary system is typically represented in pressure-temperature (P-T) space, featuring areas for single phases (solid, liquid, vapor) separated by univariant equilibrium curves, and invariant points like the triple point where three phases coexist, such as ice, water, and vapor in the case of H₂O at 0.01°C and 611 Pa./23:_Phase_Equilibria/23.01:_A_Phase_Diagram_Summarizes_the_Solid-Liquid-Gas_Behavior_of_a_Substance) This setup yields one degree of freedom in single-phase regions under the Gibbs phase rule, F = C - P + 2 with C = 1, simplifying analysis to fixed transitions without alloying or mixing effects.^[10] Binary systems, in contrast, comprise two distinct chemical components, introducing overall composition as a third intensive variable alongside temperature and pressure, which fundamentally alters phase behavior by allowing variable phase boundaries.^[11] The presence of two components enables diverse interactions, such as the formation of solid solutions where atoms of both substitute in a lattice, stable intermetallic compounds with fixed stoichiometries, or immiscible phases that separate into distinct layers.^[12] For example, a water-salt binary system exhibits composition-dependent phase changes, where adding salt lowers the freezing point of water, illustrating how the second component modifies transition temperatures unlike in pure unary cases.^[13] Phase diagrams for binary systems are often depicted in temperature-composition space at constant pressure, highlighting regions of phase stability that shift with the mole or weight fraction of each component.^[11] A primary distinction lies in the degrees of freedom governed by the Gibbs phase rule: unary systems have F = 3 - P, restricting single-phase regions to one variable (e.g., temperature at fixed pressure), while binary systems offer F = 4 - P, permitting two variables like temperature and composition to define equilibria.^[10] This increased variance in binary systems means phase coexistences, such as solid-liquid interfaces, span areas or lines rather than points, as seen in the invariant triple point of unary water versus the divariant two-phase fields in binary mixtures. Consequently, unary systems exhibit rigid, composition-independent transitions ideal for pure substance studies, whereas binary systems' compositional flexibility supports applications in alloys and solutions where tunable properties are essential.^[12] The enhanced variance in binary systems facilitates experimental and theoretical investigations under isobaric (constant pressure) or isothermal (constant temperature) conditions, enabling mapping of phase fields across compositions— a capability absent in unary systems, where transitions remain pinned to specific thermodynamic points.^[13] This contrast underscores how the second component expands the thermodynamic landscape, allowing for phenomena like partial melting over a range rather than abrupt changes.^[10]

Phase Behavior

Phase Rule in Binary Systems

The Gibbs phase rule, formulated by J. Willard Gibbs, provides a fundamental relation for determining the number of independent variables, or degrees of freedom (F), that must be specified to define the equilibrium state of a multiphase, multicomponent system. In general, it is expressed as F = C - P + 2, where C is the number of components and P is the number of phases in equilibrium.^[14] For binary systems, where C = 2, the rule simplifies to F = 4 - P.^[10] This equation arises from the constraints imposed by thermodynamic equilibrium conditions, including equality of temperature, pressure, and chemical potentials across phases, as derived from the Gibbs-Duhem relation.^[14] In binary systems, the degrees of freedom dictate the dimensionality of equilibrium regions in phase space. For a single phase (P = 1), F = 3, but typically two variables such as temperature (T) and composition (x) are varied while pressure (p) is held constant, rendering the region divariant (effectively F = 2).^[10] With two phases in equilibrium (P = 2), F = 2 overall, but at fixed pressure, this becomes univariant (F = 1), corresponding to lines or curves where only one variable, such as T, can be independently specified while compositions in each phase are fixed by the tie-line rule. For three phases (P = 3), F = 1 at variable pressure but invariant (F = 0) at fixed pressure, fixing both T and overall composition at points like triple points.^[10] These cases illustrate how the rule constrains possible equilibria: divariant regions allow free variation of T and x within phase fields, univariant curves trace boundaries between phases, and invariant points mark unique coexistence conditions.^[14] The phase rule assumes a closed system at thermal, mechanical, and chemical equilibrium, with negligible effects from gravity, magnetism, or surface tension, and no chemical reactions unless independently equilibrated.^[14] In many practical applications to condensed binary systems, such as alloys or ionic solutions, pressure is fixed at 1 atm, reducing the rule to F = C - P + 1 (or F = 3 - P for binaries) since p is no longer a variable.^[10] This adjustment is valid because condensed phases exhibit low compressibility, making pressure variations insignificant compared to T and composition effects.^[14] While the phase rule is rigorously applicable to ideal or near-ideal systems in thermodynamic equilibrium, real binary systems may exhibit deviations due to non-ideal interactions, such as activity coefficient variations, which affect phase boundaries but do not alter the rule's foundational constraints. It is particularly well-suited for condensed phases where vapor contributions are minimal, providing a predictive framework for phase stability without specifying the nature of the phases involved.^[10]

Gibbs Phase Rule Applications

In binary systems, where the number of components C = 2, the Gibbs phase rule F = C - P + 2 determines the variance of phase equilibria, with P representing the number of coexisting phases. For three-phase equilibria, F = 1, resulting in univariant conditions that manifest as lines in pressure-temperature-composition (P-T-x) space, where a single intensive variable such as temperature can be varied while maintaining equilibrium among the three phases.^[15]^[14] This univariance implies that the compositions and other properties of the phases are fixed along these lines, constraining the system's behavior during processes like cooling or compression.^[10] Two-phase equilibria in binary systems yield F = 2, corresponding to divariant surfaces in P-T-x space, allowing independent variation of two variables, such as temperature and composition, while the phases coexist.^[15]^[16] Within these regions, tie-lines connect the compositions of the coexisting phases, as dictated by the phase rule, enabling identification of stable phase assemblages at given conditions. The lever rule conceptually applies here to apportion the relative amounts of each phase based on the overall composition's position along the tie-line, providing a practical means to quantify phase fractions without altering the equilibrium.^[10] For one-phase regions, F = 3, forming volumes in P-T-x space where all three variables can vary freely, representing regions of complete miscibility or single-phase stability.^[14]^[16] In real-world condensed binary systems, such as metallic alloys or ionic melts where vapor phases are negligible, pressure variations often have minimal impact due to low compressibility, effectively reducing the variance to F \approx C - P + 1.^[10] This approximation simplifies analysis in isobaric conditions, as seen in scenarios involving vapor-liquid-solid equilibria in binaries, where the phase rule still governs the transition points but pressure is held constant to focus on temperature and composition effects.^[15] Consider a hypothetical binary melt cooling under controlled (fixed) pressure: initially in a single-phase liquid state (F = 2, divariant region), the system enters a two-phase liquid-solid region (F = 1, univariant) upon crossing the liquidus boundary, where the phase rule predicts the onset of solidification, with the solid composition fixed by the tie-line at each temperature.^[10]^[14] Further cooling leads to the invariant eutectic point (F = 0), where liquid coexists with two solid phases at a specific fixed temperature, guiding the sequence of phase appearances and disappearances without deviation.^[16] This application illustrates how the phase rule anticipates the stable progression of phases during thermal processing.^[15]

Binary Phase Diagrams

Construction and Interpretation

Binary phase diagrams are constructed through a combination of experimental and computational methods to map the equilibrium phases as a function of temperature and composition. Experimental techniques primarily involve preparing alloys of varying compositions, equilibrating them at specific temperatures, and analyzing the resulting phases to delineate boundaries. Thermal analysis, such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), identifies phase transitions by measuring heat flow during controlled heating or cooling, enabling the detection of invariant points and boundary curves through cooling curves or enthalpy changes.^[17] Microscopy, including optical and electron variants, examines the microstructure of quenched or equilibrated samples to visualize phase distributions and interfaces, aiding in the precise location of solvus and solidus lines.^[17] X-ray diffraction (XRD) complements these by identifying crystalline phases in samples via their diffraction patterns, particularly useful for confirming phase identities at boundaries and resolving solid solutions.^[17] Theoretical construction employs the CALPHAD (Calculation of Phase Diagrams) approach, which models thermodynamic properties to predict phase equilibria without exhaustive experimentation. In CALPHAD, the Gibbs free energy of each phase is expressed as a function of temperature, composition, and pressure using models like the Compound Energy Formalism, with excess terms parameterized via Redlich-Kister polynomials.^[18] Experimental data, such as phase boundary measurements and calorimetric results, are optimized to fit these models through least-squares minimization, allowing extrapolation to unmeasured conditions and validation against the Gibbs phase rule for equilibrium degrees of freedom.^[18] This method facilitates the assembly of binary diagrams from assessed thermodynamic databases, ensuring consistency across systems. The standard format for binary phase diagrams is the temperature-composition (T-x) diagram, plotted at constant pressure (typically 1 atm). The vertical axis represents temperature, often in degrees Celsius or Kelvin, spanning from the melting points of the pure components to room temperature or below. The horizontal axis denotes composition, expressed as mole fraction (x) or weight percent (wt%) of one component relative to the other, ranging from 0 (pure A) to 1 (pure B).^[19] Interpreting a T-x diagram involves locating a specific composition-temperature point to predict the stable phases and microstructure. Single-phase regions, such as liquid or solid solution fields, indicate uniform phase stability across compositions at that temperature; for example, above the liquidus curve, the system is fully molten. Two-phase regions, bounded by phase boundaries like liquidus and solidus, feature coexisting phases connected by horizontal tie-lines at constant temperature, where the ends of the tie-line give the compositions of each phase in equilibrium. To predict the microstructure, apply the lever rule along the tie-line: the relative amounts of each phase are inversely proportional to the segments dividing the overall composition, providing phase fractions (e.g., for a point in the α + β region, fraction of α = (x_β - x)/(x_β - x_α)). Phase transitions occur upon crossing boundaries, such as solidification starting at the liquidus.^[19] Modern predictive construction relies on software implementing CALPHAD, such as Thermo-Calc and FactSage, which integrate assessed thermodynamic databases to compute and plot T-x diagrams efficiently. Thermo-Calc uses built-in modules and material-specific databases to generate phase boundaries by minimizing Gibbs energy, supporting rapid iterations for alloy design.^[20] FactSage's Phase Diagram module similarly calculates sections for binary systems from equilibrated databases, allowing customization of axes and phase selections for visualization.^[21]

Temperature-Composition Diagrams

Temperature-composition diagrams, also known as T-x diagrams, are the standard representation for binary phase diagrams in condensed systems, plotting temperature on the vertical axis against the composition (typically mole or weight fraction of one component) on the horizontal axis. These diagrams delineate the equilibrium phases present at various temperatures and compositions under isobaric conditions, facilitating the prediction of phase transformations during processes like cooling or heating. The liquidus line marks the boundary where solidification begins upon cooling, separating the all-liquid region from the liquid-plus-solid region, while the solidus line indicates the temperature at which solidification completes, bounding the solid-plus-liquid region from the all-solid region. Additionally, the solvus line defines the limits of solid solubility, separating regions of complete solid solution from those where two solid phases coexist due to limited mutual solubility.^[22]^[23]^[24] Isopleths, or vertical lines of constant composition, are used to trace the phase evolution for a specific overall composition as temperature changes, providing a path through the diagram that reveals the sequence of phases encountered. During cooling along an isopleth, a composition starts in the liquid region above the liquidus, enters the two-phase liquid-plus-solid region between the liquidus and solidus where partial solidification occurs, and reaches the all-solid region below the solidus. The relative amounts of phases in the two-phase region are determined by the lever rule, which states that the fraction of phase α is given by

f_{\alpha} = \frac{x - x_{\beta}}{x_{\alpha} - x_{\beta}}

where x is the overall composition, x_{\alpha} is the composition of phase α at the boundary, and x_{\beta} is the composition of the other phase β; this rule leverages the tie line connecting the phase boundaries at a given temperature to quantify phase fractions inversely proportional to segment lengths.^[22] These diagrams assume constant pressure, typically 1 atm for metallic and ceramic systems, as the isobaric condition simplifies the Gibbs phase rule by fixing one variable (P), reducing the degrees of freedom and allowing focus on temperature and composition; pressure variations are negligible for condensed phases due to their low compressibility, though they can influence phase boundaries in volatile systems. A common pitfall in interpreting T-x diagrams is confusing metastable extensions of phase boundaries—such as undercooled liquids or supersaturated solids—with true equilibrium lines, which represent the minimum Gibbs free energy states; metastable conditions arise from kinetic barriers preventing equilibrium, leading to non-equilibrium microstructures like coring or precipitation upon slow annealing.^[22]^[25]^[24]^[26]

Types of Binary Phase Diagrams

Eutectic Diagrams

In binary phase diagrams, the eutectic point represents an invariant condition (degrees of freedom F=0) where a liquid phase of a specific fixed composition is in equilibrium with two distinct solid phases, α and β, during melting or solidification.^[22] This point occurs at the eutectic temperature T_e, which marks the minimum on the liquidus curve, below the melting points of the pure components.^[27] The characteristic features of a eutectic diagram include a V-shaped liquidus formed by two descending curves from the melting points of the pure components, intersecting at the eutectic point, and a horizontal eutectic isotherm at T_e spanning the compositions of the two solid phases.^[27] At this isotherm, the invariant phase reaction proceeds as liquid (L) decomposes into the two solids: \mathrm{L \rightleftharpoons \alpha + \beta}.^[22] Below T_e, the system enters a two-phase solid region (α + β) with no further temperature change until solidification completes. During solidification of a eutectic composition, the coupled growth of the two solid phases from the liquid results in fine-scale microstructures, typically lamellar (alternating layered plates of α and β) under equilibrium cooling conditions, or divorced (coarser, more separated phases) under faster cooling or disequilibrium.^[28] A representative example is the Pb-Sn system used in solders, where the eutectic occurs at 61.9 wt% Sn and 183°C, forming a lamellar microstructure of alternating Pb-rich (α) and Sn-rich (β) lamellae that provides desirable low-melting and wetting properties.^[29] Thermodynamically, the eutectic melting point depression arises from the mutual solubility of the components in the liquid phase, which lowers the chemical potential of the liquid relative to the solids, stabilizing it at temperatures below those of the pure components and enabling the invariant reaction at T_e.^[22] This effect is driven by the Gibbs free energy minimization, where the addition of a second component depresses the liquidus of each pure phase until they converge.^[22]

Peritectic and Congruent Melting Diagrams

In binary phase diagrams, a peritectic reaction represents an invariant transformation occurring at a fixed temperature and composition, where a liquid phase in equilibrium with a solid phase (denoted as α, the pro-peritectic phase) reacts to form a new solid phase (β): L + α → β upon cooling. This reaction typically takes place at a temperature higher than any eutectic point in the system and is characterized by a horizontal platform on the temperature-composition diagram, delineating the peritectic isotherm where the three phases coexist in equilibrium.^[30] Peritectic reactions are prevalent in systems exhibiting significant differences in the melting points of the constituent elements, leading to the formation of intermediate phases with distinct stoichiometries.^[31] During the solidification process in a peritectic system, alloys with compositions between the liquidus line and the peritectic composition first encounter the pro-peritectic phase α precipitating from the liquid as cooling proceeds from the liquidus temperature. Upon reaching the peritectic temperature, the remaining liquid, now enriched toward the peritectic composition, reacts with the surrounding α dendrites to produce the β phase, which grows at the interface between the liquid and α. However, due to the limited diffusion rates in the solid phases, this reaction is frequently incomplete, resulting in microstructures where unreacted α cores are enveloped by a layer of β, and excess liquid may solidify into other phases below the peritectic temperature.^[30] For compositions richer in the second component beyond the peritectic point, the β phase nucleates directly from the liquid, potentially leading to a layered structure upon further cooling.^[30] A representative example of a peritectic reaction is observed in the Ni-Sn binary system, where at 798°C, the liquid phase reacts with the primary Ni₃Sn₂ phase (α) to form the β phase (Ni₃Sn₄): L + Ni₃Sn₂ → Ni₃Sn₄. This transformation highlights the role of peritectics in forming intermetallic compounds critical for applications in lead-free solders and electronic interconnects.^[32] Congruent melting, in contrast, describes the direct transformation of an intermediate solid compound into a liquid of identical composition without decomposition into multiple phases, appearing as a local maximum on the phase diagram at the stoichiometric composition of the compound. This phenomenon signifies the thermodynamic stability of the intermediate phase across the solid-liquid boundary, allowing it to exist as a line compound with negligible solubility range. Congruent points are indicative of stable binary phases, such as AB or A₂B stoichiometries, where the compound's melting behavior dominates the diagram's topology, often flanked by peritectic or eutectic reactions on either side. In systems featuring congruent melting, solidification of an alloy exactly at the compound's composition proceeds via direct nucleation and growth of the solid phase from the undercooled liquid, yielding a single-phase microstructure upon complete crystallization. Deviations from this composition lead to primary precipitation of the congruent phase followed by invariant reactions involving the liquid and adjacent terminal phases. An illustrative case is the Mg-Si system, where the intermetallic Mg₂Si undergoes congruent melting at 1102°C, forming a liquid of the same Mg:Si ratio (2:1), which is significant for lightweight structural alloys and thermoelectric materials due to Mg₂Si's high melting point and low density.^[33]^[34]

Key Features and Phenomena

Solid Solutions and Phase Boundaries

In binary phase diagrams, solid solutions represent regions where two components are miscible in the solid state, either completely or partially, forming homogeneous phases without distinct boundaries between the constituents. Complete solid solutions, also known as isomorphous systems, occur when the solute atoms can substitute for solvent atoms across the entire composition range at certain temperatures, leading to a single-phase field bounded by liquidus and solidus lines. These systems adhere to the Hume-Rothery rules, which include: (1) the atomic radii of the solvent and solute differing by less than 15%, (2) both elements possessing the same crystal structure, (3) similar electronegativities to minimize compound formation, and (4) the same valence for effective electron sharing.^[35]^[36] A classic example is the copper-nickel (Cu-Ni) system, where both metals have face-centered cubic (FCC) structures, atomic radii differing by about 2.6%, and similar electronegativities (1.9 for Cu and 1.8 for Ni), enabling unlimited mutual solubility in the solid state and forming a continuous solid solution phase.^[37]^[35] In contrast, partial solid solutions exhibit limited miscibility, resulting in a solvus line that delineates the boundary between a single solid solution phase (e.g., α) and a two-phase region (α + β), where the second phase precipitates beyond the solubility limit.^[22] Phase boundaries in binary temperature-composition (T-x) diagrams define the extents of these solid solution fields. The liquidus line marks the temperature below which the first solid begins to form from the liquid, separating the all-liquid region from the liquid-plus-solid region.^[22] The solidus line indicates the temperature at which the last liquid solidifies, bounding the solid-plus-liquid region from the all-solid region.^[22] The solvus line, specific to solid phases, separates the single solid solution from the multiphase solid region, often curving due to temperature-dependent solubility.^[22] The slopes of these boundaries reflect solute partitioning during phase transformations; the partition coefficient k = \frac{x_{\text{solid}}}{x_{\text{liquid}}} quantifies the distribution, where k < 1 for most solutes leads to a steeper liquidus slope and solute enrichment in the remaining liquid, while k > 1 enriches the solid.^[38]^[39] Solid solutions can be substitutional or interstitial, differing in atomic arrangement and degree of order. Substitutional solid solutions involve solute atoms replacing solvent atoms on lattice sites, typically disordered with random occupancy at high temperatures but potentially ordering into superlattices at lower temperatures due to energetic preferences for specific site occupations.^[40]^[41] Interstitial solid solutions form when smaller solute atoms occupy voids between solvent atoms, often limited to low concentrations (e.g., carbon in iron) and maintaining disorder unless ordering occurs.^[40]^[37] In the Cu-Ni system, the solid solution is a disordered substitutional type, with atoms randomly distributed on the FCC lattice.^[37] Crossing a solvus boundary during slow cooling can lead to precipitation phenomena, such as Widmanstätten structures, where fine, oriented plates of the second phase nucleate and grow within the parent solid solution matrix, enhancing mechanical properties through controlled microstructure. These structures are observed in systems like iron-nickel alloys or titanium-based systems, resulting from diffusion-limited growth across the solvus.^[42]

Invariant Points and Reactions

In binary phase diagrams, invariant points occur where the degrees of freedom are zero (F=0) according to the Gibbs phase rule, meaning three phases coexist in equilibrium at a fixed temperature and composition under isobaric conditions.^[43] These points represent critical locations where phase transformations proceed without changes in temperature or overall composition, distinguishing them from regions with two-phase equilibria. Common invariant points include triple points, where three phases meet, such as in eutectic or peritectic reactions.^[44] Key types of invariant points encompass eutectics, peritectics, and eutectoids. A eutectic point involves the transformation of a liquid phase into two solid phases upon cooling, denoted as L \rightarrow \alpha + \beta, occurring at the lowest melting temperature in the system.^[22] Peritectic points feature a solid and liquid reacting to form a different solid, expressed as \alpha + L \rightarrow \beta, often leading to incomplete reactions in practice due to diffusion limitations.^[45] Eutectoid points, occurring entirely in the solid state, involve one solid phase decomposing into two others, such as \gamma \rightarrow \alpha + \mathrm{Fe_3C} in the iron-carbon system at 727°C, forming the lamellar microstructure known as pearlite.^[46] Other reaction types at invariant points include monotectic and syntectic transformations. Monotectic reactions occur when one liquid phase decomposes into a solid and another liquid, written as L_1 \rightarrow L_2 + \alpha, typically in systems with limited liquid miscibility. Syntectic reactions, less common, involve two solid phases combining to form a liquid, represented as \alpha + \beta \rightarrow L, often associated with retrograde solubility behaviors where phase boundaries curve backward with temperature. These reactions highlight the diversity of invariant equilibria in binary systems, each governed by thermodynamic stability at the specific point. Non-equilibrium conditions during solidification deviate from these invariant behaviors, as described by the Scheil equation, which assumes complete mixing in the liquid but no diffusion in the solid, leading to solute segregation and microsegregation. Conceptually, the equation predicts the fraction of solidified material f_s as f_s = 1 - \left( \frac{C_L}{C_0} \right)^{1/(k-1)}, where C_0 is the initial alloy composition, C_L is the liquid composition at f_s, and k is the partition coefficient; this results in higher solute concentrations in the last-to-solidify regions compared to equilibrium lever rule predictions.^[47] Metastable extensions of phase boundaries arise under non-equilibrium cooling, where undercooling below the invariant temperature suppresses nucleation, extending liquidus and solidus lines into regions of potential supercooling. This phenomenon facilitates glass formation in binary alloys by avoiding crystallization, particularly in systems with deep eutectics, as the undercooled liquid can kinetically bypass stable phase transformations to form an amorphous solid.^[48]

Examples and Applications

Metallic Alloys

Binary phase diagrams have played a pivotal role in the development of metallic alloys since the early 1900s, enabling precise control over microstructures to achieve desired mechanical properties such as strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance.^[49] These diagrams guide alloy design by revealing phase boundaries, invariant reactions, and solubility limits, which inform heat treatment processes and composition selection for industrial applications. For instance, the discovery of age-hardening in the Al-Cu system in 1906 by Alfred Wilm demonstrated how precipitation from a supersaturated solid solution could dramatically increase hardness, revolutionizing lightweight structural alloys for aerospace and automotive uses.^[50] In the Cu-Zn system, which forms the basis of brass alloys, partial solid solutions exist in the α phase (Cu-rich FCC structure) with up to approximately 38 wt% Zn solubility at around 458°C, decreasing at lower temperatures.^[51] A key feature is the α-β eutectoid reaction at approximately 460°C, where the high-temperature β phase (BCC structure) decomposes into α and γ phases, influencing the alloy's two-phase microstructure.^[52] This eutectoid enables brasses with 30-40 wt% Zn to exhibit enhanced ductility and machinability, making them suitable for architectural fittings, musical instruments, and marine hardware where formability under deformation is essential. The Fe-C binary system underpins steel production, featuring a pearlitic eutectoid at 727°C and 0.76 wt% C, where austenite (γ phase) transforms into alternating lamellae of ferrite (α phase) and cementite (Fe₃C).^[53] Cementite acts as a congruent intermetallic phase with near-stoichiometric composition, stable across a wide temperature range up to its metastable melting point, and forms the basis for hardened microstructures.^[54] Phase boundaries in this system, particularly the austenite solubility limits for carbon (up to 2.1 wt% at 1147°C), are critical for heat treatments like quenching and tempering, allowing control of pearlite spacing to balance strength and toughness in tools, structural beams, and automotive components.^[55] For casting applications, the Al-Si system exhibits a simple eutectic diagram with the reaction occurring at 12.6 wt% Si and 577°C, producing a microstructure of primary aluminum dendrites and eutectic (Al + Si) in hypoeutectic alloys (below 12.6 wt% Si).^[56] This composition yields excellent castability due to low shrinkage and fluidity, with silicon providing wear resistance; common in engine blocks and pistons, where hypoeutectic variants (e.g., 7-12 wt% Si) form fine dendrites during solidification to minimize porosity.^[57] The limited solubility of Si in Al (maximum 1.65 wt% at the eutectic temperature, dropping to near zero at room temperature) ensures phase stability, supporting modifications like strontium addition for refined eutectic silicon morphology.^[58]

Ceramic and Geological Systems

In ceramic systems, binary phase diagrams provide critical insights into the high-temperature behavior of non-metallic compounds, particularly oxides used in advanced materials processing. A representative example is the SiO₂-Al₂O₃ system, where the intermediate compound mullite (3Al₂O₃·2SiO₂) exhibits a limited solid solution range and melts incongruently at 1810°C, decomposing into a liquid of approximately 94 wt% SiO₂ and corundum (Al₂O₃). This phase diagram, established through early experimental work, highlights the stability of mullite up to its peritectic point, influencing the design of alumina-silica refractories that withstand extreme thermal conditions due to mullite's high melting point and low thermal expansion.^[59] Mullite-based ceramics are extensively applied in refractories for furnaces and kilns, leveraging the phase boundaries to optimize creep resistance and chemical durability.^[60] Another illustrative binary system in ceramics and related aqueous environments is NaCl-H₂O, which features a simple eutectic diagram with no intermediate compounds. The eutectic point occurs at -21.1°C and 23.3 wt% NaCl, where ice (H₂O) and hydrohalite (NaCl·2H₂O) solidify simultaneously from the melt, enabling precise control over freezing behaviors. This configuration underlies applications in freezing point depression, such as in salt-based de-icing solutions, where the phase diagram predicts the lowest temperature for complete solidification and the resulting brine concentration.^[61] In geological contexts, binary phase diagrams elucidate the formation and evolution of silicate minerals under mantle and crustal conditions. The olivine solid solution series, spanning forsterite (Mg₂SiO₄) to fayalite (Fe₂SiO₄) as (Mg,Fe)₂SiO₄, forms a complete miscibility gap-free range that dominates upper mantle peridotites, with compositions typically 90-10 mol% Mg₂SiO₄ in primitive mantle rocks. This series reflects continuous solid solution driven by ionic substitution, allowing olivine to record mantle oxidation states and thermal histories through its Fe-Mg partitioning. Peritectic reactions involving olivine, such as olivine + melt → orthopyroxene + melt, are pivotal in igneous differentiation, where they facilitate fractional crystallization and magma compositional shifts during ascent and cooling in volcanic systems.^[62]^[63] Binary phase diagrams in ceramic and geological systems enable predictive modeling for practical outcomes. In ceramics, they inform sintering processes by delineating liquid-phase formation and phase assemblages, as seen in mullite systems where controlled heating avoids deleterious reactions to achieve dense, high-strength microstructures for structural applications. In geology, these diagrams trace magmatic crystallization paths, simulating how peritectic equilibria in olivine-bearing systems drive the generation of diverse igneous rock types from basaltic parents.^[64]^[63]

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Historic Note No. 1: Gibbs' Phase Rule - Thermo-Calc Software
This article is the first in a three-part series tracing the evolution of CALPHAD from the Gibbs Phase Rule to the first lattice stabilities.
[9]
(PDF) Hendrik-Willem Bakhuis Roozeboom: Equilibrium and Phase ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Hendrik-Willem Bakhuis Roozeboom (1854–1907) is well known for his applications of the phase rule to the study of heterogeneous equilibrium.
[10]
Unary Phase Diagrams - Learn Metallurgy
Unary phase diagrams are for single-component systems, with no composition variable. The only variables are temperature and pressure.
[11]
The Gibbs phase rule
In a unary system (where a material of a single composition is considered) the number of components is one. In a binary system (like where two metals are mixed ...
[12]
Binary Phase Diagrams - Learn Metallurgy
The phase diagrams which based on two components system are called binary phase diagrams. Here, the two compenents can be mixed in a infinite number of ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[13]
Binary Phase Equilibria Tutorial - CalTech GPS
In a binary system we can have one-phase regions where the phase can have any composition at fixed P and T or two-phase regions where both phase compositions ...
[14]
8 Phase Equilibria and Phase Diagrams – Open Petrology
Unary systems, contain only one component. We typically depict them on pressure-temperature phase diagrams. Binary systems involve two chemical components. We ...Mineral Melting · Phase Equilibria · Extensive Variables and... · Binary Systems
[15]
Gibbs' Phase Rule: Where it all Begins - SERC (Carleton)
Aug 8, 2007 · Gibbs' Phase Rule provides the theoretical foundation, based in thermodynamics, for characterizing the chemical state of a (geologic) system.
[16]
13.1: The Gibbs Phase Rule for Multicomponent Systems
### Summary of Gibbs Phase Rule Applications in Binary Systems (C=2)
[17]
1.3 Gibbs phase rule - Hyper-TVT
The Gibbs phase rule refers to the so-called intensive variables. Pressure, temperature and composition are intensive variables since they do not depend on the ...
[18]
Chapter 12: Phase Diagram Determination - ASM Digital Library
A phase diagram can be constructed by preparing alloys of the required constituents, heat treating them at high temperatures to reach equilibria, and then ...
[19]
CALPHAD Method
The CALPHAD method (an acronym for CALculation of PHAse Diagrams) is a computational framework developed to model the phase stability and thermodynamic ...
[20]
How to Interpret Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams - Deringer-Ney Inc.
Feb 8, 2022 · Binary alloy phase diagrams are maps relating composition and temperature to microstructure. They have two axes: composition (x-axis) and ...
[21]
CALPHAD Software and Databases
Thermo-Calc Software's CALPHAD software and databases allow you to make thermodynamic calculations to better understand materials properties.Thermodynamics Software · How to Cite Thermo-Calc · Thermodynamic Databases
[22]
FactSage Software and Databases
FactSage products. "Phase Diagrams and Thermodynamic Modeling of Solutions", book by Arthur Pelton. Home; About FactSage. General information · FactSage Modules ...Purchase FactSage · FactSage Modules · FactSage products · General information
[23]
2 Component Phase Diagrams - Tulane University
Feb 7, 2011 · TWO COMPONENT (BINARY) PHASE DIAGRAMS. This document last updated on 07-Feb-2011. Experimental Determination of 2-Component Phase Diagrams. As ...
[24]
nglos324 - solvus
The solvus line represents the locus of solubility limits for the solid solutions in a multicomponent system. For the copper-silver binary system shown two ...Missing: explanation | Show results with:explanation
[25]
[PDF] Chapter 9: Phase Diagrams
Determining phase composition in 2-phase region: 1. Draw the tie line. 2. Note where the tie line intersects the liquidus and solidus lines (i.e. where the ...Missing: Tx | Show results with:Tx
[26]
An Introduction to Phase Equilibrium
For a single component (like quartz or ice) a unary phase diagram can be constructed by determining which phases are stable over a range of temperatures and ...
[27]
[PDF] what equilibrium state do we get?
▻ Equilibrium phase diagrams represents relations between temperature, pressure, compositions and quantities of phases ... Metastable phase: at~700 °C ...Missing: common pitfalls
[28]
Binary Eutectic Phase Diagrams
A binary eutectic phase diagram shows the chemical behavior of two unmixable crystals from a mixable melt, with the eutectic point where all three phases exist ...
[29]
Development of Microstructure In Binary Eutectic Alloy - PT TENSOR
Sep 30, 2024 · The final microstructure of a eutectic Pb-Sn alloy solidified under equilibrium conditions is a uniform, fine, lamellar (or rod-like) eutectic ...
[30]
09mae324 - PD23
For this system the eutectic invariant temperature is 183 C, and the composition of the eutectic alloy is Pb-61.9 wt % Sn. · Two regions exist in which ...
[31]
Phase diagrams 3 - peritectic reactions
The peritectic reaction involves a liquid phase and two solid phases, however in the peritectic reaction the composition of the liquid phase lies outside of ...
[32]
Peritectic Reaction - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Peritectic reactions often occur when there is a large difference in melting point between the two components. On the phase diagram the peritectic reaction ...
[33]
On migration of primary/peritectic interface during interrupted ...
Apr 14, 2016 · %Ni alloy begins at TL = 1040 °C with a primary precipitation of Ni3Sn2 phase: L → Ni3Sn2; followed by a peritectic reaction at TP = 798 °C: L + ...
[34]
[PDF] Synthesis of MgSiN2 Powders from the Mg-Si System
Jan 29, 2018 · A large amount of Si was present at 1100˚C; given that the melting point of. Mg2Si is 1102˚C, it can be speculated that the decomposition of ...
[35]
Tailoring microstructure and tensile properties of Mg-Si alloys ...
Sep 21, 2021 · Moreover, there are two (2) eutectic reactions, L → Mg + Mg2Si and L → Mg2Si + Si, in addition to three (3) congruent melting: Mg → L (650 °C), ...
[36]
[PDF] Chapter 9: Phase Diagrams
Pure liquid water: a single phase system. Pure iced water: two-phase system - ice and water. Sugary water: single phase system - water with dissolved sugar.
[37]
34. Binary Phase Diagrams: Complete Solubility | Introduction to ...
This page contains materials for the solid solutions class session introducing binary phase diagrams with a focus on the complete solubility case.
[38]
Solid Solutions (all content)
The α phase is a substitutional solid solution. This occurs because both the Cu and Ni form face centred cubic structures, and have similar atomic radii, ...
[39]
Solidification of Alloys (all content)
The phase diagram shows that the system has a partition coefficient greater than one, so the first solid formed is nickel rich (more impurity), and the final ...
[40]
[PDF] Module 22 Solidification & Binary Phase Diagrams V | Tushar Aneyrao
Recall that the partition coefficient k is assumed to be constant. Therefore at any temperature the composition of the solid is given by . On substitution ...
[41]
Chapter 3: Solid Solutions - ASM Digital Library
When a metal is alloyed with another metal, either substitutional or interstitial solid solutions are usually formed. This chapter discusses the general ...
[42]
Ordering in substitutional and interstitial solid solutions - NASA ADS
Attention is given to thermodynamic parameters in a discussion of ordering in substitutional and interstitial solid solutions.
[43]
[PDF] Effect of tungsten dissolution on the mechanical properties of Ti–W ...
Widmanstätten structure (typical of Ti alloys slowly cooled from the ß-phase field [8]) and 2.25 vol.% W particles con- taining some Ti in solid solution.
[44]
13.2: Phase Diagrams- Binary Systems - Chemistry LibreTexts
Apr 12, 2022 · A binary system has two components and a phase diagram is a 2D map showing stable phases, usually temperature-composition or pressure- ...
[45]
Phase Diagrams Invariant Reactions
The vertical green bar identifies the composition required for the invariant reaction, the horizontal line is the temperature of the reaction, and the phase ...
[46]
Invariant Reaction - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
There are two general types of three-phase invariants in binary phase diagrams. These are the eutectic-type and peritectic-type invariants as illustrated in Fig ...
[47]
Eutectoid Reaction - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Below 1 340°F, 727°C, the remaining austenite transforms to pearlite. ... Representation of the Fe-C phase diagram with schematic illustrations of ...7.7 Eutectoid Decomposition · Rolling Bearing Mechanics · 3.4. 1.1 Eutectoid...
[48]
The Scheil Equation - DoITPoMS
The Scheil equation, which describes the composition of the solid and liquid during solidification, as a function of the fraction solidified.Missing: equilibrium | Show results with:equilibrium
[49]
The relation between the glass forming ability and nucleation ...
Jun 5, 2023 · We have demonstrated that the glass forming ability of Mg–Zn–Yb alloys strongly depends on the metastable phase diagram of QCs and their nucleation kinetics.
[50]
(PDF) The Fe-C diagram – History of its evolution - ResearchGate
It is believed that the first complete diagram was presented in 1897 by Roberts-Austen. Later, with the use of X-ray methods and microscopy, the Fe-C diagram ...
[51]
Equilibrium Cu-Zn phase diagram [5] - ResearchGate
The αCu phase substitutionally dissolves up to 38 % of Zn in FCC lattice at 458 °C. The solid solubility of Zn decreases with temperature. A disordered β phase ...Missing: eutectoid 460°
[52]
Beta Phase - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Below about 460°C, the stable crystal structure involves one atom type at the unit cell center and the other type at the cell corners. (This involves a total of ...
[53]
[PDF] The iron-iron carbide (Fe-Fe3C) phase diagram Microstructures of iron
For a 99.6 wt% Fe-0.40 wt% C at a temperature just below the eutectoid, determine the following a) composition of Fe3C and ferrite (α).
[54]
the iron carbon equilibrium diagram | Total Materia
The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram represents the metastable equilibrium between iron and iron carbide (cementite).
[55]
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram - explanation - Industrial Metallurgists
Furthermore, the diagram indicates that as an alloy with 0.78% carbon is slow cooled from 900 °C, it will transform to ferrite and cementite at about 727 °C.
[56]
[PDF] The Al-Si Phase Diagram - Buehler
The melting points of Al and Si are, respectively, 660.45 and 1414 °C, while the eutectic reaction occurs at 12.6 wt. % Si and 577 ± 1 °C2. The maximum ...
[57]
The aluminium (Al)-silicon (Si) phase diagram - ResearchGate
The Al-Si phase diagram ( Fig. 6) [30] shows that the eutectic reaction takes place at 12.6 wt% of silicon concentration at a temperature of 577 °C.
[58]
The Al-Si Phase Diagram
The melting points of Al and Si are, respectively, 660.45 and 1414 C, while the eutectic reaction occurs at 12.6 wt. % Si and 577 1 C. The maximum solubility of ...
[59]
[PDF] American Journal of Science
lite (3Al2O3 2SiO2), which melts incongruently at 1810° 10°C. to corun ... No melting or observable dissociation of K.O.Al2O3 was found at 1650°C.,. 3.
[60]
Revised Phase Diagram for the System Al 2 O 3 —SiO 2
Mullite melts congruently at 1850°C. The extent of equilibrium solid solution in mullite at solidus temperature is from approximately 60 mole % Al2O3 (3/2 ratio) ...
[61]
A quantitative analysis on latent heat of an aqueous binary mixture
The eutectic concentration of NaCl–water binary mixture is composed of 23.3% NaCl and 76.7% water in weight percentage. It can also be expressed as a ...
[62]
Olivine - (Fe,Mg) 2 SiO 4 - ALEX STREKEISEN
Olivines are an important rock-forming mineral group. Magnesium-rich olivines are abundant in low-silica mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks.Missing: Mg2SiO4- | Show results with:Mg2SiO4-
[63]
Magmatic Differentiation - Tulane University
Jan 30, 2012 · ... olivine would react with the liquid to produce orthopyroxene. Bowen postulated that with further cooling pyroxene would react with the ...
[64]
[PDF] Applications of phase diagrams in metallurgy and ceramics Volume 1
The proceedings of a Workshop on Applications of Phase Diagrams in. Metallurgy and Ceramics, held at the National Bureau of Standards,. Gaithersburg ,.