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Thermal analysis

Thermal analysis is a group of techniques in which a property of a sample is monitored against time or temperature while the temperature of the sample, in a specified atmosphere, is programmed.^[1] These methods measure changes in physical or chemical properties, such as mass, heat flow, or dimensions, to characterize materials under controlled thermal conditions.^[2] Originating from early calorimetric experiments around 1789 by Lavoisier and formalized as thermal analysis in 1887 by Le Châtelier, the field has evolved into an interdisciplinary domain essential for materials science and related disciplines.^[1] The historical development of thermal analysis accelerated after World War II with advancements in automation, signal recording, and instrumentation, leading to standardized nomenclature by the International Confederation for Thermal Analysis (ICTA) following its inaugural conference in 1965, with the organization later renamed the International Confederation for Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry (ICTAC) in 1992 to integrate calorimetry.^[1] Key milestones include the introduction of differential thermal analysis (DTA) in 1899, thermogravimetry in 1915, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) in the mid-20th century, driven by needs in industries like metallurgy and polymers.^[1] Today, the field continues to advance with sample-controlled thermal analysis (SCTA) and coupled techniques like thermogravimetry-mass spectrometry (TG-MS), supported by computational tools for kinetic modeling.^[3] Prominent techniques in thermal analysis include: These methods often employ kinetic models, such as isoconversional approaches (e.g., Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose or Flynn-Wall-Ozawa), to analyze reaction rates and activation energies without assuming specific mechanisms.^[3] Applications of thermal analysis span diverse fields, including polymer characterization for thermal stability and vulcanization in the rubber industry, phase fraction determination in metallurgy, and stability assessment in pharmaceuticals.^[2] In ceramics and glass manufacturing, it optimizes firing processes and studies devitrification, while in energy sectors, it evaluates fuel decomposition and catalyst performance.^[1] Biological and environmental uses include analyzing enzymatic reactions, flame retardants, and even ancient artifacts like papyrus for degradation studies, underscoring its role in quality control, research, and process optimization.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and principles

Thermal analysis (TA) encompasses a group of techniques that measure the physical or chemical properties of materials—such as mass, dimensions, heat flow, or mechanical response—as a function of temperature (or time) while the sample is subjected to a controlled heating or cooling program. These methods reveal how materials respond to thermal stimuli, enabling the characterization of stability, transitions, and reactions under defined conditions like programmed temperature rates and atmospheres. At its core, thermal analysis relies on principles from thermodynamics and kinetics, focusing on phenomena like heat capacity, phase transitions, thermal stability, and decomposition. Heat capacity, a measure of the energy required to raise the temperature of a material, is quantified by the equation q = m C_p \Delta T, where q is the heat transferred, m is the mass, C_p is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure, and \Delta T is the temperature change; this property helps identify baseline thermal behavior before transitions occur.^[4] Phase transitions, such as melting or crystallization, involve changes in molecular order and are classified as endothermic (absorbing heat, e.g., melting disrupts lattice structure) or exothermic (releasing heat, e.g., crystallization forms ordered structures).^[5] Thermal stability assesses resistance to degradation, while decomposition tracks bond breaking, often linked to molecular structure—stronger intermolecular forces delay transitions, and reaction kinetics govern the rate of these events under thermal stress.^[6] Measurements in thermal analysis use standardized units, including kelvin (K) or degrees Celsius (°C) for temperature, watts (W) or milliwatts (mW) for heat flow (often normalized as mW/mg), and milligrams (mg) for sample mass, ensuring comparability across studies. Controlled atmospheres, such as inert gases (e.g., nitrogen) to prevent oxidation or oxidative environments (e.g., air) to simulate real-world conditions, significantly influence outcomes by altering reaction pathways and thermal events. These principles provide foundational insights into how molecular architecture and kinetic barriers dictate material behavior, prerequisite for interpreting technique-specific data without requiring detailed instrumentation knowledge.

Historical development

The foundations of thermal analysis lie in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when scientists began systematically studying heat effects through calorimetry. Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace invented the ice calorimeter in the 1780s to quantify heat production in chemical reactions and respiration, laying groundwork for measuring thermal changes in materials.^[7] These early efforts focused on thermometry to observe phase transitions and heat capacities, influencing later quantitative techniques.^[8] A pivotal milestone occurred in 1887, when French chemist Henri Le Chatelier developed the first differential thermal analysis (DTA) apparatus to investigate thermal events during the firing of clays, such as kaolin and halloysite.^[9] Le Chatelier's method involved recording temperature differences between a sample and an inert reference during controlled heating, enabling detection of endothermic and exothermic processes like dehydration and phase changes.^[10] This innovation, initially applied to ceramic materials, established DTA as a core thermal analysis technique and inspired subsequent refinements, including thermocouple-based systems by researchers like William Chandler Roberts-Austen in 1899.^[11] In the mid-20th century, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) saw significant advancements and commercialization, particularly for monitoring mass changes during polymer degradation under heat, building on its initial development in 1915 by Japanese metallurgist Kôtaro Honda, who created the first thermobalance for studying thermal stability in high-temperature inorganic materials such as metals and ceramics.^[12] Concurrently, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was theorized and invented in 1962 by E.S. Watson and M.J. O'Neill at PerkinElmer, introducing power-compensated calorimetry to directly measure heat flow differences between sample and reference.^[13] PerkinElmer commercialized the DSC-1 instrument in 1963 at the Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, accelerating its adoption for precise enthalpy determinations. The establishment of the International Confederation for Thermal Analysis (ICTA) in 1965 during its inaugural conference in Aberdeen, Scotland, marked a key organizational milestone, fostering global collaboration and later evolving into the International Confederation for Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry (ICTAC) in 1992.^[14] ICTA promoted standardized terminology and practices, including nomenclature committees that influenced subsequent guidelines.^[15] In the modern era, post-1980s advancements integrated thermal analysis with hyphenated techniques, such as TGA coupled with mass spectrometry (TGA-MS), building on early 1960s experiments like those by Zitomer in 1968 to identify evolved gases during decomposition.^[16] This evolution enabled detailed mechanistic studies, with TGA-MS becoming routine for volatile analysis in materials science by the 1990s. By the 2000s, instruments shifted toward automation and high resolution, exemplified by TA Instruments' Q-Series DSCs and TGAs, which incorporated software-controlled stepwise isothermal modes for enhanced decomposition resolution.^[17] Standardization efforts intensified in the 1970s and 1990s through bodies like ASTM International and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ASTM E967, first issued in the late 1970s for DSC temperature calibration using metal standards like indium, ensured reproducible onset measurements.^[18] Similarly, ASTM E1131 (1990s) standardized TGA procedures for plastics, while ISO developed complementary norms, such as ISO 11358 for TGA of polymers, promoting harmonized testing protocols across industries.^[19] These standards, informed by ICTAC recommendations, solidified thermal analysis as a reliable quantitative tool.^[20]

Techniques

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a thermoanalytical technique that measures the difference in heat flow between a sample and an inert reference material as they are subjected to a controlled temperature program. This method quantifies the energy absorbed or released during thermal events such as phase transitions, allowing for the determination of thermodynamic properties like heat capacity and enthalpy changes. Developed in the early 1960s, DSC provides quantitative data on heat flow rates, distinguishing it from earlier differential thermal analysis (DTA) by delivering absolute calorimetric measurements rather than relative temperature differences.^[21]^[22] DSC instruments operate in two primary modes: power-compensated and heat-flux. In power-compensated DSC, the sample and reference are placed in separate furnaces, where independent heating elements maintain them at the same temperature; any difference in electrical power supplied to the sample furnace compensates for endothermic or exothermic events, directly yielding heat flow data. Heat-flux DSC, by contrast, uses a single furnace with the sample and reference positioned on a shared thermoelectric disk or platform; heat flow is measured via the temperature difference (ΔT) across a thermal resistor using the relation q = ΔT / R, where q is the heat flow rate and R is the thermal resistance. Typical instrumentation includes sample pans made of aluminum (open or hermetic to contain volatiles) holding 1–20 mg of material, a purge gas such as nitrogen to maintain an inert atmosphere and facilitate heat transfer, and temperature ranges spanning -180°C to 700°C, depending on the model. Scan rates, commonly 10°C/min, influence peak resolution and transition temperatures, with slower rates improving accuracy for subtle events like glass transitions.^[22]^[23]^[24] The enthalpy change (ΔH) associated with a thermal transition is calculated by integrating the excess heat flow (after baseline subtraction to remove the underlying heat capacity contribution) over temperature or time. For discrete events like melting, this involves peak area integration. Endothermic transitions, such as melting (T_m) or glass transition (T_g)—the latter appearing as a baseline step increase in heat capacity—are represented as upward peaks in heat-flow thermograms (convention varies by instrument), while exothermic events like crystallization (T_c) show downward peaks. Factors like scan rate affect resolution; for instance, faster rates broaden peaks and shift T_g to higher temperatures due to kinetic limitations. In data interpretation, baseline construction is critical for accurate ΔH_m quantification, often using linear or sigmoidal fits between pre- and post-transition regions. For purity assessment in pharmaceuticals, DSC applies the Van't Hoff equation to analyze melting point depression caused by impurities, using fractional melting plots of temperature versus the reciprocal of the melted fraction to determine impurity levels.^[25]^[22]^[26] DSC complements techniques like thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) by providing energetic insights into transitions, while TGA addresses mass changes.^[22]

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measures the mass of a sample as a function of temperature or time under a controlled atmosphere, providing insights into thermal stability, decomposition pathways, and material composition. The technique utilizes a precision microbalance integrated into a furnace system, where the sample is heated or held at specific conditions while continuously recording mass changes. These changes arise from processes such as evaporation, desorption, decomposition, or oxidation, enabling the quantification of volatile content, residue formation, and reaction kinetics.^[27] Decomposition in TGA follows kinetic models, commonly described by the Arrhenius equation for the rate constant k = A \exp\left(-\frac{E_a}{RT}\right), where A is the pre-exponential factor, E_a is the activation energy, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. Activation energy is determined from mass-loss curves through methods like isoconversional analysis, involving multiple dynamic experiments at varying heating rates to plot parameters such as \ln(\beta / T^2) versus $1/T, where \beta is the heating rate; the slope yields -E_a / R. Mass-loss profiles often reveal multi-stage processes, with percentage losses indicating fractions like volatiles or char residue, essential for compositional analysis.^[28] TGA operates in two primary modes: dynamic, involving a programmed temperature ramp (typically 5–20 °C/min) to assess overall thermal behavior, and isothermal, maintaining a fixed temperature to evaluate reaction rates and stability over time. In dynamic mode, initial mass loss quantifies moisture content (often below 150 °C), followed by volatile organics and eventual residue like ash above 500 °C. Isothermal measurements facilitate lifetime predictions by modeling mass decay under service conditions.^[27] Instrumentation features a high-sensitivity electrobalance with resolution as fine as 0.1 μg, supporting sample masses of 1–100 mg in pans made of platinum, alumina, or ceramic to withstand corrosive environments. The furnace, often with a temperature range of ambient to 1500 °C, incorporates controlled gas purging (e.g., 50–100 mL/min of air, helium, or nitrogen) to define oxidative, inert, or reducing atmospheres. For detailed decomposition product identification, TGA couples with evolved gas analysis (EGA) via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) or mass spectrometry (MS), transferring gases through heated lines for real-time spectral analysis.^[27]^[29] Data analysis generates thermograms plotting mass (or percentage) versus temperature or time, supplemented by derivative thermogravimetry (DTG) curves that differentiate the mass signal to highlight the rate of change. DTG peaks pinpoint maximum decomposition temperatures (T_{\max}), aiding in resolving overlapping stages and correlating with kinetic parameters. Quantitative residue determination, such as ash content, derives directly from the final mass plateau after correcting for buoyancy and baseline drift.^[27]

Differential thermal analysis (DTA)

Differential thermal analysis (DTA) is a thermoanalytical technique that measures the temperature difference (ΔT) between a sample and an inert reference material, such as alumina, as both are subjected to a controlled programmed heating or cooling in a single furnace. This setup allows for the detection of thermal events in the sample, where heat absorption or release during phase transitions or reactions causes the sample temperature to deviate from that of the reference. The method is particularly valued for its simplicity and ability to identify the onset and nature of thermal processes without requiring separate calorimetric cells.^[30]^[31] The fundamental principle relies on the relationship between the temperature difference and the thermal properties of the sample. Specifically, the differential temperature is given by

\Delta T = \frac{\Delta C_p}{G} \beta

where \Delta C_p is the difference in heat capacity between the sample and reference, G is the thermal conductance of the sample holder to the furnace environment, and \beta is the linear heating rate. This equation highlights how ΔT is directly proportional to the heating rate and inversely to the thermal conductance, enabling the qualitative assessment of energy changes during thermal events.^[31] In DTA, thermal events are detected through characteristic peaks on the ΔT versus temperature plot. Endothermic processes, such as dehydration or melting, produce negative ΔT peaks as the sample cools relative to the reference due to heat absorption. Conversely, exothermic events, like oxidation or crystallization, generate positive ΔT peaks as the sample heats up from heat release. These peaks provide qualitative information on the temperature at which events occur, though peak shape and area can vary with factors like sample mass and particle size.^[30]^[31] Classical DTA focuses on qualitative event detection, while quantitative variants incorporate calibration to estimate enthalpy changes from peak areas. Typical setups employ thermocouples positioned near the sample and reference holders—often in platinum or ceramic crucibles—to measure temperatures accurately, supporting ranges from ambient up to 1600°C, which is ideal for studying ceramics and refractory materials.^[31]^[32] DTA offers advantages in high-temperature applications due to its straightforward single-furnace design, which is simpler and more robust than differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) for analyzing refractory materials where precise heat flow measurement is challenging. Baseline drift, often caused by uneven heating or changing thermal conductivities, can be corrected using techniques such as employing metallic blocks as references or dynamic baseline subtraction during data processing. This evolution toward quantitative analysis has paved the way for techniques like DSC, which build on DTA principles for absolute heat measurements.^[31]^[32]^[33]

Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)

Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is a thermal analysis technique that evaluates the viscoelastic properties of materials by applying a sinusoidal oscillatory force to a sample and measuring its deformation response as a function of temperature, frequency, or time. This method probes key mechanical characteristics, including the storage modulus (elastic response) and loss modulus (viscous dissipation), along with damping behavior, providing insights into molecular mobility and relaxation processes. DMA is particularly sensitive for detecting transitions in polymers and composites, offering advantages over static methods by quantifying energy storage and dissipation under dynamic conditions.^[34] The fundamental principles of DMA rely on the viscoelastic nature of materials, where the applied stress \sigma(t) = \sigma_0 \sin(\omega t) elicits a strain response \epsilon(t) = \epsilon_0 \sin(\omega t - \delta), with \delta as the phase angle indicating the balance between elastic and viscous components. The storage modulus E', which measures the recoverable elastic energy, is defined as E' = \frac{\sigma_0}{\epsilon_0} \cos \delta; the loss modulus E'', representing energy dissipation as heat, is E'' = \frac{\sigma_0}{\epsilon_0} \sin \delta; and the damping factor \tan \delta = \frac{E''}{E'}, which peaks at relaxation events like the glass transition temperature T_g. These parameters, derived from the complex modulus E^* = E' + iE'', enable characterization of stiffness and internal friction across varying conditions.^[35]^[34]^[36] DMA operates in multiple deformation modes to accommodate diverse sample geometries, including tension for films and fibers, compression for bulk solids, shear for liquids and soft materials, and torsion for cylindrical samples, allowing tailored testing of tensile, flexural, or torsional properties. Frequency sweeps typically span 0.01 Hz to 100 Hz or higher (up to 200 Hz in advanced systems), while temperature ramps cover -150°C to 600°C, enabling the study of low-temperature relaxations to high-temperature decompositions. These ranges facilitate the separation of time-dependent and thermal effects on material behavior.^[37]^[34] Instrumentation for DMA includes precision clamps and fixtures, such as film tension grips or single/double cantilever setups for thin samples, integrated with a drive motor for oscillatory loading and transducers for force and displacement detection. An environmental chamber provides controlled heating/cooling rates (often 1–5°C/min) and optional humidity or inert gas atmospheres to simulate service conditions. Multifrequency temperature scans support time-temperature superposition (TTS), where data at different frequencies and temperatures are shifted to construct master curves predicting long-term viscoelastic performance over decades.^[35]^[34] In data interpretation, DMA curves reveal sub-ambient transitions in polymers, such as secondary relaxations (e.g., beta transitions in poly(methyl methacrylate around -50°C), through drops in E' and peaks in \tan \delta, indicating localized molecular motions. For curing kinetics, isothermal time sweeps track the evolution of modulus during reactions, as seen in epoxy systems where E' increases from low values (~1 MPa) in the liquid state to rigid levels (~3 GPa) post-cure at temperatures like 35°C and 1 Hz frequency. These analyses highlight DMA's role in optimizing material processing and performance without relying on complementary thermal stability assessments.^[34]^[35]

Thermomechanical analysis (TMA)

Thermomechanical analysis (TMA) is a thermal analysis technique that measures the dimensional changes of a material as a function of temperature, time, or applied force under controlled conditions, providing insights into thermal expansion, softening, and other thermomechanical behaviors.^[38] In TMA, a sample is subjected to a minimal static load while being heated or cooled in a furnace, and a probe tracks changes in length, volume, or penetration depth, typically in an inert or controlled atmosphere to minimize oxidative effects.^[39] This method is particularly suited for evaluating the stability and response of solids, liquids, or pasty materials to temperature variations, with applications spanning polymers, ceramics, and composites.^[40] The core principle of TMA revolves around quantifying strain under non-oscillating stress, where the linear coefficient of thermal expansion (α), a key parameter, is calculated using the equation \alpha = \frac{1}{L_0} \cdot \frac{\Delta L}{\Delta T}, with L_0 as the initial length, \Delta L as the change in length, and \Delta T as the temperature change, often measured at constant pressure.^[39] Measurements can be linear, focusing on one-dimensional expansion or contraction, or volumetric, assessing three-dimensional changes via specialized dilatometer probes to derive the coefficient of volumetric expansion (γ = α_x + α_y + α_z).^[40] Load ranges typically span 0.001 to 2 N with a force resolution of 0.001 N, while displacement sensitivity reaches below 0.5 nm, enabling precise detection of subtle dimensional shifts.^[40] In penetration mode, TMA determines softening points by monitoring probe intrusion into the sample under a light load, revealing transitions like melting or glass softening.^[39] Instrumentation in TMA generally includes a quartz probe—chosen for its low thermal expansion (approximately 0.5 μm m⁻¹ K⁻¹)—positioned on or within the sample, supported by a stable platform inside a vertical furnace capable of temperatures from -150°C to 1000°C.^[39]^[41] A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) or similar transducer, often combined with an optical encoder for enhanced accuracy, records probe displacement, while software processes data to generate expansion curves.^[40] Modes are adapted for sample types: expansion mode for rigid, flat solids (0.5–2.5 mm thick) to measure coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE); tension mode for fibers or films (20–200 μm thick); and penetration or flexure for softer or powdered materials, accommodating irregular shapes like powders via compression fixtures.^[39] TMA finds specific utility in characterizing sintering shrinkage, where irreversible dimensional contraction during heating is quantified to optimize ceramic or polymer processing, often showing shrinkage rates up to several percent in oriented materials.^[39] It also identifies glass transition temperatures (T_g) through inflections in expansion curves, marking the shift from glassy to rubbery states, as seen in polymers where the curve's tangent intersection highlights this onset.^[40] These static measurements under low load complement dynamic assessments of viscoelastic properties, such as those in dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), by focusing on baseline dimensional stability.^[39]

Applications

Polymers

Thermal analysis techniques are essential for characterizing polymers, providing insights into molecular structure, phase transitions, thermal stability, and processing behavior. These methods reveal key properties such as glass transitions, crystallization kinetics, melting points, and degradation mechanisms, which influence mechanical performance, processability, and end-use applications in materials like thermoplastics and thermosets. By monitoring heat flow, mass changes, or dimensional variations under controlled temperature programs, researchers can quantify transitions that govern polymer behavior, such as the shift from glassy to rubbery states or the onset of chain scission.^[42] The glass transition temperature (T_g) marks the temperature range where amorphous polymers transition from a rigid, glassy state to a flexible, rubbery one, and it is determined using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). In DSC, T_g appears as a step change in heat capacity, with the midpoint defined as the intersection of the baseline and tangent lines to the transition curve, offering a precise measure for unfilled polymers like polycarbonate at approximately 148°C under a 20°C/min heating rate.^[42] DMA detects T_g through mechanical property changes, identifying it at the peak of the loss tangent (tan δ), which corresponds to maximum energy dissipation and occurs at higher temperatures, such as 151.5°C for polycarbonate at 1 Hz and 3°C/min.^[43] Factors like molecular weight influence T_g; for blends or copolymers, the Fox-Flory equation approximates the overall T_g as \frac{1}{T_g} = \frac{w_1}{T_{g1}} + \frac{w_2}{T_{g2}}, where w_i are weight fractions and T_{gi} are component T_g values, reflecting compositional effects on chain mobility.^[44] For semicrystalline polymers, DSC identifies crystallization temperature (T_c) as an exothermic peak during cooling and melting temperature (T_m) as an endothermic peak during heating, providing data on thermal history and morphology; in polyethylene terephthalate (PET), T_m typically exceeds 200°C, while T_c appears below it depending on cooling rate.^[45] The degree of crystallinity (X_c) is calculated from the melting enthalpy as X_c = \frac{\Delta H_m}{\Delta H_m^0} \times 100\%, where ΔH_m is the measured enthalpy and ΔH_m^0 is the enthalpy for 100% crystalline polymer (144.7 J/g for PET), yielding values like 25% for PET cooled at 10°C/min.^[46] Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) assesses polymer thermal degradation by tracking mass loss with temperature, identifying onset temperatures where significant decomposition begins; for poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), multi-step mass loss occurs, with dehydrochlorination—the elimination of HCl—starting around 250–273°C and leading to conjugated polyene formation.^[47] This process accounts for the initial ~60% mass loss, followed by further degradation to aromatic residues. Oxidative stability is evaluated by comparing TGA curves in air versus inert atmospheres like nitrogen; in air, oxidation accelerates degradation above 300°C, causing additional mass loss due to chain scission and char formation, whereas nitrogen reveals purely thermal pathways.^[48] Thermal analysis informs polymer processing, particularly cure kinetics in thermosets via isothermal DSC scans, where heat flow is monitored at constant temperatures to model reaction progress using equations like \frac{d\alpha}{dt} = k \alpha^m (1-\alpha)^n for autocatalyzed systems, enabling prediction of gelation and vitrification times in epoxies.^[49] For polymer blends, miscibility and compatibility are assessed through T_g shifts or broadening in DSC, indicating phase separation or interaction between components that affects processing windows and final properties. Specific examples illustrate these applications: thermomechanical analysis (TMA) measures linear expansion in polyethylene to determine coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), relating it to density variations, as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) shows expansion of approximately 100-200 μm/m/°C below melting and relates higher density to reduced swelling during thermal cycling.^[50] In rubber vulcanization, DMA tracks the rise in storage modulus from initial low values (~1 MPa) to higher levels (~10 MPa) post-crosslinking, reflecting network formation in natural rubber under sulfur or peroxide systems, with higher modulus indicating greater crosslinking density.^[51]

Metals and alloys

Thermal analysis techniques are essential for investigating the thermal behavior of metals and alloys, focusing on reversible phase changes driven by metallic bonding, such as melting, solidification, and allotropic transformations, which differ from the irreversible processes seen in other materials. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and differential thermal analysis (DTA) provide precise measurements of enthalpic changes during these events, while thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and thermomechanical analysis (TMA) assess stability and mechanical integrity under thermal stress. These methods enable the determination of critical parameters like transition temperatures, latent heats, and kinetic rates, informing alloy design, processing, and performance in high-temperature environments. In the study of melting and solidification, DSC quantifies the latent heat of fusion for pure metals by integrating the endothermic peak during heating. For example, pure aluminum exhibits a melting point of 660°C with a latent heat of approximately 397 J/g, reflecting the energy required to disrupt its crystal lattice.^[52] In binary or multicomponent alloys, DSC identifies eutectic points through the onset of sharp melting peaks, where the liquid phase forms at a temperature lower than that of the constituent metals, facilitating controlled solidification microstructures.^[53] Phase transformations in metals, such as allotropic changes, are effectively characterized using DTA, which detects thermal effects from structural rearrangements without significant mass loss. A prominent example is the α-to-γ transformation in iron at 912°C, where the body-centered cubic structure shifts to face-centered cubic, influencing magnetic and mechanical properties during steel processing.^[54] Additionally, cooling curves derived from DTA or DSC during solidification provide insights into kinetics, revealing nucleation rates and growth mechanisms through the undercooling observed in the exothermic peaks.^[2] Purity assessment in metals relies on DSC to measure melting point depression caused by solute impurities, analyzed via the shape of the melting curve using the van't Hoff equation. This method, standardized in ASTM E928, allows quantification of impurities as low as 0.1% by analyzing the broadening and shift of the melting peak.^[52] TGA complements this by evaluating oxide inclusions, where non-volatile residues remaining after high-temperature treatment in inert or reducing atmospheres indicate the content of refractory oxides like alumina or silica in the metal matrix.^[2] Oxidation and thermal stability are probed via TGA, which records mass gain from oxygen uptake during exposure to air at elevated temperatures, signaling corrosion onset and scale formation. For instance, low-alloy steels show noticeable mass gain starting around 500°C due to the formation of iron oxides, with the rate depending on alloying elements like chromium.^[55] High-temperature TMA extends this analysis by measuring dimensional changes under load, quantifying creep deformation in metals like nickel-based alloys, where steady-state strain rates inform service life predictions in turbine components.^[40] Practical applications include the characterization of solder alloys, such as Sn-Pb or Sn-Ag-Cu systems, where DSC determines melting ranges (e.g., 183°C for eutectic Sn-Pb) to ensure reliable joint formation in electronic assemblies.^[56] In superalloys, DTA evaluates precipitate dissolution, as seen in Inconel 718 where γ′ phase solvus temperatures around 1000–1100°C are identified from endothermic peaks, guiding heat treatment for optimal microstructure.^[57]

Food products

Thermal analysis techniques play a crucial role in food science for assessing quality, stability, and processing conditions of edible products. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), and thermomechanical analysis (TMA) enable precise measurement of thermal events such as phase changes, moisture loss, and structural transitions, which directly influence texture, shelf life, and sensory attributes. These methods help optimize manufacturing processes like baking, emulsification, and storage while ensuring compliance with safety standards by detecting degradation or contamination early. TGA is widely employed to quantify moisture and volatile content in food matrices, providing insights into water activity and product stability. For instance, in cereals, TGA reveals water loss of approximately 5-10% when heated to 105°C, distinguishing free water (evaporating below 100°C) from bound water (releasing at higher temperatures due to interactions with proteins or starches). This differentiation aids in predicting microbial growth risks and formulating low-moisture products like snacks or flours. Additionally, TGA with headspace analysis detects volatile compounds indicative of spoilage, such as aldehydes from lipid oxidation, enhancing shelf-life evaluations in perishable items. DSC excels in characterizing phase transitions in fats and oils, which are essential for texture and mouthfeel in products like spreads and confectionery. In chocolate, DSC identifies polymorphs through distinct melting profiles, with the stable β-form exhibiting an endothermic peak at around 34°C, guiding tempering processes to achieve smooth texture and prevent fat bloom. Oxidative rancidity is monitored via exothermic peaks during controlled heating, signaling peroxide formation and degradation in oils, as seen in studies of vegetable fats where oxidation onset occurs above 150°C under oxygen exposure. These analyses ensure product consistency and extend usability in lipid-rich foods. Starch gelatinization, a key process in cooking and baking, is quantified using DSC to measure endothermic transitions where starch granules absorb water and swell. In wheat starch, this occurs as a broad endotherm between 60-70°C, with enthalpy changes reflecting granule integrity and processing history. Post-cooking retrogradation, involving starch recrystallization, shows increased enthalpy in DSC scans after storage, helping food technologists adjust cooling rates to minimize staling in breads and pastries. This thermal profiling optimizes energy inputs in extrusion and supports formulation of gluten-free alternatives. Protein denaturation in foods affects structural integrity and sensory qualities, and both DSC and TMA provide complementary data on these events. DSC detects endothermic peaks for protein unfolding, while TMA measures dimensional changes like shrinkage in meat collagen at around 60°C, correlating with tenderness and juiciness loss during cooking. In processed meats, these techniques assess thermal stability to prevent excessive toughening. For shelf-life assessment, TGA complements by tracking volatile release from denatured proteins, indicating Maillard reactions or hydrolysis in dairy and meat products. Specific applications highlight thermal analysis in refining food properties. In dairy products, DSC monitors fat crystallization to improve spreadability in margarines, where polymorphic transitions below 20°C influence solidity at refrigeration temperatures. For baking, DMA evaluates dough rheology under oscillatory heating, revealing viscoelastic changes during proofing and gelatinization that predict crumb structure and volume in final loaves. These targeted uses underscore thermal analysis as a cornerstone for innovation in food formulation and quality assurance.

Printed circuit boards

Thermal analysis plays a crucial role in evaluating the reliability of printed circuit boards (PCBs) by assessing material integrity and performance under thermal stress, particularly during assembly and operational cycling. Techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), thermomechanical analysis (TMA), and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) are employed to characterize solder joints, laminates, and overall structural stability, helping to predict failure modes like cracking or delamination in electronic assemblies.^[58]^[59] In solder joint analysis, DSC is widely used to determine the melting range of alloys, ensuring compatibility with reflow soldering processes. For traditional Sn-Pb eutectic solders, the melting point is approximately 183°C, while lead-free Sn-Ag-Cu (SAC) alloys exhibit a higher melting point around 217°C, necessitating adjustments in peak reflow temperatures to achieve uniform wetting and void-free joints.^[60]^[61] Reflow profile optimization via DSC involves simulating heating ramps to balance flux activation, solder liquefaction, and cooling rates, minimizing intermetallic formation and improving joint shear strength.^[62] For laminate stability in PCBs, such as FR-4 epoxy-based materials, TGA quantifies resin decomposition, revealing significant mass loss beginning around 300°C due to epoxy volatilization, which informs maximum processing temperatures to prevent charring during soldering or rework.^[63] Complementarily, TMA measures the glass transition temperature (T_g), typically ranging from 130°C to 180°C for standard to high-T_g FR-4 variants, marking the onset of increased viscoelasticity and potential dimensional instability under heat.^[64] Under thermal cycling, which simulates operational temperature fluctuations, DMA assesses warpage and modulus degradation in copper-clad layers by tracking storage modulus and tan δ shifts, often showing a modulus drop above T_g that exacerbates bowing in multilayer boards. Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatch between copper (17 ppm/°C) and epoxy resin (50-70 ppm/°C in the z-axis) induces shear stresses, leading to delamination at interfaces during repeated cycles from -40°C to 125°C.^[65]^[59] Reliability metrics for PCBs incorporate activation energies derived from Arrhenius models applied to accelerated thermal cycling tests, where failure rates of solder joints follow exponential temperature dependence with typical activation energies of 0.5-0.7 eV for creep and fatigue mechanisms, enabling lifetime predictions under use conditions. Standards like IPC-TM-650 outline thermal stress tests, including 2.6.7 methods for evaluating PTH integrity and 2.4.24 for T_g via TMA, ensuring compliance with reliability thresholds for automotive and consumer electronics.^[66]^[67]^[68] The 2006 RoHS directive accelerated the transition to lead-free solders in PCBs, prompting thermal analysis to validate higher reflow profiles and mitigate risks like tin whisker growth, with DSC confirming SAC alloy stability post-implementation. In humid environments, TGA detects hygroscopic swelling by measuring moisture-induced weight gain in epoxy laminates, which can amplify CTE mismatches and promote popcorning defects during reflow, as swelling strains reach 0.3-0.5% at 85% relative humidity.^[69]^[70]

Pharmaceuticals

Thermal analysis techniques, particularly differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), play a crucial role in pharmaceutical development by characterizing active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), formulations, and their stability under various conditions. These methods enable the detection of phase transitions, decomposition profiles, and interactions that influence drug efficacy, bioavailability, and shelf-life, aligning with regulatory requirements for quality control.^[71] In polymorphism screening, DSC is widely employed to identify and differentiate polymorphic forms of APIs through distinct melting endotherms or phase transition peaks. For instance, carbamazepine exhibits multiple polymorphs, with Form I melting at approximately 193°C and Form II at around 189°C, as observed in DSC scans; these differences are critical for assessing solubility and patent issues, as metastable forms like Form II can convert to the stable Form I upon heating between 140–160°C. Similarly, anhydrous versus hydrate transitions are detected by endothermic peaks corresponding to dehydration, aiding in the selection of stable crystal forms during early drug development. Modulated DSC further quantifies amorphous content in crystalline APIs, which impacts dissolution rates and stability.^[72]^[73] Stability testing utilizes TGA to monitor mass loss events, such as solvent evaporation or decomposition onset, providing insights into thermal degradation kinetics under accelerated conditions. For high-purity APIs (>99%), TGA typically shows minimal residue (<1% mass loss up to decomposition temperatures), indicating low impurity levels; this supports compliance with ICH Q1A(R2) guidelines for accelerated aging studies at 40°C/75% RH to predict long-term shelf-life. Activation energy for degradation can be calculated from TGA data using Arrhenius models, helping forecast stability in formulations exposed to heat during manufacturing or storage.^[28] Excipient compatibility is evaluated through DSC mixing studies, where binary mixtures of API and excipients are scanned for shifts in melting peaks, new exothermic events, or eutectic formations signaling interactions. For example, drug-polymer mixtures may show a lowered eutectic melting point, indicating potential instability in solid dispersions; absence of such changes confirms compatibility for tablet formulations. These studies accelerate preformulation screening, reducing the risk of chemical or physical incompatibilities during scale-up.^[74] Dissolution insights are gained via thermomechanical analysis (TMA), which measures dimensional changes like tablet swelling or expansion in simulated fluids, correlating with disintegration and drug release profiles. Isothermal TMA at 37°C reveals swelling kinetics, where initial expansion rates predict dissolution behavior for immediate-release tablets, ensuring consistent bioavailability.^[75] Notable examples include the use of differential thermal analysis (DTA) and DSC in biopharmaceuticals, such as insulin formulations, to assess thermal stability and guide cold-chain requirements; DSC reveals denaturation peaks around 70–80°C in hydrated insulin, emphasizing the need for storage below 8°C to maintain bioactivity. Since the 1990s, thermal profiling has surged in biopharma with the rise of biologics, integrating DSC for higher-order structure analysis under ICH Q6B guidelines.^[76]

Limitations and considerations

Sources of error

Thermal analysis techniques, such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), are susceptible to various sources of error that can compromise data accuracy and reproducibility. These errors arise from instrumental, sample-related, environmental, data processing, and quantification factors, each requiring specific mitigation strategies to ensure reliable results. Instrumental factors represent a primary source of error, including baseline drift caused by sensor aging or contamination in the instrument. This drift can introduce systematic offsets in heat flow or mass measurements, leading to inaccurate peak areas or temperatures. To correct for this, performing empty pan or reference runs prior to sample analysis allows subtraction of the baseline, restoring data integrity. Another common issue is temperature lag, particularly in larger samples where heat transfer delays result in shifted transition temperatures. Minimizing sample size to less than 10 mg reduces this lag, ensuring the sample closely follows the programmed temperature profile. Sample-related issues often stem from inhomogeneity, which causes irreproducible peaks or mass loss events due to uneven composition or particle size distribution. For instance, in powdered samples, larger particles may heat unevenly, broadening transitions; sieving to achieve uniform particle sizes below 100 μm mitigates this by promoting homogeneity. Oxidation artifacts also pose risks in reactive atmospheres, where unintended reactions alter sample mass or enthalpy, mimicking decomposition. Purging the system with inert gases like nitrogen or argon prevents such artifacts, maintaining the sample's integrity during analysis. Environmental influences can further distort results, particularly humidity effects on hygroscopic samples, which absorb moisture and shift glass transition or melting points. Storing and preparing samples in a dry box or desiccator minimizes water uptake, preserving the material's thermal behavior. Vibrations from laboratory equipment or building activity impact sensitive balances in TGA or DMA, causing noise in mass or modulus data. Isolating the instrument on vibration-dampening platforms or conducting analyses in controlled environments reduces this interference. Data processing errors frequently occur during interpretation, such as misintegration of overlapping peaks, which underestimates or overestimates transition enthalpies. Deconvolution software, applying Gaussian or Lorentzian fitting models, separates these peaks for accurate quantification. Scan rate sensitivity also introduces errors, as faster rates may broaden peaks or miss subtle events due to kinetic limitations. Validating results by comparing data from multiple scan rates (e.g., 5–20 °C/min) confirms rate-independent behavior. Technique-specific calibrations, such as using indium standards in DSC, briefly address calibration drift but are essential for ongoing accuracy. Quantification limits highlight inherent sensitivities, with DSC typically detecting enthalpy changes below 0.1 J/g, beyond which weak transitions become indistinguishable from noise. Calibration drift over time exacerbates this, necessitating periodic verification with certified standards like indium (melting point 156.60 °C, ΔH = 28.58 J/g) as certified by NIST SRM 2232a (2024).^[77] Adhering to these mitigation strategies enhances the reliability of thermal analysis data across applications.

Complementary methods

Thermal analysis techniques are often combined with other analytical methods to provide a more comprehensive understanding of material behavior under thermal stress, enabling the identification of chemical compositions, structural changes, and kinetic mechanisms that standalone thermal methods cannot fully resolve. These hyphenated or complementary approaches enhance data interpretation by correlating thermal events with spectroscopic, microscopic, or structural information, leading to improved accuracy in material characterization across various fields. Hyphenated thermal methods integrate thermal analysis directly with spectroscopic tools for real-time analysis of evolved gases and reactions. For instance, thermogravimetric analysis coupled with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR) identifies gaseous decomposition products, such as carbon dioxide released from carbonate minerals during thermal decomposition, allowing precise determination of reaction pathways and stoichiometry. Similarly, differential scanning calorimetry linked to mass spectrometry (DSC-MS) detects volatile fragments evolved from polymers during heating, facilitating the study of degradation mechanisms and thermal stability without requiring sample isolation. Spectroscopic pairings extend this synergy by providing molecular-level insights into thermal processes. Evolved gas analysis combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (EGA-GC-MS) separates and identifies complex decomposition products from thermal events, offering detailed profiles of volatile organics in materials like pharmaceuticals or composites. Additionally, Raman spectroscopy integrated with DSC enables in-situ monitoring of phase transitions, such as crystallization or polymorphism in polymers, by capturing vibrational spectra that correlate directly with endothermic or exothermic peaks observed in the calorimetric data. Microscopic complements allow visual correlation of thermal events, bridging macroscopic thermal responses with microstructural observations. Hot-stage microscopy paired with differential thermal analysis (HSM-DTA) visualizes dynamic processes like bubble formation in polymer melts or sintering in ceramics, synchronizing optical images with thermal curves to elucidate mechanisms such as nucleation or morphological evolution during heating. This approach is particularly valuable for opaque samples where indirect thermal data alone may overlook spatial heterogeneities. Structural techniques complement thermal analysis by characterizing pre- and post-thermal states at the atomic level. X-ray diffraction (XRD) applied to residues after TGA reveals crystalline phases formed during decomposition, such as oxide structures in metal powders, providing evidence of reaction completeness and phase purity. In pharmaceuticals, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy compares molecular structures before and after thermal treatment, identifying changes like isomerization or degradation products that influence drug stability and bioavailability. Modeling integration further enhances thermal analysis by incorporating experimental data into predictive frameworks. Finite element simulations utilize thermal data from techniques like TMA or DMA to model stress distributions and predict material performance under thermal loads, such as in aerospace composites where temperature-induced deformations are critical. Kinetic software like Advanced Kinetic Tools and Software (AKTS) validates multi-method data by fitting thermal curves from TGA, DSC, and evolved gas analysis to derive activation energies and reaction orders, ensuring robust predictions of long-term thermal behavior.

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