Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Borrelia recurrentis

Borrelia recurrentis is a gram-negative, spiral-shaped spirochete bacterium that causes louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF), the most severe form of relapsing fever borreliosis.^[1] This pathogen is transmitted exclusively to humans by the human body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus), typically when infected lice are crushed on the skin, allowing bacteria from their feces to enter through bites or abrasions; humans serve as the only known reservoir, with no identified animal hosts.^[2]^[1] LBRF manifests as an acute febrile illness characterized by sudden onset of high fever, chills, severe headache, myalgias, arthralgias, and malaise, often accompanied by a petechial rash (in about 50% of cases), hepatosplenomegaly, and conjunctivitis.^[1] The disease's hallmark is its relapsing nature, with 2–10 episodes of fever recurring every 5–9 days due to antigenic variation in the bacterium's variable major proteins (Vmps), which allow evasion of the host immune response.^[1]^[3] Untreated, LBRF carries a high mortality rate of 30–70%, primarily from complications like Jarisch-Herxheimer reactions, myocarditis, hepatic failure, or neurological involvement, though antibiotic treatment reduces fatality to under 5%.^[1]^[3] Epidemiologically, B. recurrentis is endemic to the Horn of Africa, including Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia, where outbreaks occur in conditions of poverty, overcrowding, and poor hygiene, such as refugee camps and during famines or wars.^[2]^[3] Historically, it has caused devastating epidemics, including over 13 million cases and 5 million deaths in Europe and North Africa between 1919 and 1923, and nearly 1 million cases during World War II; recent cases in Europe stem from migrants from endemic areas, with nearly 100 imported infections reported since 2015.^[2]^[3] Diagnosis relies on microscopic examination of Giemsa-stained blood smears during febrile episodes, when spirochete densities can exceed 100,000 per mm³, or by PCR for confirmation.^[1]^[3] Treatment involves antibiotics like doxycycline (100 mg twice daily for 7–10 days) for adults, or penicillin/erythromycin for pregnant women and children under 8 years, with precautions to manage Jarisch-Herxheimer reactions.^[1] Prevention focuses on lice control through improved personal hygiene, laundering clothes in hot water (>55°C), and use of pediculicides.^[2]^[3]

Taxonomy and Classification

Etymology and Discovery

The genus name Borrelia was established in 1907 by Dutch bacteriologist Nicolaas Petrus Hunfeld Swellengrebel, honoring the French bacteriologist and microbiologist Amédée Borrel (1867–1936), who contributed significantly to the study of spirochetes and tick-borne diseases.^[4] The species epithet recurrentis derives from the Latin recurrens (recurring), specifically alluding to the characteristic relapsing febrile episodes associated with the infection it causes in humans.^[5] Borrelia recurrentis was first identified in 1873 by German physician Otto Obermeier, who observed motile, helical spirochetes in the peripheral blood smears of patients suffering from epidemic relapsing fever during an outbreak in Berlin.^[6] Working at the Charité Hospital, Obermeier noted the organisms' corkscrew-like morphology and their transient appearance in the blood, coinciding with fever peaks, under primitive microscopic techniques available at the time; initially termed Spirochaeta obermeieri, the bacterium's association with the disease marked a pivotal advancement in understanding spirochetal pathogens.^[7] Early 20th-century studies further clarified the bacterium's identity and mode of spread, with Scottish physician Frederick Percival Mackie reporting in 1907 the role of the human body louse (Pediculus humanus corporis) in transmitting B. recurrentis through experimental observations in India.^[8] This finding was corroborated by subsequent experimental transmissions, such as those by Émile Sergent and Marcel Foley in 1910, who successfully infected monkeys via louse bites, solidifying the vectorial link and distinguishing louse-borne relapsing fever from tick-associated forms.^[9]

Phylogenetic Position

Borrelia recurrentis is classified within the phylum Spirochaetota, class Spirochaetia, order Spirochaetales, family Borreliaceae, genus Borrelia, and species recurrentis.^[10] This taxonomic placement reflects its membership in the spirochete phylum, characterized by helical, motile bacteria adapted to arthropod vectors and vertebrate hosts.^[5] The species is distinguished as the sole agent of louse-borne relapsing fever, setting it apart from other Borrelia species transmitted by ticks.^[11] The genome of B. recurrentis strain A1 totals 1,242,163 base pairs, comprising a single linear chromosome of 930,981 bp and seven linear plasmids aggregating 311,182 bp.^[12] The chromosome encodes 800 open reading frames, including 20 pseudogenes, with a GC content of 27.5%, and features essential replication genes such as spoOJ, gyrA, gyrB, dnaA, and dnaN near the origin.^[12] Plasmids include a notable 23-kb linear element with a telomere resolvase (resT) and a polyT tract in the promoter of a variable large protein (vlp) gene. Key genetic elements for antigenic variation include 17 intact vlp genes and 10 vsp genes, which facilitate immune evasion through surface protein switching; these are primarily plasmid-borne and represent variable major proteins (VMPs).^[12]^[13] Phylogenetically, B. recurrentis clusters closely with other relapsing fever Borrelia, particularly the tick-borne B. duttonii, forming a distinct clade within the RF group based on whole-genome comparisons and multilocus sequence analysis.^[12]^[14] Sequence similarity in 16S rRNA and flaB genes is highest with B. duttonii, supporting their consideration as ecotypes of a single genomospecies, with B. recurrentis exhibiting a 20.4% genome reduction and accelerated evolution relative to its tick-borne relative.^[12]^[15] In contrast, it diverges significantly from the Lyme disease group (B. burgdorferi sensu lato), separated by phylogenetic distances in 16S rRNA sequences and multilocus typing that highlight distinct evolutionary lineages adapted to different vectors and hosts.^[11]^[16]

Morphology and Physiology

Cellular Structure

Borrelia recurrentis is a motile, helical spirochete characterized by its elongated, flexible morphology, typically measuring 10–40 μm in length and 0.2–0.5 μm in diameter, with irregular, loose coils numbering 3–10 that form a right-handed helical structure.^[17]^[18] These structural features contribute to its distinctive serpentine appearance under microscopy, distinguishing it from more tightly coiled spirochetes like those in the genus Treponema. The irregular coiling allows for flexibility, essential for navigating host environments. At the ultrastructural level, B. recurrentis possesses a tripartite cell envelope consisting of an outer sheath (or membrane), a thin peptidoglycan layer, and an inner cytoplasmic membrane, enclosing the protoplasmic cylinder.^[19] Embedded in the periplasmic space between the inner and outer membranes are 4–5 endoflagella (axial filaments) per pole, forming two bundles that overlap in the central region and insert subterminally at each end of the cell.^[20] These endoflagella, numbering 8–10 in total, drive corkscrew-like motility by rotating against the outer sheath, facilitating dissemination within the host bloodstream.^[21] Although classified as Gram-negative due to its double-membrane architecture and thin peptidoglycan layer, B. recurrentis exhibits atypical staining properties because of its low peptidoglycan content and corkscrew shape, often failing to retain crystal violet effectively.^[19] Visualization in clinical samples, such as blood smears from infected patients, typically requires dark-field microscopy to observe the live, twisting organisms against a dark background or Giemsa staining, which imparts a purple hue to the spirochetes for easier detection.^[22]^[23] This motility, powered by the endoflagella, enhances transmission efficiency within the louse vector and human host.

Growth and Metabolism

Borrelia recurrentis is an obligate microaerophile, requiring reduced oxygen tensions (typically 3-5% O₂) for optimal growth, and is cultivated in complex, undefined media to mimic host conditions. Primary cultivation employs modified Barbour-Stoenner-Kelly (BSK) formulations, such as BSK-II supplemented with bovine serum albumin (BSA) fraction V or the enhanced BSK-R medium containing Leibovitz’s L-15, reduced BSK-IIB components, and a mix of mouse, rabbit, and fetal bovine sera. Cultures are incubated at 33-35°C, often in sealed tubes to maintain microaerophilic atmospheres by limiting headspace to 10%. Growth is notably slow, with doubling times of 8-12 hours, and peak densities reaching approximately 10⁸ cells per milliliter after several passages, though certain BSA batches may fail to support proliferation due to variability in lipid content.^[24]^[25] Metabolically, B. recurrentis exhibits fermentative catabolism, deriving energy primarily from glucose via the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas glycolytic pathway.^[21] This spirochete cannot biosynthesize long-chain fatty acids or cholesterol, instead scavenging these lipids from host serum lipoproteins for membrane integrity and lipoprotein acylation, a dependency reflected in its genome's lack of relevant biosynthetic genes. It displays no detectable catalase or oxidase activity, rendering it vulnerable to oxidative stress and consistent with its microaerophilic lifestyle.^[26]^[27]^[28] In vivo, B. recurrentis persists and multiplies in the human bloodstream, achieving high spirochetemia levels (>10⁸ cells/mL) for several days to weeks per febrile episode, enabling louse transmission during feeding. Outside the host, however, it shows poor environmental tolerance, succumbing rapidly to desiccation, temperatures above 56°C (which denature proteins within minutes), and biocides like 70% ethanol (effective within seconds via membrane disruption).^[29]^[27]^[30]

Transmission and Epidemiology

Vector and Transmission Cycle

Borrelia recurrentis is transmitted exclusively by the human body louse, Pediculus humanus humanus, which serves as the primary vector in a human-louse-human cycle. Unlike the head louse (P. humanus capitis), the body louse harbors and transmits the spirochete efficiently due to its habit of living in clothing and feeding repeatedly on human hosts. The bacteria are acquired by lice during blood meals from bacteremic individuals, after which they multiply within the louse's midgut. Transmission to humans occurs not through the louse bite but via mechanical inoculation: infected lice are often crushed by the host during itching, releasing spirochetes from the louse's hemolymph or feces, which are then rubbed into the skin or mucous membranes.^[2]^[3]^[1] In the vector, ingested B. recurrentis spirochetes penetrate the midgut epithelium within hours to several days, migrating to the hemolymph where they undergo rapid multiplication, reaching high densities over 1-4 days. This proliferation leads to excretion of viable spirochetes in louse feces as early as 2-5 days post-infection, facilitating transmission when feces contaminate bite wounds or abrasions. The infection is lethal to the louse in many cases, with death occurring within 5-10 days due to gut damage and systemic invasion, though some studies report persistence for the louse's full ~3-week lifespan without significant mortality. Critically, there is no transovarial transmission, meaning female lice do not pass the bacteria to their eggs or offspring, limiting the cycle to horizontal spread among adult lice and humans.^[31]^[32]^[31] Following transmission, the incubation period in humans ranges from 4 to 18 days, with an average of 7 days, during which spirochetes disseminate systemically. Epidemics are favored by conditions promoting louse infestation, such as overcrowding, poor hygiene, and disruptions like war or famine, which facilitate close human contact and louse proliferation in infested clothing.^[3]^[1]^[2]

Global Distribution and Prevalence

Borrelia recurrentis, the causative agent of louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF), is currently endemic primarily in the Horn of Africa, with limited foci in Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea. In Ethiopia, the disease maintains high prevalence in the highlands, where environmental conditions favor the human body louse vector, Pediculus humanus humanus, and an estimated 1,000–5,000 cases are reported annually, representing the majority (about 95%) of global infections. Adjacent regions in Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea report ongoing endemic transmission, particularly in areas affected by conflict and displacement, though surveillance data remain sparse. Outside this core area, sporadic cases have emerged in Europe since 2015, primarily among refugees and migrants from the Horn of Africa, with 78 imported cases documented between 2015 and 2020 in countries including Germany, Italy, and Switzerland, highlighting importation risks in non-endemic settings.^[33]^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37]^[38] Historically, B. recurrentis infections were widespread across Europe, Asia, and Africa during the 19th and 20th centuries, often exploding into epidemics amid wartime conditions that promoted louse infestations. Major outbreaks occurred in Europe during the 19th century and in Russia between 1919 and 1923, resulting in over 13 million cases and 5 million deaths; similar surges affected the Middle East and Africa in the 20th century, including during World War II in Asia and Europe due to troop movements and poor sanitation. By the mid-20th century, particularly the 1950s, the disease was nearly eradicated from temperate zones in Europe and North America through post-war improvements in hygiene, delousing campaigns, and socioeconomic development, reducing human-louse contact.^[2]^[37]^[39]^[40] Prevalence remains driven by socioeconomic risk factors, including poverty, population displacement, and poor sanitation, which facilitate louse proliferation in overcrowded settings like refugee camps. The World Health Organization recognizes LBRF as a neglected tropical disease, with global annual estimates in the low thousands of cases concentrated in the Horn of Africa, though underreporting is common due to frequent misdiagnosis as malaria or other fevers in resource-limited areas. These conditions perpetuate transmission cycles, underscoring the need for targeted interventions in high-risk populations.^[41]^[38]^[33]

Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations

Infection Mechanism

Borrelia recurrentis, the causative agent of louse-borne relapsing fever, is transmitted to humans through mechanical inoculation rather than direct injection during a louse bite. The human body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus) harbors the spirochete in its hemolymph and feces; when the louse is crushed by the host during scratching, infectious material contaminates skin abrasions or mucous membranes, allowing rapid entry into the bloodstream and initiating systemic dissemination via bacteremia, where spirochete densities can exceed 500,000 per mm³ of blood.^[42]^[3] Upon entering the host, B. recurrentis adheres to erythrocytes and endothelial cells primarily through its variable major proteins (Vmps), which include variable large proteins (Vlps) and variable small proteins (Vsps), forming rosette-like structures that facilitate attachment, promote microvascular occlusion, and delay phagocytosis by host immune cells. This adherence contributes to endothelial damage and the formation of microemboli, exacerbating vascular pathology during high-level bacteremia. The spirochete exhibits tropism for organs such as the spleen, where it forms miliary abscesses, the liver, leading to hepatitis-like effects, and joints, promoting localized inflammation.^[43]^[44]^[45] A key mechanism of immune evasion in B. recurrentis is antigenic variation, achieved through gene conversion at the vmp locus on linear plasmid lp23, where silent vmp genes are recombined into a single expression site to generate new surface variants; the genome encodes approximately 27 intact vmp genes (17 vlps and 10 vsps), enabling over two dozen potential antigenic variants that allow the pathogen to persist and cause disease relapses by evading antibody responses. This variation, combined with the spirochete's ability to bind host complement regulators like factor H and C4b-binding protein, suppresses complement-mediated lysis and supports chronic infection. Additionally, B. recurrentis induces a proinflammatory cytokine storm, with elevated levels of IL-6 and TNF-α driving systemic inflammation and endothelial dysfunction.^[46]^[47]^[48] Treatment with antibiotics often triggers the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction, a severe pathophysiological response occurring 1-2 hours post-initiation, characterized by rapid spirochete lysis that releases lipoproteins and amplifies the cytokine storm (including surges in IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-8), leading to intensified fever, hypotension, and further endothelial damage.^[49]^[50]^[51]

Symptoms and Relapsing Pattern

Louse-borne relapsing fever, caused by Borrelia recurrentis, typically begins after an incubation period of 4 to 18 days (average 7 days), during which the spirochetes multiply in the bloodstream without causing noticeable symptoms.^[3] The initial phase manifests abruptly with high fever often reaching 39–41°C (hyperpyrexia), accompanied by intense chills or rigors, severe headache, myalgia, arthralgia, dizziness, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and profound prostration.^[1]^[3] This acute episode, characterized by nonspecific malaise and exhaustion, usually lasts 3 to 7 days (average 5 days) before resolving spontaneously, though hepatic tenderness occurs in about 60% of cases and meningism in around 40%.^[1]^[3] The hallmark of the disease is its relapsing pattern, with untreated patients experiencing 2 to 5 recurrent febrile episodes of diminishing severity and duration (typically 2 to 4 days each), separated by afebrile intervals of 5 to 9 days.^[3]^[52] These relapses occur due to antigenic variation in the spirochetes' variable major proteins, enabling immune evasion and renewed spirochetemia.^[53] Without intervention, up to 10 relapses may happen in rare cases, though louse-borne relapsing fever generally involves fewer cycles than tick-borne forms.^[1] Complications during acute or relapsing phases include hepatomegaly (in ~50% of cases), splenomegaly, petechial rash (incidence 2–80%), jaundice (7–70%), and epistaxis or subconjunctival hemorrhages (up to 25%).^[3] Neurological involvement, such as meningitis, affects 10–40% of patients, potentially leading to confusion, cranial nerve palsies, or more severe issues like cerebral hemorrhage.^[1]^[3] Untreated mortality ranges from 5–10% overall, though rates can exceed 40% in severe epidemics or vulnerable groups; in pregnancy, adverse outcomes occur in over 70% of cases, with heightened risk of fetal loss and maternal death.^[52]^[3]

Diagnosis and Treatment

Diagnostic Methods

Diagnosis of Borrelia recurrentis infection, the causative agent of louse-borne relapsing fever, primarily relies on laboratory techniques that detect the spirochetes directly or indirectly through immune responses or genetic material. The gold standard method is microscopic examination of peripheral blood smears during febrile episodes, where spirochetes are visible in approximately 70% of cases using Wright-Giemsa or Giemsa stains.^[54]^[1] Dark-field microscopy can also be employed for live observation of motile spirochetes in fresh blood samples, enhancing detection in high-bacteremia states early in infection.^[1] Serological tests, such as indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), detect antibodies against B. recurrentis antigens like CihC and GlpQ. IFA confirms reactivity in patient sera by staining spirochetes, while ELISA shows sensitivities of 66-100% for IgM and IgG depending on the antigen, with specificities exceeding 95%.^[55] These assays are useful post-febrile onset but may cross-react with other spirochetes, such as those causing leptospirosis or syphilis.^[1] Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) offers higher sensitivity than microscopy, targeting the flaB gene in blood or tissue samples to detect B. recurrentis DNA, even during afebrile periods or after treatment initiation.^[56] Available through specialized laboratories like the CDC, PCR is preferred in resource-rich settings but requires broad primers to avoid cross-reactivity with other Borrelia species.^[1] Challenges in diagnosis include reduced sensitivity of microscopy and serology during afebrile intervals, necessitating timing of sample collection with symptoms like recurring fever. Differential diagnosis from malaria or leptospirosis is critical due to overlapping clinical features in endemic areas. Rapid diagnostic tests based on recombinant antigens are under development to improve accessibility and specificity in field settings.^[55]^[1]

Therapeutic Approaches

The primary treatment for infections caused by Borrelia recurrentis, known as louse-borne relapsing fever, involves antibiotics to eradicate the spirochetes and prevent relapses. Preferred therapy, per 2024 CDC guidelines, is a single intramuscular dose of penicillin G procaine (600,000–800,000 units for adults; 50,000 units/kg for children, maximum 800,000 units) or a single oral dose of doxycycline (200 mg for adults; 4.4 mg/kg for children, maximum 200 mg). For severe cases, relapsing infections, or to ensure cure, a combination regimen is recommended: initial penicillin G procaine as above, followed 12–24 hours later by oral doxycycline (100 mg twice daily for adults; 2.2 mg/kg per dose for children, maximum 100 mg) or azithromycin (500 mg daily for adults; 10 mg/kg daily for children, maximum 500 mg) for 7 days.^[56]^[1] Doxycycline is safe for children of all ages in short courses.^[1] For penicillin-allergic patients or contraindications (e.g., pregnancy, though single-dose doxycycline may be considered), azithromycin 500 mg orally daily for 7 days (10 mg/kg for children) or erythromycin 500 mg orally four times daily for 7 days is effective. Ceftriaxone (1–2 g intravenously daily for 7–10 days) may be used in hospitalized patients under specialist guidance.^[56]^[57] Single-dose regimens are highly effective in resource-limited settings, achieving cure in the majority without recurrence.^[56]^[58] Treatment initiation often triggers the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction in over 50% of patients, characterized by a transient spike in fever, rigors, hypotension, and tachycardia due to spirochete lysis, typically occurring within hours of the first dose.^[56] Management of this reaction is supportive, involving close monitoring for 4–6 hours post-treatment, intravenous fluids, antipyretics like acetaminophen, and, in severe cases, vasopressors or consultation with an infectious disease specialist; prophylactic steroids are not routinely recommended as they do not prevent the reaction.^[1]^[56] With prompt antibiotic intervention, cure rates exceed 95%, reducing mortality from untreated levels of 30–70% to less than 5% as of 2024.^[59]^[34]^[56]

Prevention and Control

Vector Control Strategies

Vector control strategies for Borrelia recurrentis, the causative agent of louse-borne relapsing fever, primarily target the human body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus), the sole vector, through chemical and non-chemical interventions aimed at reducing louse populations and disrupting transmission cycles.^[3] Insecticide applications form a cornerstone of these strategies, with permethrin (0.5%) and malathion (1%) commonly dusted or applied to clothing and bedding to kill lice and their eggs.^[3] Oral ivermectin, administered at doses of 12–18 mg (200 µg/kg body weight), has demonstrated high efficacy in eradicating body lice by targeting their nervous system, achieving up to 95% lice elimination in infested individuals after a single dose. These topical and systemic pediculicides are particularly useful in outbreak settings, where they can be distributed en masse to interrupt epidemics.^[60] Hygiene practices complement insecticides by mechanically removing lice and preventing reinfestation. Regular bathing with soap, followed by changing into clean clothing at least weekly, starves lice that cannot survive more than 48 hours off the host.^[61] Delousing combs can manually extract lice from seams of clothing, while laundering infested items in hot water above 60°C for at least 30 minutes, combined with high-heat drying (above 54°C for 20 minutes), effectively kills lice and nits.^[3] In resource-limited endemic areas, separating infested clothing for 10 days allows lice to die from desiccation.^[3] Fumigation techniques, often employing insecticide-impregnated chambers or heat sterilization, are deployed in high-density settings like refugee camps to treat large volumes of bedding and clothing simultaneously.^[62] For instance, exposure to temperatures exceeding 60°C or chemical fumigants like propoxur has been used to decontaminate communal areas, reducing louse survival rates to near zero.^[3] These combined approaches have proven highly effective in controlled interventions, with studies in Ethiopian outbreaks showing up to 90% reduction in louse infestation and associated B. recurrentis incidence when insecticides and hygiene were integrated. However, emerging resistance to permethrin and malathion in some louse populations, driven by genetic mutations, has been reported in endemic regions, necessitating rotation of pediculicides like ivermectin to maintain efficacy.^[3]

Public Health Measures

Public health surveillance for Borrelia recurrentis infection, known as louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF), involves case reporting in endemic areas primarily in the Horn of Africa, such as Ethiopia, where autochthonous cases are documented through national health systems to track outbreaks and inform response efforts. In 2023, over 170 cases were reported in emergency departments at two hospitals in Addis Ababa from August to November, underscoring the ongoing burden.^[63] In non-endemic regions, integration with refugee and migrant health screening has proven essential, as evidenced by the detection of over 70 imported cases among East African refugees arriving in Europe between 2010 and 2019 (as of 2019), enabling early intervention and contact tracing.^[64] The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends mandatory reporting of LBRF cases to local or state health authorities in jurisdictions where it is notifiable, facilitating outbreak prevention and epidemiological monitoring.^[56] Education initiatives target communities in high-risk settings to promote personal hygiene and louse prevention, with campaigns in Ethiopia emphasizing delousing practices and awareness of transmission risks amid poverty and crowding.^[65] Knowledge, attitude, and practice studies in areas like Bahir Dar reveal gaps in public understanding, underscoring the role of targeted outreach to reduce infestation rates.^[66] Healthcare worker training focuses on early detection via microscopic examination of blood smears during febrile episodes, which remains the diagnostic cornerstone in resource-limited endemic settings.^[64] Key policies encompass insecticide distribution programs to curb body louse vectors, including historical applications of DDT that significantly reduced transmission in affected populations.^[64] Efforts to integrate vaccination research into control strategies are ongoing, though no licensed vaccine exists for B. recurrentis, with developmental work exploring antigens from relapsing fever spirochetes.^[67] Post-World War II eradication from Europe was achieved through comprehensive sanitation improvements, enhanced living conditions, and vector control, eliminating endemic transmission and preventing subsequent outbreaks.^[64]

History and Research

Historical Outbreaks

In the late 19th century, louse-borne relapsing fever caused by Borrelia recurrentis emerged as a significant public health threat in Europe, with notable outbreaks occurring amid urbanization and poor sanitation. A prominent epidemic struck Berlin, where physician Otto Obermeier identified the spirochete in patients' blood in 1866, confirming its role as the causative agent during a period of widespread illness among the urban poor.^[68] These outbreaks, including earlier ones in Edinburgh from 1843 to 1848, highlighted the disease's association with overcrowding and poverty, contributing to high morbidity in industrial centers.^[64] The early 20th century saw devastating epidemics in Eastern Europe and Russia, exacerbated by World War I and subsequent social upheaval. Between 1919 and 1923, an estimated 13 million cases occurred across Russia and Eastern Europe, resulting in approximately 5 million deaths, as famine, displacement, and louse infestations fueled transmission in refugee populations and war-torn areas.^[2] Overall, from 1903 to 1946, louse-borne relapsing fever pandemics affected over 60 million people globally, with more than 5 million fatalities, underscoring its role as a major killer in conflict zones.^[69] During World War II, the disease resurfaced in overcrowded settings such as trenches, prisoner-of-war camps, and concentration camps, particularly in Europe and North Africa, where poor hygiene facilitated louse proliferation. In North Africa alone, around 1 million cases were reported between 1943 and 1945, with untreated mortality rates reaching up to 40% in severe epidemics, though overall figures for the war hovered around 10-15% due to limited medical interventions.^[2]^[70] These outbreaks compounded war casualties, as infected soldiers and civilians succumbed to recurrent fevers, dehydration, and secondary complications, straining military and civilian resources alike.^[64] Following World War II, louse-borne relapsing fever declined sharply in Europe and Asia due to widespread public health interventions, including the use of DDT for delousing clothing and improved hygiene practices in post-war reconstruction efforts.^[64] These measures, such as mandatory lice control in camps and urban areas, virtually eliminated large-scale epidemics in these regions by the mid-20th century, marking a pivotal shift in vector control strategies.^[69] However, the disease persisted in parts of Africa, where socioeconomic challenges sustained transmission; for instance, during the 1993 Ethiopian famine, outbreaks affected thousands in refugee camps, with case fatality rates exceeding 4% even with treatment, illustrating ongoing vulnerabilities in famine-stricken populations.^[37] Historically, these epidemics profoundly influenced societal responses, contributing significantly to war-related mortality—such as during the Russian crises and WWII—and spurring reforms like systematic delousing campaigns and international hygiene standards that reduced louse-borne diseases overall.^[64] In affected regions, the high death toll prompted policy changes, including lice eradication mandates in military and civilian settings, which laid the groundwork for modern vector control programs.^[2]

Current Research Directions

Recent genomic sequencing efforts have provided insights into the structure of Borrelia recurrentis, revealing highly conserved genomes across isolates with only 29–38 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) differing from the reference strain A1, all located outside antigenic loci.^[71] These findings highlight stable genomic regions as potential targets for interventions, including conserved segments within variable major protein (vmp) gene families that could inform vaccine design despite the bacterium's capacity for antigenic variation. No licensed human vaccine exists for B. recurrentis. In 2025, ancient DNA analysis recovered four B. recurrentis genomes from Britain, dating from approximately 600 to 2,300 years ago, documenting the evolutionary history of louse-borne relapsing fever and estimating its divergence from tick-borne relapsing fever Borrelia around 3,500–7,000 years ago.^[72] This research underscores the long-standing presence of the pathogen in Europe and its adaptation to human-louse transmission.

References

[1]
Relapsing Fever - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
May 4, 2025 · Borrelia recurrentis is transmitted when an infected human body louse, Pediculosis humanus corporis, is crushed, and Borrelia recurrentis ...
[2]
About Louse-borne Relapsing Fever (LBRF) - CDC
Jan 31, 2025 · Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF) is caused by Borrelia recurrentis bacteria and transmitted to people by the human body louse and, rarely, the ...
[3]
Louse-borne relapsing fever (Borrelia recurrentis infection) - PMC
Mar 1, 2019 · Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF) is a classic epidemic disease, associated with war, famine, refugees, poverty, crowding and poor personal hygiene.Epidemiology And Historical... · Pathophysiology And... · Pathology (44, 45)
[4]
Borrelia [bә-rel′e-ә] - PMC - PubMed Central
Named after French bacteriologist Amedée Borrel (1867–1936) in 1907, Borrelia is a genus of bacteria, family Spirochaetaceae, made up of gram-negative, ...
[5]
Species: Borrelia recurrentis - LPSN
Proposed as: comb. nov. Basonym: "Spirochaete recurrentis" Lebert 1874. Etymology: re.cur.ren'tis. L. pres. part. recurrentis ...
[6]
[PDF] Pathobiology of African relapsing fever Borrelia - DiVA portal
Relapsing fever (RF) is a disease caused by tick- or louse-transmitted bacteria of the genus Borrelia. It occurs worldwide but is most common in Africa ...
[7]
Possibilities for Relapsing Fever Reemergence - PMC
The causative agent of the African tick variety of relapsing fever was discovered by Ross and Milne in 1904 (2). This finding was also made independently by ...
[8]
[PDF] Possibilities for Relapsing Fever Reemergence - CDC Stacks
The role of the human body louse in the transmission of relapsing fever was reported by MacKie in 1907 (1). Historical Epidemics and Endemic Disease Foci.
[9]
Borrelia recurrentis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Signs and Symptoms. After a 2- to 14-day incubation period with Borrelia recurrentis, the patient will display high fever, chills, fatigue, headache, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[10]
Borrelia recurrentis - KEGG GENOME
Taxonomy, TAX: 412418. Lineage, Bacteria; Pseudomonadati; Spirochaetota; Spirochaetia; Spirochaetales; Borreliaceae; Borrelia; Borrelia recurrentis. Brite, KEGG ...
[11]
The genus Borrelia reloaded - PMC - PubMed Central
Dec 26, 2018 · This novel clade currently has two designated species, B. turcica [10] and 'Candidatus Borrelia tachyglossi' [9, 11, 12], and several other ...
[12]
The Genome of Borrelia recurrentis, the Agent of Deadly Louse ...
Sep 12, 2008 · Borreliae are vector-borne spirochetes that are responsible for Lyme disease and recurrent fevers. We completed the genome sequences of the tick ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[13]
Characterisation of silent and active genes for a variable large ...
Oct 14, 2002 · As the first step to study antigenic variation in B. recurrentis, we report the complete organisation and characterisation of vlp1 B.
[14]
African Relapsing Fever Borreliae Genomospecies ... - Frontiers
May 13, 2014 · These analyses suggest that B. crocidurae, B. duttonii, and B. recurrentis are ecotypes of a unique genomospecies, while B. hispanica is a distinct species.
[15]
Multiplex Real-Time PCR Diagnostic of Relapsing Fevers in Africa
Indeed, genetic and genomic data suggested that B. duttonii and B. recurrentis could be regarded as a single Borrelia species [17].
[16]
Borreliae Part 2: Borrelia Relapsing Fever Group and Unclassified ...
duttonii, and B. recurrentis. Other species have been found in non-human hosts. The loci used for the initial species determination were 16S rRNA and flaB.Missing: relatives | Show results with:relatives
[17]
Historical overview and update on relapsing fever group Borrelia in ...
Jun 8, 2022 · Relapsing fever group Borrelia (RFGB) are motile spirochetes transmitted to mammalian or avian hosts through the bite of hematophagous ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[18]
Borrelia recurrentis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Borrelia recurrentis is defined as a species of bacteria that causes louse-borne relapsing fever, primarily found in East Africa, and is characterized by ...
[19]
Biology of Borrelia species - PMC - NIH
Hougen K. H. Electron microscopy of Borrelia merionesi and Borrelia recurrentis. ... classification of some spirochetes, in particular treponemes. Acta ...
[20]
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY OF BORRELIA MERIONESI AND ...
Aug 15, 2009 · The cells were regularly waved and had pointed ends. Each organism had two bundles of flagella, one bundle originating from each end of the cell ...Authors · Ancillary · Article InformationMissing: ultrastructure | Show results with:ultrastructure<|control11|><|separator|>
[21]
Borrelia - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The RF borreliae have 15–30 endoflagella, whereas the LD-related borreliae have 7–11 endoflagella. Unlike the endoflagella of other spirochetes, the ...
[22]
Borrelia species (Relapsing fever): Video, Causes, & Meaning
Borrelia is a genus of spirochetes, which are long, thin, spiral shaped bacteria, that spin or twist to move around. The genus has two major groups.Missing: taxonomic | Show results with:taxonomic
[23]
Tick-Borne Relapsing Fever Imported from West Africa - NIH
The mainstay of diagnosis of relapsing fever Borrelia is demonstration of the spirochetes in Giemsa-stained thick blood smears (11). However, thick smears from ...
[24]
Successful in vitro cultivation of Borrelia duttonii and its comparison ...
Jan 10, 1999 · Successful in vitro cultivation of Borrelia duttonii and its comparison with Borrelia recurrentis Free. S. J. Cutler1, C. O. K. Akintunde1, ...
[25]
Isolation of Borrelia miyamotoi and other Borreliae using a modified ...
Jan 21, 2021 · A modified Barbour-Stoenner-Kelly (BSK) media formulation, BSK-R, was developed for isolation of the emerging RF pathogen, Borrelia miyamotoi.<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
Characterization of Biofilm Formation by Borrelia burgdorferi In Vitro
Oct 24, 2012 · Borrelia burgdorferi appears to possess only some of the enzymes of the Entner-Doudoroff pathway; the cells may be employing a modified ...
[27]
The Genome of Borrelia recurrentis, the Agent of Deadly Louse ...
In this study, we show that the genomic content of B. recurrentis is a subset of that of B. duttonii, the genes of which are undergoing a decay process.
[28]
Borrelia burgdorferi: Carbon Metabolism and the Tick-Mammal ...
B. burgdorferi has a highly restricted metabolic capacity as it does not contain a tricarboxylic acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation or any pathways for de ...Missing: recurrentis | Show results with:recurrentis
[29]
Relapsing Fever Spirochetes Borrelia recurrentis and B. duttonii ...
The human body louse (Pediculus humanus corporis) transmits Borrelia recurrentis, the causative organism of louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF), while ...
[30]
[PDF] Susceptibility of Borrelia burgdorferi Morphological Forms to ...
Nov 26, 2019 · Heat-killed Borrelia or isopropyl/ethyl-alcohol killed Borrelia are often used in producing “dead” spirochetes for various assays [73-74] ...
[31]
Pathogenesis of Relapsing Fever - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
The organism causing this epidemic disease was first named Spirocheta obermeieri but later renamed Borrelia recurrentis.Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[32]
Excretion of Living Borrelia recurrentis in Feces of Infected Human ...
Borrelia recurrentis a slender microaerophilic spirochete, is the etiologic agent of louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF; also known as “epidemic relapsing fever”) ...Abstract · Materials And Methods · Results<|separator|>
[33]
Outbreak of Louse-Borne Relapsing Fever among Urban Dwellers ...
Ethiopia is the only country where LBRF is still endemic with an estimated 10,000 LBRF cases annually. Occasionally, LBRF is found in the neighboring countries, ...
[34]
[PDF] Tick & Louse-Borne Relapsing Fever - Disease Plan
Dec 15, 2016 · LBRF is currently endemic in Ethiopia and Sudan. The highlands region of Ethiopia may have hundreds to thousands of cases of LBRF annually. The ...
[35]
[PDF] louse-borne-relapsing-fever-in-eu-rapid-risk-assessment-17 ... - ECDC
Nov 17, 2015 · Currently, the disease is primarily found in limited endemic foci in Ethiopia, but also in Eritrea, Somalia and Sudan. [5,11-13]. Antibodies ...
[36]
Borrelia Infections Other Than Lyme Disease (Relapsing Fever)
Untreated, an initial febrile period of 2 to 6 days terminates spontaneously and is followed by an afebrile period of several days to weeks, then by 1 relapse ...Missing: bloodstream | Show results with:bloodstream
[37]
Louse-borne relapsing fever (Borrelia recurrentis infection)
Mar 1, 2019 · An endemic focus persists in Ethiopia and adjacent territories in the Horn of Africa. Since 2015, awareness of LBRF in Europe, as a re-emerging ...Epidemiology And Historical... · Pathophysiology And... · Clinical In Refugees...<|separator|>
[38]
Louse-borne relapsing fever—A systematic review and analysis of ...
Mar 11, 2021 · Transmission: Unlike most vector borne infections, B. recurrentis is not transmitted to the human host during the blood sucking act of the ...Missing: cycle | Show results with:cycle
[39]
Relapsing Fever: Modern Lessons from an Ancient Disease
Jan 31, 2023 · Relapsing fever produces a series of reoccurring fevers interspersed with periods of relatively good health, hence the origin of the name.<|separator|>
[40]
The Body Louse as a Vector of Reemerging Human Diseases
Three pathogenic bacteria are transmitted by the body louse. Borrelia recurrentis is a spirochete, the agent of relapsing fever, recently cultured on axenic ...
[41]
Borrelia recurrentis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Borrelia recurrentis is defined as a species of bacteria that causes the most severe form of relapsing fever borreliosis, transmitted by the human louse ...
[42]
https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(93)92190-5
[43]
https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-2-25
[44]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19308255/
[45]
https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/147.5.898
[46]
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1000185
[47]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3304829/
[48]
https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00007-06
[49]
https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.175.5.1207
[50]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4315507/
[51]
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000522
[52]
Louse-borne relapsing fever—A systematic review and analysis of ...
Mar 11, 2021 · Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF) is a classical epidemic disease, which in the past was associated with war, famine, poverty, forced migration, and crowding.Results · Jarisch--Herxheimer Reaction... · Discussion<|control11|><|separator|>
[53]
Relapsing Fever Spirochetes Borrelia recurrentis and B. duttonii ...
The first septic episode ends upon development of antibodies, but because relapsing fever spirochetes are able to change their variable outer surface proteins, ...
[54]
Relapsing Fever Workup - Medscape Reference
Dec 27, 2024 · Peripheral blood smears yield a sensitivity of 70%, and the ... Immunofluorescent staining, dark-field microscopy, and serologic testing can also ...
[55]
Novel approaches for the serodiagnosis of louse-borne relapsing fever
The aim of this study was to develop novel and reliable immunoassays by investigating clinically suspected and culture-confirmed serum samples from LBRF ...
[56]
Clinical Guidance for Louse-borne Relapsing Fever (LBRF) - CDC
May 15, 2024 · Tick and Louse-borne Relapsing Fevers. Relapsing fever is caused by several species of Borrelia bacteria spread by ticks and body lice. View All ...
[57]
Clinical features, diagnosis, and management of relapsing fever
May 29, 2024 · Relapsing fever, caused by spirochetes of the Borrelia genus, is an arthropod-borne infection that occurs in two major forms: tick-borne (TBRF) ...
[58]
Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF) - MSF Medical Guidelines
LBRF is caused by Borrelia recurrentis. It occurs in epidemic waves when conditions favourable to the transmission of body lice are met.<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
Relapsing Fever - Infectious Diseases - Merck Manuals
Symptoms correspond to the level of bacteremia and, after several days, resolve when Borrelia are cleared from the blood. Bacteremia and symptoms then return ...Missing: spirochetemia bloodstream
[60]
Management and Treatment of Human Lice - PMC - PubMed Central
Jul 27, 2016 · ... spray over permethrin 0.43% lotion for head louse infestation, ISRCTN96469780. ... Louse-borne relapsing fever and its treatment. Tropical and ...
[61]
About Body Lice - CDC
Jun 24, 2024 · You can treat a body lice infestation by improving personal hygiene. Bathe and change into clean clothes at least once a week. Wash clothing, ...
[62]
Human lice – their prevalence, control and resistance to insecticides ...
Sep 17, 1997 · Infections carried by body lice, such as epidemic or louse-borne typhus and epidemic or louse-borne relapsing fever, killed millions of people.
[63]
Louse-borne relapsing fever—A systematic review and analysis of ...
Mar 11, 2021 · Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF) is a classical epidemic disease, which in the past was associated with war, famine, poverty, forced migration, and crowding.
[64]
Lesson From Response to Louse-Borne Relapsing Fever Outbreak ...
Nov 21, 2023 · In this article, we aimed to share lessons learnt from the public health response to the louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF) outbreak coordinated by the ...
[65]
Borne Relapsing Fever in Bahir Dar City, North-West Ethiopia
Aug 9, 2025 · This study was conducted to assess the knowledge, attitude and practices (KAPs) among high risk populations towards LBRF prevention in Bahir Dar city.Missing: campaigns | Show results with:campaigns
[66]
Relapsing Fever Follow-up: Deterrence/Prevention, Complications ...
Dec 27, 2024 · Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF) can be prevented by eliminating circumstances that promote louse infection (eg, crowding, homelessness) and good personal ...Missing: strategies | Show results with:strategies
[67]
Ich bin ein Berliner - ScienceDirect.com
Jan 24, 2011 · In 1872, a relapsing fever epidemic returned to Germany and Obermeier [10] decided to prove the spirochaete's infectivity by inoculating the ...Missing: outbreaks | Show results with:outbreaks
[68]
Relapsing Fever: A Two Thousand Year History | ASM.org
1866. Physician Otto Obermeier, in 1866, observed the agent of louse-borne relapsing fever in the blood of a feverish patient, and the bacterium disappeared ...Missing: 1873 | Show results with:1873
[69]
Relapsing Fever: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
Dec 27, 2024 · A soft-bodied tick (Ornithodoros) transmits multiple Borrelia species that cause endemic relapsing fever, whereas the human body louse transmits ...
[70]
First insights in the variability of Borrelia recurrentis genomes
recurrentis strain A1 contains eight linear genome fragments, the longest with 930 kb was designated as the chromosome and the remaining seven as plasmids ( ...
[71]
Analysis of variable major protein antigenic variation in the relapsing ...
Feb 24, 2023 · Relapsing fever Borrelia undergo Vmp gene conversion at a single expression locus to generate new serotypes by antigenic switching which is ...
[72]
Inducible CRISPRi-Based Operon Silencing and Selective in Trans ...
The CRISPRi PAM* system will streamline the study of essential Borrelia proteins and accelerate investigations into their structure-function relationships.
[73]
The In Vitro Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu ...
In summary, colorimetric microdilution testing is well-established as the testing method of choice for borreliae and offers the benefits of reliability, ...Missing: recurrentis | Show results with:recurrentis
[74]
Prevalence of Lyme Disease and Relapsing Fever Borrelia spp. in ...
The distribution of genus Borrelia has broadened due to factors such as climate change, alterations in land use, and enhanced human and animal mobility.Missing: poverty | Show results with:poverty