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Bouma sequence

The Bouma sequence is a characteristic set of sedimentary structures observed in turbidite beds deposited by low-concentration turbidity currents in deep-water environments, consisting of five idealized divisions (Ta to Te) that reflect the progressive waning of flow energy from suspension fallout to traction processes. Named after geologist Arnold H. Bouma (1932–2011), the model was first described in his 1962 doctoral dissertation, Sedimentology of Some Flysch Deposits: A Graphic Approach to Facies Interpretation, based on studies of ancient flysch deposits in Europe and experimental flume work.^[1] The sequence's divisions include: Ta, a massive or graded sand layer from rapid deposition; Tb, parallel-laminated sand indicating upper flow regime traction; Tc, low-angle cross-laminated sand and silt from lower flow regime; Td, parallel-laminated silt reflecting continued deceleration; and Te, a pelitic interval of laminated to homogeneous mud deposited from final suspension settling. Not all divisions are always present, and incomplete sequences are common, but the model provides a predictive framework for interpreting depositional processes in submarine fans and other gravity-flow systems.^[1] As a foundational facies model in sedimentology, the Bouma sequence revolutionized the understanding of deep-marine sedimentation by linking sedimentary structures to turbidity current dynamics, influencing subsequent research on hybrid flows, contourites, and basin-fill architectures. It remains essential in petroleum geology for identifying reservoir intervals in turbidite systems and in paleoenvironmental reconstructions of ancient ocean basins.^[1]

History and Development

Discovery and Naming

Arnold H. Bouma (1932–2011), a Dutch sedimentologist and marine geologist, first proposed the concept of the sequence in 1962 as part of his doctoral research.^[2]^[3] Bouma, who earned his master's degree in geology from Utrecht University in the Netherlands, developed the model to interpret the sedimentary structures observed in deep-water deposits.^[4] His work built on emerging ideas about gravity-driven sediment flows, providing a systematic framework for analyzing these deposits.^[5] The sequence originated from Bouma's extensive fieldwork in the Maritime Alps of France and Italy, where he examined ancient flysch deposits—thick successions of rhythmically bedded sandstones and shales formed in deep-marine environments.^[6] These studies focused on outcrops like the Grès d'Annot, which offered well-exposed examples of turbidite-like sediments dating back to the Eocene.^[7] Bouma's detailed logging and graphic representation of vertical facies variations in these sections allowed him to identify recurring patterns attributable to waning sediment flows.^[8] Bouma detailed his findings in the 1962 book Sedimentology of Some Flysch Deposits: A Graphic Approach to Facies Interpretation, published by Elsevier in Amsterdam.^[8] This monograph, based on his Ph.D. thesis supervised by Ph.H. Kuenen, introduced a standardized vertical profile for interpreting such deposits and became a cornerstone in sedimentology.^[3] A few years after its publication, the sequence was named the "Bouma sequence" in recognition of his pioneering contribution, a term that quickly gained widespread use in the geological community despite Bouma's initial humility about the honor.^[3]

Evolution of the Model

Following its initial proposal in 1962, the Bouma sequence underwent significant refinement through experimental validation in the 1970s, particularly via flume studies that corroborated the model's foundational waning flow dynamics. Researchers conducted controlled experiments simulating turbidity currents, demonstrating how decelerating flows lead to sequential deposition of graded sands and finer sediments, aligning with the idealized divisions of the sequence. These studies, including those by Middleton, emphasized the role of flow velocity reduction in producing the characteristic upward-fining patterns observed in natural turbidites.^[9] Critiques emerged soon after, highlighting that not all turbidite deposits conform to the complete A-E sequence due to variations in flow energy, sediment supply, and depositional setting. Bouma himself acknowledged the prevalence of incomplete sequences in his original work, noting that only a fraction of observed beds exhibit all divisions. Subsequent analyses, such as those by Sanders (1965) and Van der Lingen (1969), reinforced this by pointing out that high-density or sustained flows often truncate the sequence, challenging its universality as a rigid template.^[10] By the 1980s, the model was integrated into broader turbidite classification schemes that expanded its scope beyond ideal waning flows. Pioneering work by Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1978) categorized turbidite systems into architectural elements like channels and lobes, incorporating the Bouma sequence as a subunit while accounting for proximal-to-distal variations. As of 2025, advancements in imaging technologies have further enhanced the model's applicability, particularly for analyzing partial sequences in core samples. High-resolution computed tomography (CT) scanning allows non-destructive visualization of internal sedimentary fabrics, revealing subtle grading and structures in deep-marine sandstones that align with truncated Bouma divisions. Complementing this, AI-based image analysis, employing machine learning algorithms on core photographs, automates the identification of lithofacies and partial sequences, improving accuracy in distinguishing turbidite deposits from other gravity flows. These tools have broadened the model's utility in subsurface reservoir characterization and paleoenvironmental reconstruction. In March 2025, the Journal of Sedimentary Research published the "1st Bouma Special Publication," honoring Bouma's legacy and highlighting recent advances in deepwater geoscience, including improved seafloor mapping and modeling techniques for turbidite systems.^[11]^[12]^[3]

Geological Context

Turbidites and Turbidity Currents

Turbidites are discrete layers of sediment deposited rapidly from suspension by turbidity currents, typically in deep-water marine environments. These event beds form through the settling of particles from a turbulent, sediment-laden flow, resulting in a characteristic fining-upward sequence of grain sizes within each layer. The term "turbidite" was first coined by Kuenen in 1957 to describe such deposits, distinguishing them from other sedimentary units based on their origin and structure. Turbidity currents are submarine density flows generated when sediment-laden fluid becomes denser than surrounding seawater, creating hyperpycnal flows that propagate downslope under gravity. These currents can achieve velocities of up to 20 m/s, particularly in their frontal regions, and travel runout distances of hundreds of kilometers across continental slopes and basins. They are triggered by mechanisms such as river floods, slope failures, or earthquakes, transporting vast volumes of sediment from shallow to deep-sea settings.^[13] Key characteristics of turbidites include an erosive base that scours the underlying substrate, a progressive decrease in grain size upward through the bed, and their common association with submarine fans and continental slopes where sediment accumulates in deep-water realms. These features reflect the dynamic interplay of erosion, transport, and deposition during a single flow event, often resulting in sharp basal contacts overlain by graded sands and silts. The concept of turbidites and turbidity currents gained recognition in the mid-20th century, with Kuenen and Migliorini's 1950 paper proposing turbidity currents as the mechanism for graded bedding in deep-sea sands. This idea was further supported by field descriptions, such as Walton's 1955 study of Silurian greywackes in Peeblesshire, which identified turbidite-like deposits predating the formal Bouma sequence model. The Bouma sequence later provided a specific framework for the internal organization of many turbidites.^[14]^[15]

Depositional Environments

Bouma sequences primarily form in deep-marine settings dominated by sediment gravity flows, including submarine canyons, continental slopes, and abyssal plains, where turbidity currents transport and deposit clastic material from proximal sources. These environments facilitate the development of submarine fan systems, with sequences often preserved in channel-levee complexes on slopes and expansive sheet-like deposits on plains.^[16] They also occur in lacustrine basins characterized by steep gradients, such as fault-controlled rift lakes, though less commonly than in marine contexts.^[17] Key environmental controls include proximity to sediment sources, such as river deltas or continental shelf edges, which supply coarse-grained material during highstand or regressive phases, triggering turbidity currents.^[18] Water depths typically range from 200 m on upper slopes to greater than 5000 m in abyssal regions, influencing flow dilution and sediment sorting.^[19] In these settings, Bouma sequences are commonly interbedded with hemipelagic muds, representing background pelagic sedimentation between discrete turbidite events.^[18] Variations in sequence completeness depend on basin type; expansive ocean basins allow for more complete Bouma sequences due to prolonged flow deceleration over broad areas, whereas confined fault-bounded lakes often yield fragmented sequences from flow ponding and rapid infilling.^[20] Turbidity currents serve as the primary transporting mechanism in these environments, linking shelf-edge failures to deep-water deposition.

Structure of the Bouma Sequence

Overall Characteristics

The Bouma sequence represents the idealized vertical organization of sedimentary structures within a single turbidite bed, formed by the deposition from a waning turbidity current. It exhibits a characteristic fining-upward profile, transitioning from coarse sand or gravel at the base to fine mud at the top, with total bed thicknesses ranging from 10 cm to several meters. This progression reflects the systematic decrease in grain size and flow energy as the sediment-laden current decelerates across the depositional surface.^[21] Key features of the complete sequence include an erosional base commonly displaying sole marks, such as flute casts formed by turbulent scour, along with overall normal grading that diminishes in intensity upward. Bed thickness and grain size also tend to decrease laterally with increasing distance from the sediment source, as illustrated in the depositional "cone" model. These traits distinguish the Bouma sequence as a rhythmic, event-bed deposit typical of turbidites in deep-water environments.^[22]^[23] In natural settings, fully complete Bouma sequences (encompassing all five divisions) are observed in less than 10% of turbidite beds, with most examples being partial sequences that preserve subsets of the idealized progression. The diagnostic hallmark lies in the ordered vertical succession of primary sedimentary structures, which directly records flow deceleration without significant biogenic reworking in the lower portions due to the rapidity of initial deposition. This absence of bioturbation in basal layers further aids in distinguishing authentic turbidite successions from other marine deposits.^[24]^[25]

Individual Divisions

The Bouma sequence consists of five divisions labeled A through E, each characterized by distinct grain sizes, thicknesses, and sedimentary structures that reflect a progressive decrease in flow energy.^[26] Division A forms the basal unit, comprising massive or normally graded coarse sandstone typically 0.5-2 m thick. It often contains pebbles, rip-up clasts, and dish structures from dewatering.^[26]^[27] Division B consists of planar-laminated medium sandstone, generally 5-30 cm thick.^[26]^[27] Division C features ripple cross-laminated fine sandstone, usually 5-20 cm thick, including climbing ripples, convolute bedding, or flame structures from loading.^[26]^[27] Division D is composed of parallel-laminated siltstone, 1-10 cm thick, with thin sandy laminae indicating traction settling.^[26]^[27] Division E represents the uppermost unit of pelagic or hemipelagic mudstone, typically 1-5 cm thick, appearing massive with sparse bioturbation and often bioturbated or absent in preserved sequences.^[26]^[27] This arrangement exhibits a fining-upward trend across the divisions.^[26]

Formation Processes

Mechanics of Turbidity Currents

Turbidity currents initiate through mechanisms that generate a density contrast between a sediment-laden fluid mixture and the ambient water, primarily driven by slope failure, hyperpycnal river discharge, or storm-induced resuspension. Slope failures, often triggered by earthquakes or oversteepening, release large volumes of sediment that mix with seawater to form a dense underflow. Hyperpycnal flows occur when sediment-rich river plumes directly plunge beneath seawater, requiring concentrations typically exceeding 40 kg/m³ (about 1.5% by volume) to achieve the necessary density excess. Storm events can resuspend bottom sediments, lowering the initiation threshold to as little as 0.07 kg/m³ in tidal settings where fine particles accumulate and erode the seabed. This density contrast, arising from sediment concentrations generally between 0.1% and 10% by volume, propels the flow downslope under gravity.^[28]^[29] During propagation, turbidity currents exhibit a tripartite structure comprising an erosive head, a body, and a tail, with flow dynamics influenced by supercritical conditions. The head, advancing at velocities up to 19 m/s, erodes the seafloor through high shear stress, creating a turbulent mixing zone that sustains sediment suspension. The body follows as a denser, sediment-charged layer accelerating downslope, often under supercritical flow regimes (Froude number >1) on steep gradients, which can lead to flow instabilities. Hydraulic jumps may form at abrupt changes in seafloor gradient, dissipating energy and depositing sediment upstream of the jump. The tail represents the dilute, trailing portion where entrainment of ambient fluid dilutes the mixture. Overall propagation is governed by balance between gravitational driving forces and frictional resistance, with the body velocity scaling with slope angle per modified Chezy equations.^[29]^[30] In the waning phase, the current decelerates as it spreads across flatter topography, losing momentum through internal friction, ambient entrainment, and deposition, with runout distance modulated by seafloor features like channels or levees. As energy dissipates, the flow transitions from erosion to net deposition, typically over distances of tens to hundreds of kilometers. Seafloor topography significantly influences this phase; confined channels can prolong flow by reducing spreading, while open basins accelerate deceleration. Typical flow velocities range from 0.5 to 20 m/s, with durations spanning minutes to hours in confined settings, though some events persist for days in expansive basins. Sediment suspension within the flow is maintained by turbulence and Bagnold's dispersive pressure, where grain collisions generate an upward force proportional to the square of shear rate and sediment concentration, enabling auto-suspension even as the current wanes. This waning dynamics ultimately produce graded divisions characteristic of the Bouma sequence.^[29]

Sedimentation Mechanisms

In turbidity currents, sedimentation begins with traction-dominated processes at the high-energy base, where coarser grains are transported along the bed by rolling or saltation before transitioning to suspension fallout in the upper, waning portions of the flow. This shift occurs as flow velocity decreases, allowing finer particles to settle from suspension under the influence of gravity, with traction giving way to predominantly vertical deposition.^[31] As the current decelerates, bedforms evolve in response to declining flow conditions, progressing from plane beds formed under relatively high shear stress to ripples as the flow Reynolds number diminishes, reflecting reduced turbulence and velocity. This progression is accompanied by loading and dewatering of the sediment, which can induce convolutions in the depositing layers due to rapid compaction and fluid escape. Normal grading in the sequence arises from selective settling, where coarser particles deposit first owing to their higher settling velocities compared to fines, resulting in an upward-fining profile.^[32] For fine-grained particles in the laminar settling regime, this is governed by Stokes' law:

v = \frac{2}{9} \frac{(\rho_s - \rho_f) g r^2}{\mu}

where v is the settling velocity, \rho_s and \rho_f are the densities of the sediment and fluid, respectively, g is gravitational acceleration, r is the particle radius, and \mu is the fluid viscosity.^[33] In some cases, flow stripping decouples the upper dilute portions of the turbidity current from the denser basal layer, particularly over topographic highs or channel margins, leading to distal deposition of fines in more remote areas.^[34]

Incomplete Sequences

Incomplete Bouma sequences, which lack one or more of the ideal A-E divisions, are far more common than complete ones in natural turbidite deposits. The full sequence represents the progressive waning of a turbidity current, but partial forms arise due to variations in flow dynamics, sediment availability, and depositional setting. According to the foundational facies model, each turbidite layer typically preserves only part of this progression, with completeness increasing alongside bed thickness.^[35] Several mechanisms contribute to sequence incompleteness. Truncation of upper divisions (e.g., omission of D or E) often results from erosion by subsequent turbidity currents, which scour finer-grained layers before they fully settle. Omission of lower divisions (e.g., absence of A) occurs when flows lack sufficient coarse sediment or are non-erosive, such as in cases of low sediment supply or when the current's basal traction is insufficient to deposit massive sands. In channelized settings, flow bypass can prevent deposition of coarser basal divisions, as sediment-laden currents are confined and transported downstream without significant aggradation at certain points. Levee deposits adjacent to channels, formed by overflow, commonly record only upper divisions due to this bypass effect.^[35]^[36] Common partial sequences reflect position within the turbidite system. Proximal deposits near sediment sources often feature A-B-C divisions, characterized by thick, graded basal sands (A) overlain by laminated and rippled sands (B and C), indicating high-energy flows with abundant coarse material. Channelized flows in mid-system settings produce B-C-E sequences, where the erosive base (A) is absent due to bypass, and deposition emphasizes parallel and ripple laminations (B-C) followed by mud (E). Distally, isolated E divisions or thin C-D-E sequences dominate, resulting from suspension settling of fine silt and mud as flow energy dissipates. These variants are recognized by abrupt vertical transitions between preserved structures or the absence of expected grading and laminations, with most turbidites—often over 80% in studied successions—exhibiting such incompleteness.^[23]^[27] The prevalence of incomplete sequences provides key insights into paleoenvironmental conditions. Variations in preserved divisions signal energy gradients along the flow path, with coarser proximal forms indicating sourceward directions and finer distal ones pointing to basinward transport. This helps reconstruct depositional architecture, such as channel-levee complexes, without relying on rare full sequences.^[35]^[36]

Contrasting Sequences

While the Bouma sequence models the deposits of low- to medium-density turbidity currents, characterized by its five divisions (Ta to Te) that include graded sands, parallel lamination, ripples, and pelitic intervals, alternative models address higher-density or more complex flows.^[37] The Lowe sequence, introduced by Lowe in 1982, specifically describes turbidites from high-density turbidity currents carrying coarse-grained, sandy to gravelly sediments with significant matrix content. It comprises three divisions: S1, a massive or poorly structured basal unit deposited rapidly from suspension; S2, an inversely graded interval reflecting grain avalanching and hindered settling; and S3, a normally graded upper sand unit formed by traction and suspension settling, but without the finer-grained, ripple-laminated, or pelitic upper parts seen in the Bouma model.^[37] This sequence lacks the characteristic ripple cross-lamination of Bouma's Tb and Tc divisions due to the high sediment concentration that suppresses bedform development.^[37] Key differences between the Bouma and Lowe sequences stem from flow density and grain size: the Bouma applies to dilute, sandy-to-muddy flows in distal settings, producing finer-grained successions with traction-dominated upper divisions, whereas the Lowe model fits proximal, coarse-grained, debris-rich environments where high-density flows dominate and rapid deposition limits sorting and lamination.^[37] The Lowe sequence is thus preferred in interpreting ancient proximal submarine fans or canyon-fill deposits with abundant coarse clastics.^[37] Other variants include models for hybrid flows that integrate traction and mass-flow processes, such as the hybrid event beds (HEBs) classified by Haughton et al. (2009). These hybrid event beds typically feature a basal turbidite-like division (similar to Ta-Tb) overlain by a mud-rich, structureless debrite layer, reflecting flows that transition from turbulent to cohesive behavior. Such models are applied where flows incorporate cohesive mud or substrate erosion, common in confined basin settings, contrasting with the purely turbulent, waning-flow assumption of the Bouma sequence. The Bouma model remains ideal for fine-grained, distal submarine fans, while Lowe and hybrid variants better suit coarser, proximal, or transitional depositional regimes.^[38]

Applications and Significance

Field Identification and Analysis

Field identification of the Bouma sequence begins with detailed outcrop logging, where geologists measure bed thicknesses using tape measures or laser rangefinders to document the vertical extent of each division, typically ranging from decimeters to meters for complete sequences.^[39] Grain size trends are logged systematically by collecting samples at intervals and sieving or visual estimation to confirm the characteristic fining-upward progression from coarse sand in division A to mud in division E.^[3] Sole marks, such as flute casts and groove casts at the base of division A, are identified and measured with a compass to determine paleocurrent directions, providing evidence of flow orientation during deposition.^[40] In laboratory settings, thin-section petrography involves preparing polished slices of rock samples mounted on glass slides and examining them under a polarizing microscope to analyze mineral composition, matrix content, and fabric details that distinguish turbidite divisions.^[41] X-ray radiography of core samples or slabbed hand specimens reveals internal sedimentary structures, such as parallel lamination in division B or convolute bedding in division C, by producing high-contrast images of density variations without physical alteration of the sample.^[42] As of 2025, drone-based photogrammetry has become a standard tool for creating high-resolution 3D outcrop models of turbidite exposures, enabling virtual measurement of bed geometries and spatial relationships across inaccessible or large-scale sections.^[43] Machine learning algorithms, particularly convolutional neural networks, are applied to classify sedimentary structures from photographic or radiographic images of core samples by training on datasets of labeled features, aiding in the automation of structure recognition.^[44] Challenges in identification include surface weathering, which erodes fine lamination in divisions C and D, making subtle structures indistinct in outcrops and requiring careful excavation or protective covering during fieldwork.^[45] Additionally, bioturbation in division E often disrupts the pelitic mud layer, homogenizing textures and complicating the distinction between turbidite deposits and hemipelagic sediments.^[46]

Stratigraphic and Paleoenvironmental Interpretations

Bouma sequences provide critical insights into the stratigraphic architecture of ancient deep-marine systems, particularly through their vertical and lateral stacking patterns, which reflect autogenic processes such as fan lobe switching in submarine fans. In basin-floor settings, these patterns often exhibit compensatory stacking, where successive turbidite beds fill topographic lows created by prior erosion, leading to lateral shifts in depositional loci and the development of sheet-like sand bodies. Such arrangements are indicative of autocyclic lobe switching driven by channel avulsion or flow unchannelization, common in unconfined fan environments where individual turbidity currents erode into preceding deposits.^[47]^[48] The frequency of Bouma sequences within stratigraphic successions allows estimation of turbidity current recurrence intervals, offering a proxy for the periodicity of depositional events. In many deep-water settings, these intervals range from 50 to 1000 years, based on radiometric dating of interbedded hemipelagic sediments and varve counts, highlighting episodic sediment delivery tied to source-area instability. For instance, along tectonically active margins like Cascadia, recurrence estimates of 200–600 years align with paleoseismic cycles, while more stable basins show longer intervals up to millennia.^[49]^[50] Paleoenvironmental reconstructions using Bouma sequences distinguish proximal from distal depositional settings based on division dominance and thickness trends. Proximal sequences, enriched in the coarse-grained Ta division (A), indicate high-energy, steep-slope environments often linked to tectonic uplift and active margin settings, where rapid sediment bypass preserves thick, massive sands. In contrast, distal sequences dominated by the fine-grained Te division (E) suggest low-gradient, stable basin plains with prolonged suspension settling in quiescent waters, reflecting deceleration of waning flows over expansive floors. These variations enable mapping of paleoslope gradients and basin evolution, with A-rich assemblages signaling tectonic activity and E-dominated ones implying relative stability.^[51]^[52] Beyond stratigraphic correlation, Bouma sequences inform broader applications in resource exploration and environmental history. In hydrocarbon exploration, the identification of turbidite sands within Bouma sequences aids reservoir prediction, as amalgamated Ta–Tb divisions (A–B) form high-porosity channel-fill reservoirs, while distal Te caps (E) act as seals, enhancing trap potential in deep-water plays like those in the Lower Congo Basin. For paleoseismicity, synchronous stacking of sequences across basins indicates earthquake triggering of turbidity currents, with event clusters reconstructing rupture histories, as seen in Cascadia where 13 great earthquakes (M>8) correlate with multi-site turbidite layers over 7000 years. In climate studies, variations in sequence thickness and frequency track sediment flux changes, linking increased turbidite intervals to glacial-interglacial cycles that modulate continental erosion and delivery, such as enhanced flux during sea-level lowstands over the past 26,000 years.^[53]^[50]^[54]^[55] Quantitative approaches leverage grain-size statistics from Bouma divisions to model turbidity current parameters, including flow volumes and velocities. Sorting coefficients, calculated from phi-scale distributions in Ta (A) sands, quantify flow turbulence and sediment entrainment, with well-sorted grains (coefficients ~0.5–1.0) indicating sustained high-velocity currents capable of transporting volumes exceeding 10 km³. These metrics, combined with division thickness ratios, enable hydraulic reconstructions, such as estimating flow depths from inverse modeling of grain-size fining trends across proximal-to-distal transects.^[56]^[57]

Examples

Classic Localities

The Grès d'Annot Formation in the French Maritime Alps, particularly exposures around the Peïra-Cava locality, represents the original site where Arnold H. Bouma first systematically documented the complete A-E divisions of the turbidite sequence in his 1962 study.^[7] This Eocene-Oligocene formation features thick sandstone beds up to several meters, preserving the full spectrum of structures from massive graded Ta divisions at the base to fine-grained Te pelites at the top, illustrating the waning flow of turbidity currents.^[6] The site's well-preserved outcrops, often in structurally complex settings, allowed Bouma to correlate sedimentary structures with depositional processes, establishing the sequence as a predictive facies model.^[58] The Miocene Marnoso-Arenacea Formation in the northern Apennines of Italy stands as another classic locality, renowned for its proximal turbidite deposits where B-C divisions predominate in sandstones and siltstones.^[59] Spanning hundreds of kilometers along strike, this foredeep basin fill includes extensive, laterally continuous beds that record high-density flows, with thicknesses varying from decimeters to over a meter.^[60] Early studies here validated flume experiments on turbidity currents by demonstrating how division proportions reflect flow energy and distance from source, influencing models of submarine fan architecture.^[61] Additional exposures of the Paleogene Annot Sandstones across the French Alps, such as those in the Digne area, highlight channelized turbidite sequences with incomplete or modified Bouma divisions due to confinement. These sites reveal erosional bases and amalgamated beds, providing evidence of repeated high-velocity flows within submarine channels.^[62] Observations from these Alpine localities collectively indicate paleoslope gradients through systematic variations in division thicknesses—for instance, thicker Ta divisions in proximal settings like the Marnoso-Arenacea compared to more distal, complete sequences in the Grès d'Annot.^[63] Such proportions have informed reconstructions of ancient basin topography and flow dynamics.^[64] Many of these sections are readily accessible via road cuts and quarries, supporting their longstanding role in geological education and fieldwork training.^[58]

Modern Analogues

Recent observations of turbidity currents in submarine settings have provided empirical validation for the Bouma sequence model through direct monitoring and sediment sampling. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, triggered by the Mw 9.1 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake off Indonesia, generated multiple turbidity currents that deposited partial Bouma sequences consisting of divisions A (massive sands), B (parallel-laminated sands), and C (ripple cross-laminated sands) on the continental slope.^[65] These events were partially monitored using ocean-bottom pressure gauges and seismometers deployed in the region, which recorded pressure changes and displacements indicative of sediment-laden flows propagating downslope. Advancements in monitoring technology as of 2025 have enabled real-time capture of waning turbidity flows in active submarine canyons. In Monterey Canyon, California, remotely operated vehicle (ROV) imagery combined with acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCP) has documented flow velocities exceeding 5 m/s and sediment concentrations up to 20 g/L during events triggered by coastal storms. These instruments, deployed along the canyon axis, recorded the progression of dense basal layers eroding and depositing graded beds consistent with partial Bouma sequences (primarily Ta-b divisions) over distances of tens of kilometers.^[13]^[66] These modern observations underscore the Bouma sequence's applicability in active systems, confirming deposition timescales of hours to days and the influence of triggers such as tsunamis and cyclones on flow competence. Partial sequences often result from flow dilution in distal or low-energy settings, where coarser divisions are absent due to limited sediment supply or rapid deceleration.^[67] Such empirical data parallel historical turbidite records from Alpine flysch but emphasize the dynamic nature of contemporary processes.

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Distinguishing between Deep-Water Sediment Facies: Turbidites ...
Feb 13, 2020 · These silt beds exhibit the same suite of structures (the Bouma sequence) as sand-mud turbidites. Ungraded structureless silts are found more ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[26]
Process Sedimentology and Reservoir Quality of Deep-Marine ...
Sep 24, 2019 · Because reworked sands resemble the upper divisions of the Bouma sequence (i.e., Tb, Tc), they easily can be misconstrued as products of ...
[27]
Sedimentology of some Flysch deposits : a graphic approach to ...
Sedimentology of some Flysch deposits : a graphic approach to facies interpretation · A. Bouma, P. Kuenen, F. P. Shepard · Published 1962 · Geology.Missing: Alps fieldwork
[28]
ALEX STREKEISEN-Turbidite-
The Bouma sequence is the idealized sequence of sedimentary structures that represents the waning of a turbidity current as it passes over a single point. Each ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[29]
Direct Monitoring Reveals Initiation of Turbidity Currents From ...
Sep 13, 2019 · At Squamish Delta, we show that the sediment concentration threshold needed for sediment to reach the lower layer and to trigger a turbidity ...
[30]
[PDF] Turbidity Currents and Their Deposits - Mechanical Engineering
Turbidity currents are particle-laden, gravity-driven underflows where particles are suspended by fluid turbulence, driven by density differences.
[31]
(PDF) Turbidity Currents and Their Deposits - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · The article surveys the current state of our understanding of turbidity currents, with an em-phasis on their fluid mechanics.
[32]
Ten turbidite myths - ScienceDirect.com
The turbidite paradigm, which is based on the tenet that a vast majority of deep-water sediment is composed of turbidites (i.e., deposits of turbidity currents) ...
[33]
https://tos.org/oceanography/assets/docs/28-3_ortiz.pdf
[34]
[PDF] Turbidity currents - The Oceanography Society
Stokes settling law, Rep ~ 24/Cd. The black curve provides a fourth-order, least-squares polyno- mial fit between the log-transformed Cd and Rep data: y ...
[35]
Initiation processes and flow evolution of turbidity currents
Many large, muddy turbidity currents are much thicker than levee-channel relief; the upper parts of such flows are "stripped off" across levees and can become ...
[36]
Sedimentary Facies Model of Turbidites: ABSTRACT | AAPG Bulletin
Sep 19, 2019 · Incomplete sequences normally are caused by truncation of the upper intervals or omission of the lower intervals. Large differences in grain ...
[37]
Vertical grain-size variability within a turbidite levee: Autocyclicity or ...
Channels in deep-sea turbidite systems convey these currents while adjacent levees collect the overflow and commonly records incomplete turbidite sequences ( ...
[38]
Sediment gravity flows; II, Depositional models with special ...
Mar 3, 2017 · Deposition of the high-density suspended load leaves behind a residual low-density turbidity current composed largely of population 1 grains. At ...
[39]
Beds and bedding planes - Geological Digressions
Jan 1, 2024 · Thickness: Bed thickness is measured between and at right angles to bedding planes. ... Bouma sequence. Deposition of coarse-grained intervals (A ...
[40]
Identifying paleocurrent indicators - Geological Digressions
Feb 6, 2019 · Large flute casts on a turbidite bed sole (Omarolluk Fm, Belcher Islands). ... Groove casts on a bed sole, indicate flow in either direction.
[41]
Petrographic analysis in regional geology interpretation: Case ...
Jan 1, 2007 · Fine and thin-bedded (10–50 cm), sandstones and siltstones prevail, of which the base begins with turbidite Bouma Tb, Tc, or Td divisions (Bouma ...
[42]
[PDF] 23. The Sedimentology of Silt Turbidites from the Gulf of Alaska
The mean diameter of all silt grains coarser than 70 have been plotted against their height above the base of the bed, for a 0.5 mm wide strip of thin section.<|separator|>
[43]
3-D stratigraphic mapping using a digital outcrop model derived ...
Oct 2, 2018 · This study suggests that UAV-SfM DOMs can complement traditional field-based methods by providing detailed 3-D views of topographically complex outcrop ...
[44]
Automated identification of sedimentary structures in core images ...
Jul 18, 2025 · This study investigates the use of convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to automate structure identification in core images, focusing on siliciclastic deposits.Missing: Bouma | Show results with:Bouma<|separator|>
[45]
Capturing Key Attributes of Fine-Grained Sedimentary Rocks In ...
Mar 1, 2015 · Describing these rocks in outcrops and cores can be a challenge because they are very fine grained, weather easily, and generally do not exhibit ...<|separator|>
[46]
[PDF] 18. turbidites, redbeds, sedimentary structures, and trace fossils
Bouma sequences are generally not present in these turbidites. They are thought to have been deposited by turbulent suspensions of sediment that flowed over ...
[47]
[PDF] Deep Water Fans - East Texas Geological Society
Basin floor fans are formed from individual flows that erode into each other. Autocyclic lobe switching is common and produces this erosion. Hard to find THE ...
[48]
[PDF] Testing Deep-Water Depositional Models for the Trimmers Rock ...
This is called compensatory stacking (Figure 12) (Bouma, 2000). Other possible stacking patterns for the sheet lobe sands include vertical stacking or shingled.
[49]
How is a turbidite actually deposited? - PMC - NIH
Jan 19, 2022 · ... turbidites. The Bouma classic sequence of turbidite divisions (16) was established on this premise, based on the Gres d'Annot outcrops ...Missing: schemes extensions
[50]
Turbidite event history—Methods and implications for Holocene ...
Jul 12, 2012 · The 10,000-year turbidite record along the Cascadia margin passes several tests for synchronous triggering and correlates well with the shorter ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[51]
Proximal to distal sedimentological variation in a linear turbidite trough
Aug 7, 2025 · The gross vertical succession in all basins is from proximal up to distal. Understanding topographic effects upon the depositional processes of ...
[52]
[PDF] development of turbidite architecture on tectonically
The structure of the proximal foreland basin system was mapped and compared to turbidite architecture and depositional processes in order to interpret tectonic ...<|separator|>
[53]
(PDF) Sedimentary characteristics of turbidite fan and its implication ...
Aug 6, 2025 · PDF | The turbidite is favorable for accumulation of oil and gas and it is the most important reservoir in the deepwater area of West Africa ...
[54]
Paleoseismicity of the Cascadia Subduction Zone: Evidence from ...
The best explanation of the spatial and temporal extent of the data is that the turbidity currents were triggered by 13 great earthquakes on the Cascadia ...
[55]
Sea level and climatic controls on turbidite occurrence for the past ...
Here we analyze the effects of changing sea levels and climate (e.g. sediment supply) on the frequency of turbidites over the last 26 ... climate changes ...Introduction · Sediment Core · Turbidites On The Flank Of...Missing: flux | Show results with:flux
[56]
grain size statistical parameters and palaeoflow velocity ...
Oct 22, 2025 · The hydraulic and grain-size statistical parameters showed that low energy turbidity currents deposited the analyzed sedi-ments. Almost all ...
[57]
Hydraulic interpretation of turbidites from their grain sizes and ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The evaluated flow parameters for the transition from a flat bed to ripples (Bouma B to C divisions) are nearly an order of magnitude greater ...
[58]
The Bouma Sequence (1962) and the resurgence of geological ...
Arnold Bouma explains the origin of the Bouma Sequence in the 1960s, while Christian Ravenne focuses on the significance of the area as analogues of deep ...
[59]
Depositional cycles in two turbidite formations of northern Apennines
Mar 3, 2017 · The Marnoso-arenacea (Lower-Upper Miocene) is an example of a progradational or offlapping suite with thickening and coarsening upward trend.
[60]
New insight into the evolution of large‐volume turbidity currents ...
Mar 7, 2007 · Field observations come from the Marnoso Arenacea Formation in the Northern Italian Apennines. This Miocene sequence provides the most extensive ...
[61]
[PDF] Foredeep turbidites of the Miocene Marnoso-arenacea Formation
Furthermore, Type B beds are always devoid of the fine-grained F9 division (Bouma Tbe sequence) indicating that the study area records the deposition of coarse ...
[62]
Structureless, coarse-tail graded Bouma Ta formed by internal ...
The Bouma sequence (Bouma, 1962) is taught to students as being the most powerful predictive model in sedimentology. The sequence fines upward in grain size ...
[63]
Contained-Reflected Megaturbidites of the Marnoso-arenacea ...
By contrast, carbonate and hybrid turbidites flowing in the opposite direction, i.e., towards the north-west, produced the main key beds (Figure 2A).
[64]
Supercritical‐Flow Deposits: A New Quantitative Tool to ...
Sep 16, 2024 · ... Bouma division distribution is currently more reliable for paleoenvironmental reconstruction than SFD analysis. Future research should focus ...
[65]
A 6600 year earthquake history in the region of the 2004 Sumatra ...
Dec 1, 2015 · The likely 2004 turbidite has a distinctive stacked structure of three major fining-upward sequences observed at several basin and trench sites, ...
[66]
Sedimentary dynamics on isolated highs in Lake Baikal
These turbidites, which occur frequently in this tectonically and seismically highly active rift basin, tend to dilute the lacustrine background sedimentation ...
[67]
High-resolution record reveals climate-driven environmental and ...
Feb 28, 2019 · Here, we present the longest and highest resolution record of sediment flux and paleoenvironmental changes when a young rift connects to the ...
[68]
Time‐Lapse Seafloor Surveys Reveal How Turbidity Currents and ...
Apr 6, 2023 · Mean bottom current magnitude varies significantly throughout Monterey Canyon, from commonly >50 cm/s in the narrow uppermost canyon to ∼5 cm/s ...Introduction · Background to the Study Site... · Results · Discussion
[69]
Processes and Products of Turbidity Currents and Submarine Landslides in a Glacierized Fjord (Southwind Fjord, Baffin Island)
Summary of each segment: