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Cone

A cone is a three-dimensional geometric solid characterized by a flat, typically circular base and a curved lateral surface that tapers smoothly to a single point called the apex or vertex.^[1] The surface of a cone is generated by straight lines, known as generatrices or rulings, connecting every point on the base circumference to the apex.^[2] In a right circular cone, the apex is positioned directly above the center of the base, forming a perpendicular axis; oblique cones deviate from this alignment, with the apex offset.^[3] Key components of a cone include its base radius (r), height (h, the perpendicular distance from the apex to the base plane), and slant height (l, the distance from the apex to a point on the base circumference).^[4] These elements determine the cone's volume, calculated as V = (1/3)πr²h, which represents one-third the volume of a cylinder with the same base and height.^[1] The total surface area comprises the base area plus the lateral area, given by A = πr(r + l), where the lateral surface unfolds into a sector of a circle.^[3] Cones exhibit rotational symmetry around their axis in the right circular case and are fundamental in deriving conic sections—ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas—through planar intersections with a double cone.^[5] Historically, the concept of the cone traces back to ancient Greek mathematics, with Euclid providing a foundational definition in his Elements (circa 300 BCE) as the solid formed by rotating a right-angled triangle about one of its legs, establishing the axis as the fixed side.^[6] Later, Apollonius of Perga (circa 200 BCE) advanced the study by unifying conic sections under a single cone type, shifting from earlier distinctions based on vertex angles.^[7] Cones appear in various applications, from engineering (funnels, nozzles) to optics and architecture, underscoring their practical significance beyond pure mathematics.^[4]

Definition and Terminology

Basic Definition

In geometry, a cone is defined as a ruled surface generated by the set of all straight lines, known as generatrices, that connect a fixed point called the apex or vertex to every point on a fixed curve, termed the base, lying in a plane that does not contain the apex.^[2] This construction creates a surface that tapers from the base to the single point at the apex. The base curve can be any closed curve, though it is often a circle in standard examples.^[8] The term "cone" can refer either to the hollow conical surface itself or to the solid cone, which is the three-dimensional volume enclosed by the surface and the base plane.^[2] The conical surface alone is a two-dimensional object embedded in three-dimensional space, while the solid cone includes the interior points bounded by this surface.^[8] The mathematical concept of the cone originates in ancient Greek geometry, with Euclid providing a foundational definition in his Elements (circa 300 BCE) as the solid formed by rotating a right-angled triangle about one of its legs, establishing the axis as the fixed side.^[6] Apollonius of Perga (c. 262–190 BCE) advanced the study in his treatise Conics by using cones to generate conic sections.^[9] Visually, a cone consists of the apex, the base curve, and typically an axis of symmetry that extends from the apex perpendicularly through the center of the base in symmetric cases.^[2] The right circular cone, with a circular base and perpendicular axis, represents a common special case of this form.

Key Elements and Terminology

A cone in geometry is composed of several fundamental elements that define its structure. The apex, also known as the vertex, is the point where the cone tapers to a single point.^[2] The base is a fixed curve, typically a circle in the case of a right circular cone, lying in a plane that the cone intersects.^[2] The generatrix refers to each straight line segment connecting the apex to a point on the base curve, forming the lateral surface when rotated or extended.^[2] The base curve guides the path of the generatrix.^[2] The axis is the straight line passing through the apex and the center of the base.^[2] Specialized terminology further describes cone configurations. A double cone consists of two identical cones joined at their apexes, each half referred to as a nappe.^[10] The semi-vertical angle is the angle formed between the axis and a generatrix.^[11] Cones are classified as right or oblique based on the orientation of the axis relative to the base: in a right cone, the axis is perpendicular to the plane of the base, whereas in an oblique cone, the axis is not perpendicular to the base plane.^[2] ^[12] The term "cone" can denote either the solid object, which includes the interior volume bounded by the base and lateral surface, or solely the lateral surface excluding the base and interior.^[2]

Types of Cones

Right Circular Cone

A right circular cone is a geometric solid consisting of a circular base and a vertex connected to every point on the circumference of the base by straight lines known as generatrices, where the axis joining the vertex to the center of the base is perpendicular to the base plane.^[13] This configuration ensures that the vertex lies directly above the base's center, distinguishing it from oblique variants. The base is a flat circle, and the lateral surface tapers uniformly from the base to the apex.^[14] Key geometric properties include the uniformity of all generatrices, which share the same length called the slant height, resulting in a symmetric surface of revolution. Cross-sections taken parallel to the base yield smaller circles similar to the base, with radii scaling linearly with distance from the vertex. The semi-vertical angle, defined as the constant angle between the axis and any generatrix, characterizes the cone's aperture and remains fixed throughout.^[14] These properties arise from the cone's rotational symmetry, making it a fundamental shape in three-dimensional geometry.^[15] A right circular cone can be generated by rotating a right-angled triangle about one of its legs, specifically the leg serving as the axis of rotation, which produces the perpendicular alignment and circular base.^[16] This method of construction highlights its origin as a surface of revolution. In practical contexts, right circular cones appear in engineering designs such as funnels and structural supports, and in optics to model light propagation within conical beams.^[14]

Oblique and Elliptic Cones

An oblique cone is a cone in which the axis does not pass perpendicularly through the center of the base, resulting in the apex being offset from the point directly above the base's center.^[17] This configuration leads to generatrices of varying lengths, as the distances from the apex to different points on the typically circular base differ, and the slant heights are not uniform across the surface.^[18] Unlike symmetric forms, oblique cones lack rotational symmetry about their axis, which affects their geometric properties and makes their development into flat patterns more complex, often requiring triangulation methods.^[19] An oblique cone is formed as a ruled surface by the straight line segments (generatrices) connecting an offset apex to every point on the circumference of a circular base.^[17] These structures find applications in modeling skewed surfaces, such as certain architectural roofs that converge at an oblique angle or projectile nose cones in rocketry, where the tilt accommodates attachment to curved bodies.^[20]^[21] The volume of an oblique cone follows the same formula as its right counterpart, using the perpendicular height from apex to base plane, though surface area calculations must account for the varying slant heights.^[1] An elliptic cone features an elliptical base, with generatrices extending from the apex to the boundary of the ellipse, producing cross-sections parallel to the base that are also ellipses.^[2] This form lacks the rotational symmetry of circular-based cones, resulting in anisotropic properties and varying slant heights along different directions of the ellipse.^[22] As a quadratic surface, an elliptic cone is defined by a second-degree equation in three variables, distinguishing it from linear generations and enabling its use in representing non-circular tapered forms.^[23] Elliptic cones are generated as special cases of quadric surfaces, where the defining equation yields elliptical traces in planes perpendicular to the axis.^[24] They are employed in modeling skewed surfaces, including certain architectural elements or projectile designs requiring elliptical profiles for aerodynamic or structural efficiency.^[25]

Geometric Measurements

Volume

The volume of a solid cone, regardless of its specific type, is calculated using the general formula V = \frac{1}{3} B h, where B is the area of the base and h is the perpendicular distance from the apex to the plane of the base.^[13] This formula arises from the geometric property that the cone's volume is one-third that of a cylinder (or prism) sharing the same base area and height, a result established through methods like Cavalieri's principle or integration. One classical derivation employs Cavalieri's principle, which equates the volumes of two solids if their cross-sectional areas parallel to a fixed plane are equal at every corresponding height.^[13] Consider a cone and a cylinder of equal base area B and height h; at a distance x from the apex (or base for the cylinder), the cone's cross-sectional area scales as \left( \frac{x}{h} \right)^2 B, while the cylinder's remains B. Summing or integrating these areas yields the cone's volume as \frac{1}{3} of the cylinder's B h.^[26] An alternative derivation uses calculus by integrating the areas of infinitesimal cross-sections perpendicular to the axis. For a cone with apex at the origin and base at height h, the cross-sectional radius varies linearly as r(x) = \frac{R}{h} x (where R is the base radius for a circular base), giving area A(x) = \pi \left( \frac{R}{h} x \right)^2. The volume is then

V = \int_0^h A(x) \, dx = \pi \frac{R^2}{h^2} \int_0^h x^2 \, dx = \pi \frac{R^2}{h^2} \cdot \frac{h^3}{3} = \frac{1}{3} \pi R^2 h.

This approach generalizes to any base shape by replacing the circular area with the appropriate cross-sectional form.^[26] For a right circular cone, the formula simplifies to V = \frac{1}{3} \pi r^2 h, with r as the base radius and h the height along the axis.^[27] In oblique cones, where the apex is not directly above the base center, the volume formula remains V = \frac{1}{3} B h, but h must be the perpendicular height to ensure accurate cross-sectional scaling.^[17] For cones with an elliptic base of semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis b, the base area is B = \pi a b, yielding V = \frac{1}{3} \pi a b h.^[23]

Surface Area and Slant Height

In a right circular cone, the slant height l represents the distance along the generatrix from the vertex to a point on the base circumference. It is calculated using the Pythagorean theorem as l = \sqrt{r^2 + h^2}, where r is the base radius and h is the height.^[28] The lateral surface area of a right circular cone is given by \pi r l. This formula arises from unrolling the lateral surface into a sector of a circle with radius l and arc length equal to the base circumference $2\pi r; the area of this sector is then \frac{1}{2} l \cdot 2\pi r = \pi r l.^[29] The total surface area includes the base and is \pi r l + \pi r^2.^[30] For general cones with arbitrary base shapes, the lateral surface area can be computed via integration over the base perimeter, summing infinitesimal elements along the generatrices.^[31] In oblique cones, where the vertex is not directly above the base center, the generatrices have varying lengths, complicating the calculation; exact lateral surface area requires numerical integration or approximations, often involving elliptic integrals for precise results.^[32] For elliptic cones, with elliptical base cross-sections, the surface area derivation similarly demands advanced integration techniques, such as parametrizing the surface and evaluating elliptic integrals, highlighting the increased complexity beyond circular cases.^[23]

Analytical Properties

Center of Mass

The center of mass, or centroid, of a uniform solid right circular cone with height h and base radius r lies along its axis of symmetry at a distance of $3h/4 from the apex (or equivalently, h/4 from the base).^[33] This position assumes uniform density throughout the volume. To derive this location, consider the cone with its apex at the origin and axis along the positive z-direction. The cross-sectional radius at height z is (r/h)z, so the mass element is dm = \rho \pi [(r/h)z]^2 dz, where \rho is the constant density. The z-coordinate of the centroid is then \bar{z} = \frac{1}{M} \int_0^h z \, dm = \frac{\rho \pi (r/h)^2}{M} \int_0^h z^3 \, dz = 3h/4, with total mass M = \rho (\pi r^2 h)/3.^[34] For a hollow conical surface (thin shell) of uniform density, the centroid lies along the axis at a distance of $2h/3 from the apex (or equivalently, $2l/3 along the generatrix), where l = \sqrt{h^2 + r^2} is the slant height.^[35] This follows from integrating the surface mass elements, treating the surface as composed of infinitesimal rings weighted by the circumference at each height. In the general case of an oblique cone with uniform density, the centroid lies along the axis from apex to base center, at 3/4 the length of this axis from the apex (or equivalently, at a perpendicular distance of h/4 from the base plane, where h is the perpendicular height).^[36]

Cartesian Equation

In coordinate geometry, the Cartesian equation of a right circular cone with its vertex at the origin and axis aligned along the positive z-axis is given by

x^2 + y^2 = \left( \frac{r z}{h} \right)^2,

where r is the radius of the base and h is the height of the cone, with the domain restricted to $0 \leq z \leq h to describe the finite solid cone.^[2] This equation arises from the linear interpolation between the vertex at (0, 0, 0) and the circular base in the plane z = h centered at (0, 0, h) with radius r.^[2] For a more general elliptic cone with vertex at the origin and axis along the z-axis, the equation takes the form

\frac{x^2}{a^2} + \frac{y^2}{b^2} = \left( \frac{z}{h} \right)^2,

where a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the elliptical base at z = h, again for $0 \leq z \leq h. Equivalently, this can be rewritten as the homogeneous quadratic

\frac{x^2}{a^2} + \frac{y^2}{b^2} - \frac{z^2}{h^2} = 0,

which extends infinitely in both directions along the z-axis but can be truncated for the finite case. The general algebraic representation of a cone in three-dimensional space is a special case of the quadric surface equation

a x^2 + b y^2 + c z^2 + d x y + e y z + f z x + g x + h y + i z + j = 0,

where the surface is classified as a cone when the quadratic form is degenerate (e.g., the determinant of the associated 4x4 matrix is zero) and passes through a singular point acting as the vertex.^[24] For a cone with vertex at the origin, the equation simplifies to the homogeneous quadratic form without linear or constant terms:

a x^2 + b y^2 + c z^2 + d x y + e y z + f z x = 0,

and classification into types such as circular, elliptic, or hyperbolic cones relies on the eigenvalues or invariants of the symmetric matrix representing the quadratic terms.^[37] To obtain the equation for an oblique cone, where the axis is not perpendicular to the base, coordinate transformations such as rotations (via orthogonal matrices) or shears (affine transformations preserving the vertex) are applied to the standard right circular or elliptic forms.^[38] For instance, rotating the axes aligns the cone's axis with an arbitrary direction, introducing cross terms like d x y or e y z in the general form, while a shear transformation can tilt the generators relative to the base plane.^[38]

Advanced Geometric Contexts

Projective Geometry

In projective geometry, a cone is defined as a quadric surface in three-dimensional projective space \mathbb{P}^3, generated by the union of all straight lines passing through a fixed vertex point and intersecting a conic curve in a plane not containing the vertex.^[39] This construction makes the cone a ruled surface of degree two, with the vertex serving as the singular point where all rulings converge.^[40] The base conic can be any non-degenerate conic section, such as an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, and the projective equivalence ensures that all such cones share fundamental properties independent of the specific affine embedding. A key property of cones in projective geometry is their invariance under perspective projections: conics map to conics, preserving the incidence structure, while the straight-line rulings of the cone remain straight lines in the projected figure.^[41] This preservation of rulings distinguishes cones among quadric surfaces, as projective transformations maintain the collinearity of points on each generator line, ensuring the surface retains its ruled character. Unlike affine metrics, which may distort angles and lengths, projective geometry treats the cone as a homogeneous entity defined solely by incidence relations. Under point-line duality in \mathbb{P}^3, where points dualize to planes and lines remain self-dual, the cone exhibits self-duality as a quadric hypersurface. The dual of a cone over a conic is another cone, reflecting the symmetry in the defining quadratic equation, which interchanges the roles of points and tangent planes without altering the surface type. This self-dual nature facilitates theorems in intersection theory and polarity, where the envelope of tangent planes to the cone coincides with its pointwise description. The study of projective cones traces back to the 19th century, particularly through Jean-Victor Poncelet's foundational work in his 1822 Traité des propriétés projectives des figures, where he extended classical conic sections—originally derived from plane intersections with circular cones—to projective invariants, emphasizing properties preserved under central projections.^[42] In applications to computer vision, projective cones model the back-projection of image conics from circles in 3D space, with vanishing points arising as the projections of parallel line directions at infinity, enabling camera calibration and estimation of scene orientation.^[43]

Conic Sections Relation

Conic sections are curves obtained by intersecting a plane with the surface of a cone, a geometric construction first systematically explored in ancient Greece. Menaechmus, a Greek mathematician active around 350 BCE, is credited with discovering the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola as sections of a cone while attempting to solve the problem of duplicating the cube.^[44] This approach involved slicing cones with planes at various angles, revealing the diverse curves that would later form the foundation of conic geometry. The type of conic section produced depends on the orientation of the intersecting plane relative to the cone. If the plane passes through the apex of the cone, the intersection degenerates into a pair of straight lines corresponding to the generatrices. A plane parallel to a generatrix yields a parabola, as it intersects the cone along a curve that extends infinitely in one direction. When the plane cuts through only one nappe of a double-napped cone at an angle steeper than the generatrix but not perpendicular to the axis, an ellipse results, forming a closed bounded curve. If the plane intersects both nappes, the section is a hyperbola, consisting of two unbounded branches. A special case occurs when the plane is perpendicular to the cone's axis, producing a circle, which is a particular form of ellipse. The specific curve generated is further determined by the relationship between the cone's semi-vertical angle (the angle α between the axis and a generatrix) and the angle between the intersecting plane and the axis. For a right circular cone, if this angle is less than α, the section is a hyperbola; if greater than α (up to 90°), an ellipse is produced; an angle equal to α (parallel to the generatrix) results in a parabola.^[45] These conditions ensure that the right circular cone serves as the standard model for generating conic sections. A key proof linking these intersections to the focal properties of conics involves Dandelin spheres, named after Germinal Pierre Dandelin who introduced the concept in 1822. For an ellipse or parabola formed by a plane intersecting the cone, one or two spheres can be inscribed such that each is tangent to the plane and to the cone along a circle of tangency. The points where these spheres touch the plane coincide with the foci of the conic section, demonstrating that the curve satisfies the definition of constant ratio of distances to focus and directrix (with eccentricity less than 1 for ellipses and equal to 1 for parabolas).^[46] This geometric construction provides an elegant verification of the reflective and orbital properties inherent in conic sections.

Generalizations

Higher-Dimensional Cones

In n-dimensional Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^n, a cone is defined as the set \{ t \mathbf{x} \mid t \geq 0, \mathbf{x} \in S \}, where S is a base subset (typically a subspace or convex set) and the apex is at the origin; this generalizes the 3D cone by extending the ray structure from the apex through the base to all higher dimensions.^[47] A key subclass consists of convex cones, which are closed under both non-negative scalar multiplication and addition, ensuring the set remains convex; these can be polyhedral, generated by a finite number of extreme rays forming flat faces, or smooth, featuring curved boundaries like circular cross-sections.^[47] Polyhedral cones arise in linear programming contexts, while smooth ones appear in nonlinear problems.^[48] The n-dimensional volume of such a cone (or pyramidal generalization) is given by

V_n = \frac{1}{n} V_{n-1} h,

where V_{n-1} is the (n-1)-dimensional measure of the base and h is the perpendicular height from the apex to the base hyperplane; this formula establishes the scaling factor that diminishes with dimension, reflecting the tapering structure.^[49] In optimization, higher-dimensional convex cones underpin conic programming frameworks, such as second-order cone programming, where the "ice cream cone" (Lorentz cone) \mathcal{L}^n = \{ ( \mathbf{x}, t ) \in \mathbb{R}^{n-1} \times \mathbb{R} \mid \| \mathbf{x} \|_2 \leq t \} models constraints in problems extending linear and semidefinite programming for applications in control theory and machine learning.^[50]

Quadratic Cones

Quadratic cones arise as degenerate cases of quadric surfaces, where the defining quadratic form is rank-deficient, typically of rank 3 in three-dimensional projective space.^[51] For instance, the equation x^2 + y^2 - z^2 = 0 describes a right circular cone with its apex at the origin, representing a singular quadric that factors into linear terms over the reals but maintains a conical structure.^[51] In the classification of real projective quadrics, cones are distinguished as those possessing a singular point, known as the apex or vertex, where the quadric intersects itself or degenerates.^[41] This singularity arises from the quadratic form having a kernel of dimension 1, leading to a cone that is projectively equivalent to the standard form with a single vertex point.^[52] Non-degenerate quadrics, by contrast, are smooth hypersurfaces without such points.^[41] Over the complex numbers, the geometry simplifies further; all non-degenerate quadrics in complex projective space are projectively equivalent, while degenerate ones like the imaginary cone consist of a single real point (the apex) with no other real locus, though fully realized in the complex domain.^[53] The imaginary cone thus serves as a canonical example of a singular quadric in this setting, highlighting the uniformity of quadric classifications under algebraic closure.^[53] Extensions of quadratic cones classify them by the signature of the underlying quadratic form, yielding circular cones (signature (2,1) for isotropic circles at infinity), elliptic cones (positive definite transverse sections), and hyperbolic cones (indefinite form allowing hyperboloid-like rulings).^[54] These distinctions reflect the Lorentzian or Euclidean nature of the metric induced on the cone's base, influencing their embedding and intersection properties in Euclidean space.^[54] In differential geometry, quadratic cones relate to conical singularities on manifolds, where the metric degenerates to a cone-like structure at isolated points, as seen in orbifold constructions or Ricci-flat metrics with prescribed curvature.^[55] Such singularities model defects in gravitational or string-theoretic contexts, with the cone's aperture angle determining the deficit and enabling resolutions via blow-ups.^[55]

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[PDF] Basics of Projective Geometry - UPenn CIS
For example, the classification of conics and quadrics becomes simpler, and intersection theory becomes cleaner (although, to be honest, we need to consider.
[42]
Figures real, imagined, and missing in Poncelet, Plücker, and ...
Conic sections were defined by Poncelet in the sense of Apollonius as planar sections of a three-dimensional cone with a circular base (Poncelet, 1822, 4).
[43]
Accurate camera calibration with distortion models using sphere ...
Then focal length and distortion coefficients are determined using rotational symmetry of projective cone. The remaining of this paper is organized as follows.
[44]
Menaechmus - Biography - MacTutor - University of St Andrews
Menaechmus made his discoveries on conic sections while he was attempting to solve the problem of duplicating the cube. In fact the specific problem which he ...
[45]
Conic Sections and Dandelin Spheres | CK-12 Foundation
Dandelin himself didn't prove the focal property for parabolas that we are about to discuss, but Pierce Morton used a sphere construction similar to Dandelin's ...
[46]
[PDF] CONVEX CONES, SETS, AND FUNCTIONS
of the n-1 dimensional closed bounded convex set C n H are ex- treme points ... An exponed point of a closed convex set is by definition a point of the ...
[47]
Volume Patterns for Pyramids - Brown Math
It is also possible to deduce this result by applying Cavalieri's principle for shear transformations, which again uses thick slices to approximate areas ...
[48]
Volume of a Cone in N Dimensions – Math Fun Facts
Volume of a cone over B = (1/n+1) * Volume of B * Height. Here, the “Height” is the distance from P from the hyperplane spanned by B.
[49]
[PDF] Lecture 6 Conic optimization - MIT
Feb 29, 2024 · The ice-cream cone, or Lorentz cone, is defined as. ℒn ≔ {(x,z) ... 1.3 Semidefinite cone ⟷ Semidefinite programming. Definition 1.2 ...
[50]
Quadratic Surface -- from Wolfram MathWorld
Quadratic surfaces are also called quadrics, and there are 17 standard-form types. A quadratic surface intersects every plane in a (proper or degenerate) conic ...
[51]
QUADRIC, CUBIC AND QUARTIC CONES - jstor
May 1, 2002 · ABSTRACT. There are 2 irreducible quadric cones (real and imaginary) required for obtaining the affine classification.
[52]
Chapter 6 - Quadric hypersurfaces - EMS Press
Apr 6, 2023 · quadric into a self-dual one. Then the duality principle may be enlarged by taking the term non-degenerate quadric as a self-dual one and ...
[53]
[PDF] Conic Sections Beyond R2 - Whitman College
May 14, 2013 · A conic section is the curve resulting from the intersection of a plane and a cone. Some terminology is required to flush out this definition.
[54]
conic singularities metrics - Project Euclid
The regularity no- tions for these objects are defined in terms of local ramified coverings, and we introduce the spaces Cα,β and C2,α,β in a similar way, so as ...