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Butterfly stroke

The butterfly stroke, also known as fly, is one of the four primary competitive swimming strokes, characterized by simultaneous symmetrical arm pulls over the water surface combined with an undulating dolphin kick from the hips, all performed while facing down on the breast.^[1] Swimmers execute the stroke with both arms moving in mirror-image fashion—recovering forward over the water and pulling backward underwater—while the legs perform a wave-like motion where the feet push backward together for propulsion, without alternating or scissoring actions.^[2] This demanding technique requires precise timing between the arm pull, two dolphin kicks per cycle (one during the pull and one during recovery), and breathing, typically achieved by lifting the head forward at the end of the arm pull.^[1]^[2] Originating in the early 1930s as an evolution of the breaststroke, the butterfly stroke emerged when swimmers and coaches sought faster variations by separating the arm action from the traditional breaststroke kick, initially pairing it with a frog kick before adopting the dolphin kick in the 1950s for greater efficiency.^[3] No single inventor is credited, but early adopters like American swimmer Henry Myers and Australian Sydney Cavill demonstrated proto-forms, with the stroke gaining formal recognition in competitions by 1952 when it was designated as distinct from breaststroke by international governing bodies.^[3] By the 1960s, refinements in underwater dolphin kicking and body undulation made it the second-fastest stroke after freestyle, though its high energy demand limits its use to shorter distances.^[2] In competitive swimming, butterfly is contested as a standalone event in 50-meter, 100-meter, and 200-meter distances at major meets like the Olympics and World Aquatics Championships, where only the 100m and 200m appear in Olympic programs, while the 50m is featured at non-Olympic international competitions.^[4] It also serves as the opening leg of individual medley races (100m, 200m, and 400m), requiring adherence to strict rules on starts, turns, and finishes: a forward start allows one arm pull and multiple dolphin kicks underwater up to 15 meters, turns demand a simultaneous two-hand wall touch on the breast, and finishes mirror this touch without submerging past the vertical.^[1]^[4] The stroke's rules, governed by organizations like USA Swimming and World Aquatics, emphasize maintaining a surface position on the breast except during permitted underwater phases, with violations like alternating arms or improper kicks resulting in disqualifications.^[1] Notable for building explosive power and cardiovascular endurance, butterfly training often focuses on drills to synchronize the "pull-kick-pull-kick" rhythm, making it a hallmark of elite swimmers' versatility.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Characteristics

The butterfly stroke is a competitive swimming technique defined by the simultaneous forward recovery of both arms over the water surface, followed by a simultaneous backward pull underwater, combined with two undulating dolphin kicks per arm cycle, where the legs perform a simultaneous wave-like motion, with one kick during the arm pull and another during recovery.^[5]^[2] The body must remain on the breast throughout the stroke, except during permitted underwater phases at the start and turns.^[5] This synchronization creates a rhythmic, wave-like propulsion that distinguishes it from other strokes. Key characteristics of the butterfly stroke include its exceptionally high energy demand, driven by pronounced intra-cyclic variations in velocity that require swimmers to overcome substantial inertial and drag forces.^[6] The stroke features a symmetrical arm action and a full-body undulation, initiating from the head and propagating through the torso to the toes in a fluid, dolphin-mimicking motion.^[5] These elements demand precise coordination and strength across the upper body, core, and lower body, making it one of the most physically taxing strokes.^[6] Recognized by World Aquatics (formerly FINA) as one of the four official competitive strokes—alongside freestyle, backstroke, and breaststroke—the butterfly is contested in individual events at 50 m, 100 m, and 200 m distances, as well as serving as the opening leg in medley relays.^[5]^[4] It emerged in the 1930s as an evolution from breaststroke techniques.^[4]

Comparison to Other Strokes

The four competitive swimming strokes—butterfly, freestyle, backstroke, and breaststroke—share fundamental principles of propulsion through coordinated arm and leg actions, as well as body positioning to reduce drag and enhance efficiency. All require a tight core and streamlined form to maintain forward momentum, with propulsion derived from both upper and lower body movements. Butterfly particularly aligns with breaststroke in its symmetrical arm pull, where both strokes employ simultaneous recovery over the water, contrasting with the alternating motions in freestyle and backstroke. This shared symmetry in butterfly and breaststroke facilitates similar engagement of pectoral and latissimus dorsi muscles, though butterfly's undulation adds a dynamic wave-like element absent in the others.^[2]^[7] Key differences arise in mechanics and execution, making butterfly uniquely challenging. Its continuous dolphin kick and simultaneous overhead arm swings create an undulating body motion, unlike freestyle's steady flutter kick and alternating arms, which allow for a more rhythmic, less synchronized effort. Compared to backstroke, performed supine with constant air access and similar alternating arms, butterfly's prone position demands greater core stability and precise breathing during the arm recovery, increasing physical strain without the relief of facing upward. While faster than breaststroke—due to its powerful pull and kick—butterfly requires stricter timing to synchronize the undulation, whereas breaststroke permits a glide phase that eases the demand on continuous power output. These distinctions result in butterfly occupying the full lane width and producing a visually leaping effect, setting it apart from the subtler flows of the other strokes.^[8]^[7] In medley events, butterfly's position as the first leg of the individual medley (IM)—covering 100m, 200m, or 400m—underscores synergies with the subsequent strokes, emphasizing the need for efficient transitions, such as the open turn to backstroke. This sequencing, mandated by governing bodies, leverages butterfly's power to set a strong pace while testing a swimmer's ability to shift from undulation to rotation without losing momentum, a skill less critical in single-stroke races. Physiologically, butterfly imposes high demands, with energy expenditure studies showing it exceeds that of freestyle and backstroke at various velocities (e.g., significantly higher VO2 at 1.0–1.6 m/s), though slightly below breaststroke, leading to pronounced fatigue over distances beyond 100m due to its intense coordination and power requirements.^[9]^[2]^[10]

History

Origins of the Dolphin Kick

The dolphin kick, an undulating leg motion mimicking the propulsion of a porpoise, was pioneered in the early 1930s by David Armbruster, the swimming coach at the University of Iowa, along with early developments by swimmers like Volney Wilson around 1934. Armbruster, who served as coach from 1917 to 1958, drew inspiration from observations of porpoise-like movements to address the inefficiencies of the traditional frog kick in breaststroke, which produced intermittent propulsion and higher drag. Beginning experiments in 1932 with swimmer Jack Sieg, Armbruster developed the kick as a continuous, streamlined alternative that kept the legs together and emphasized vertical undulation from the hips.^[11]^[12] Initially, the dolphin kick was employed as an underwater recovery technique in breaststroke to accelerate off the walls and during pullouts, offering superior speed compared to the frog kick. In controlled tests at Iowa, Sieg demonstrated that the dolphin kick covered 40 yards in 21.3 seconds, outperforming the frog kick's 23.5 seconds by providing unbroken hydrodynamic force without the recovery pauses inherent in the older method. Armbruster published these findings in 1935 in the Journal of Health and Physical Education, highlighting the kick's potential to reduce resistance through a more fluid, fish-tail action. A pivotal demonstration occurred in 1935 when Sieg showcased the "dolphin breaststroke"—combining the new kick with an over-water arm recovery—at the NCAA Championships in Harvard, drawing attention to its advantages despite initial regulatory pushback from bodies like FINA, which banned up-and-down leg motions in 1938.^[11]^[12]^[11] By the 1940s, the dolphin kick began transitioning to surface swimming as part of emerging butterfly variations, gradually supplanting scissors and frog kicks in attempts to create a faster, unified stroke. Swimmers at the 1948 London Olympics, including finalists in the 200m breaststroke, adopted over-water arm recoveries paired with modified kicks, though full dolphin integration on the surface faced ongoing prohibitions until FINA's 1952 rule change permitted vertical leg undulations. This shift marked the kick's evolution from a submerged aid to a foundational element of the butterfly, setting the stage for its complete incorporation into the full stroke during the 1950s.^[11]^[3]

Development of Arm Technique

The arm technique of the butterfly stroke evolved primarily from modifications to breaststroke in the early 20th century, as swimmers sought to reduce drag and increase propulsion through over-water recovery. Sydney Cavill, an Australian swimmer, is widely credited with pioneering the double over-water arm recovery in the 1930s, adapting it to breaststroke to achieve greater speed by keeping the arms above the surface rather than pulling underwater. This innovation addressed the limitations of traditional breaststroke arms, which created excessive resistance during recovery, and laid the foundational motion for what would become butterfly's symmetric pull.^[3] In the 1940s, refinements continued under influential coaches like Robert Kiphuth at Yale University, who emphasized the simultaneous action of both arms in a coordinated pull to align with the body's undulating motion. Kiphuth described the recovery as involving a bent elbow tracing a semi-circular path forward, with arms extending together to initiate the pull, promoting efficiency and power generation while minimizing pauses in the stroke cycle. This approach helped synchronize the upper body with the emerging dolphin kick, though challenges persisted with early wide arm paths that increased frontal drag.^[13]^[14] A pivotal advancement came in 1952, when the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) officially separated butterfly from breaststroke, enabling dedicated development of its arm mechanics distinct from breaststroke influences. This ruling encouraged narrower, more streamlined recovery paths to further reduce drag, as swimmers experimented with higher elbow positions during the pull phase to enhance leverage and forward drive without broadening the stroke's profile. These changes overcame initial inefficiencies, such as excessive water displacement from wide entries, establishing a more hydrodynamic arm action tailored to butterfly's demanding rhythm.^[4]

Emergence of the Full Stroke

The integration of the dolphin kick with the over-water arm recovery in the mid-1950s marked the synthesis of the butterfly stroke's core elements into its modern form, distinguishing it fully from breaststroke variations. This evolution was driven by demonstrations of superior speed, as early trials by swimmers like Jack Sieg showed that the combined technique allowed for faster times compared to traditional breaststroke, prompting international governing bodies to address the growing divergence. In 1952, FINA formally recognized butterfly as a separate stroke, permitting the dolphin kick's undulating motion and establishing distinct world records, which resolved ongoing ambiguities from the 1952 Helsinki Olympics where mixed styles had caused confusion.^[11] The stroke's Olympic debut occurred at the 1956 Melbourne Games, where it was introduced as a 200-meter event for men, highlighting U.S. dominance in the nascent discipline. American swimmer William Yorzyk won gold in a world-record time of 2:19.3, outpacing Japan's Takashi Ishimoto by over four seconds and underscoring the technique's competitive viability. This event solidified butterfly's status as an autonomous racing stroke, with women's events following soon after at 100 meters.^[15] The name "butterfly," often shortened to "fly," originated from the visual resemblance of the simultaneous arm recovery above the water to a butterfly's flapping wings, a descriptive term that emerged as the stroke gained prominence in the 1930s and 1940s. Early adoption of the full stroke was not without controversy, particularly regarding the synchronization of the dolphin kick with the arm cycle, as swimmers experimented with varying kick frequencies that blurred lines with breaststroke rules. These debates were resolved with the 1952 FINA rule changes, standardizing the propulsion pattern to two kicks per arm cycle and ensuring rhythmic coordination essential for efficiency.^[3]^[11]

Technique

Arm Movement

In the butterfly stroke, the arm movement is characterized by symmetrical, simultaneous actions of both arms, which must be brought forward over the water and pulled back under the water throughout the race, as stipulated by FINA rules.^[5] The entry phase begins with the hands slicing into the water shoulder-width apart, fingers first and thumbs slightly down to minimize resistance and facilitate a clean catch.^[2] This position, often described as entering at approximately the 11:00 and 1:00 clock positions relative to the shoulders, allows the palms to face slightly outward initially for an effective grasp of the water.^[16] The pull phase follows immediately, forming a high-elbow sweep that creates an hourglass or keyhole pattern underwater to maximize propulsion. The arms initiate with an outsweep, where the hands move slightly outward while the elbows bend and remain high, establishing an early vertical forearm position; this transitions into an insweep, pulling the water inward and backward toward the midline with the forearms and hands acting as a unified paddle.^[2] The motion then shifts to an upsweep, accelerating the hands outward and upward toward the hips, completing the backward propulsion that drives the body forward, emphasizing sustained backward pressure for efficiency.^[16] During recovery, the arms exit the water thumbs-first near the hips, with the elbows leading slightly to reduce drag, before swinging forward in a low, relaxed arc just above the water surface.^[2] The hands remain loose and close to the water—often with thumbs nearly brushing the surface—to maintain momentum and prepare for the next entry. This bilateral timing ensures the arms operate in unison, coordinating with the body's undulation for fluid progression. Common errors in arm movement include dropping the elbows during the catch, which diminishes propulsion by reducing the effective surface area of the pull, and overextending the recovery arc, which increases air resistance and disrupts rhythm.^[2] These issues can be identified through kinematic analysis, where maintaining high elbows correlates with higher stroke efficiency and velocity.^[17]

Leg Movement

The leg movement in the butterfly stroke, known as the dolphin kick, involves an undulating wave that propagates from the hips through the trunk to the toes, creating a fluid, whip-like motion for propulsion. The knees remain slightly bent during the downbeat phase to facilitate this wave, while the feet act as the primary thrust generators, snapping forward at the end of the undulation without excessive knee flexion, which would disrupt efficiency. This technique mimics the tail movement of a dolphin, emphasizing core-initiated oscillation over isolated leg action.^[18]^[19] Timing is critical for integrating the dolphin kick with the upper body, typically featuring one kick per arm cycle: a down-kick coinciding with the arm pull to maintain momentum, followed by an up-kick during the arm recovery to support body elevation and reduce drag. This synchronization ensures continuous propulsion, with the down-kick initiating as the hands enter the water and the up-kick accelerating the recovery phase. Elite swimmers adjust this timing precisely, as delays in the entry kick can reduce overall speed.^[18] The propulsion mechanics rely on a hydrodynamic wave generated by the whip-like undulation, which displaces water rearward to form vortex rings and produce thrust, rather than relying primarily on knee flexion for power. This wave motion minimizes drag while maximizing forward force through the feet's acceleration, with studies showing that optimal knee angular velocity enhances impulse without over-flexing the joints. In surface swimming, the kick primarily aids efficiency and body position rather than dominant thrust.^[19] Variations in kick style adapt to race demands, with a two-kick cycle per arm stroke favored in sprints for heightened rhythm and power, while a one-kick approach conserves energy in longer distances like the 200-meter event. The two-kick variant amplifies undulation amplitude for quicker acceleration, whereas the single-kick prioritizes smoother, less fatiguing waves to sustain pace. These adaptations highlight the kick's role in balancing speed and endurance without altering core mechanics.^[20]^[21]

Breathing Techniques

In the butterfly stroke, breathing is integrated into the arm pull phase to minimize disruption to the body's undulation and forward momentum. Swimmers typically lift their head forward during the upsweep of the arm recovery, allowing the mouth to clear the water surface briefly for a quick inhalation. This head position keeps the chin pushed forward and eyes directed slightly downward or forward, maintaining a neutral alignment with the spine to avoid excessive neck strain.^[22]^[23] Breathing frequency varies by race distance and individual endurance; in short sprints like the 50-meter event, swimmers often breathe every stroke to sustain oxygen intake without sacrificing speed, while in longer distances such as the 200 meters, breathing every two or three strokes—or incorporating breath-holding cycles—helps preserve rhythm and velocity. Breath-holding phases, where no inhalation occurs for one or more cycles, have been shown to enable higher maximum swimming speeds (up to 2.08 m/s) compared to constant breathing every stroke, as they allow for earlier muscle activation in the arms and legs.^[2]^[24] Key techniques include maintaining a slight head lift synchronized with the arm pull's propulsion, followed by an immediate return to a face-down position as the arms recover overhead. Exhalation occurs primarily underwater through the nose or mouth in a controlled trickle to prevent air buildup, with inhalation being explosive and brief to capitalize on the narrow timing window. Neutral head positioning, with eyes fixed forward during non-breathing phases, contrasts with the momentary lift and supports streamlined flow.^[22]^[23] Challenges in butterfly breathing stem from precise timing requirements; improper synchronization with the arm pull and body undulation can cause the hips to sink, increasing drag and disrupting the stroke's wave-like motion. A common fault is over-lifting the head, which elevates the upper body excessively and reduces hydrodynamic efficiency.^[23]^[22] Adaptations include rare side-breathing, where the head turns laterally during recovery, which is occasionally used by swimmers who find forward breathing uncomfortable, particularly in training to build versatility without compromising competitive form. Beginners may adopt more frequent breathing patterns, such as every stroke, to manage fatigue before progressing to optimized intervals.^[2]

Body Position and Undulation

The body position in the butterfly stroke is characterized by a prone, streamlined orientation with the swimmer's body remaining close to the water surface to minimize resistance. This involves maintaining a horizontal alignment from head to toes, with the face directed downward during most of the cycle and the body forming a flat plane to facilitate efficient propulsion.^[25] The undulation sequence begins at the head and shoulders, where an initial downward motion of the head—chin tucking toward the chest—initiates the wave, causing the shoulders and upper back to press downward while the pelvis rises slightly for forward momentum. This wave then propagates through the core and hips, reaching the feet in a whip-like action that generates thrust, with the head subsequently lifting as the back curves and the pelvis descends to complete the cycle and prepare for the next undulation. In elite swimmers, this head-to-ankle wave travels at an average velocity of 0.34 m/s faster than the center of mass velocity in males, enhancing overall speed through caudal energy transmission.^[26]^[27] Core engagement is fundamental to driving the undulation, with the abdominal muscles and erector spinae stabilizing the spine and coordinating the torso's wave-like motion to produce balanced propulsion and prevent excessive vertical displacement. These muscles power the undulating action, making butterfly the most core-intensive stroke due to the continuous demand for explosive, synchronized contractions that link upper and lower body movements.^[28]^[25] To reduce drag, swimmers must sustain a flat body plane throughout the undulation, keeping hips high during arm recovery and avoiding faults such as piking—where the hips sink below the shoulders—which disrupts hydrodynamic flow and increases resistance. A level position minimizes vertical oscillations of the center of gravity, allowing for smoother wave propagation and lower energy expenditure.^[25]^[29] Physiologically, the butterfly undulation mimics the anguilliform locomotion of fish like eels, where a propagating body wave generates thrust efficiently against water resistance, achieving propeller efficiencies of 0.5-0.7 comparable to natural swimmers. This bio-inspired mechanism optimizes energy use by transmitting force caudally along the body, reducing the metabolic cost of overcoming drag in a dense medium.^[30]^[31]

Starts

In butterfly stroke competitions, the start begins with a dive from the starting block, where swimmers adopt a streamlined position with both feet on the block—often using a track start with the dominant foot forward at the edge and the rear foot positioned behind for balance—knees bent, core engaged, and arms extended overhead with hands stacked or overlapping in front of the head to minimize air resistance.^[32] Upon the referee's starting signal, the swimmer executes an explosive push-off primarily from the legs, driving through the glutes and quads while swinging the arms forward from the shoulders, keeping them straight and close to the ears to propel the body into a forward dive.^[32] This phase emphasizes a neutral head position aligned with the spine to maintain aerodynamic efficiency during the brief airborne trajectory.^[32] The entry into the water requires a precise shallow angle of approximately 20-30 degrees to reduce splash and drag, with the body piercing the surface headfirst in a tight streamline: arms fully extended forward, head tucked between them, legs pressed together with toes pointed, and the entire body rigid from fingertips to toes to maximize initial glide distance.^[32] Underwater, following the dive, swimmers perform dolphin kicks—undulating leg movements originating from the hips and core—while optionally incorporating one arm pull to accelerate, all within a strict limit of 15 meters from the wall, after which the head must break the surface before the hands begin turning downward in the pull.^[5] This allowance for one or more dolphin kicks (but only one arm pull) stems from FINA's 1998 rule change imposing the 15-meter restriction on butterfly and freestyle starts to curb excessive underwater phases that had previously extended up to 35 meters or more in elite races.^[33]^[34] The breakout transitions the swimmer to surface swimming by initiating the first full arm pull as momentum from the glide diminishes, paired with a powerful dolphin kick to sustain the undulating body wave and propel the torso upward, ensuring the head emerges within the legal distance while preserving hydrodynamic efficiency.^[5] Key technique tips include generating maximum explosive power from the push-off to achieve greater initial velocity, maintaining an unyielding streamline to optimize glide and reduce deceleration, and keeping underwater kicks compact and core-driven rather than leg-flailing to avoid disrupting the body's alignment.^[32] These elements collectively allow elite swimmers to cover the first 15 meters faster than the surface stroke rate, often gaining a significant early advantage in races.^[34]

Turns and Finishes

In butterfly swimming, the approach to the wall during a turn involves gliding forward with the arms extended overhead and the body streamlined on the surface, maintaining the undulating wave motion until the final arm pull brings both hands toward the wall simultaneously. This positioning ensures minimal drag and prepares for the required touch. According to FINA rules (SW 8.4), the touch at each turn must be executed with both hands separated and touching the wall simultaneously, at, above, or below the water surface, while the body remains on the breast except during the immediate rotation phase.^[5] Following the two-hand touch, the swimmer executes an open turn by tucking the knees toward the chest, rotating the hips and shoulders to face away from the wall, and pushing off explosively with the feet while forming a tight streamline position—arms extended overhead, hands overlapped, head tucked, and body straight. This push-off propels the swimmer backward underwater, where dolphin kicks commence immediately, with the legs moving in a simultaneous undulating motion. FINA regulations (SW 8.5) permit one or more leg kicks and a single arm pull underwater after the turn, but the swimmer must surface by the 15-meter mark from the wall, remaining on the surface thereafter until the next turn or finish; the body must be on the breast when leaving the wall.^[5] This underwater phase maximizes speed due to reduced drag, often covering the full 15 meters in elite performances.^[35] The finish of a butterfly race mirrors the turn touch, requiring a simultaneous two-hand contact with the wall, hands separated, while the body aligns vertically or as upright as possible to minimize any forward momentum loss. USA Swimming rules (101.3.5) emphasize that this touch must occur at, above, or below the surface, with no stacking of hands allowed, ensuring the finish is clean and legal.^[35] Adaptations in turns and finishes vary by distance: in the 50-meter event, swimmers prioritize aggressive underwater dolphin kicking to the full 15-meter limit after each turn to capitalize on speed gains, as the short race allows full recovery. In contrast, the 100-meter and 200-meter races demand energy conservation, with turns focusing on efficient open rotations and limited underwater work to combat fatigue accumulation over multiple lengths, though the 15-meter rule still applies uniformly. FINA recognizes these distances (SW 12.1), and coaching analyses note that longer events shift emphasis toward streamlined pushes and quicker surface transitions to sustain stroke rhythm.^[5]^[36] Common errors leading to disqualification include non-simultaneous hand touches, where one hand arrives appreciably before or after the other, or improper stacking of hands during contact. Additional violations encompass attempting a flip turn without touching the wall first, performing more than one arm pull underwater, or failing to surface by 15 meters, which disrupts the required surface swimming. These infractions are strictly enforced under FINA (SW 8) and USA Swimming (101.3) guidelines to maintain stroke integrity.^[5]^[35]

Styles and Variations

The butterfly stroke adapts its technique based on race distance to balance speed, power, and endurance. In sprint events like the 50m and 100m, swimmers employ a higher stroke rate and shorter stroke length, achieving greater velocity through rapid arm pulls and more explosive undulation.^[17] In the 200m distance event, competitors opt for a lower arm cadence and smoother, less forceful body undulation to maintain efficiency and delay fatigue over the extended duration.^[20] Individual swimmers may vary kick timing within the dolphin undulation, using either one kick per arm cycle for streamlined efficiency or two kicks per cycle for enhanced propulsion, particularly in sprints; contemporary competitive standards predominantly favor the two-kick pattern to optimize rhythm and power.^[37] The full butterfly stroke, combining arms and legs, contrasts with isolated dolphin kick-only sequences, which are employed during individual medley transitions—such as the switch from backstroke to breaststroke, allowing up to 15 meters of underwater dolphin kicking—and in drills to isolate and strengthen leg action.^[35] In non-competitive or recreational contexts, the butterfly is often simplified with modifications like breathing every arm cycle instead of every two or three, and a gentler undulation to reduce strain and improve accessibility for fitness swimmers.^[38] The stroke's evolution toward exclusive dolphin kicking occurred after FINA recognized butterfly as a distinct event separate from breaststroke in 1952, phasing out the breaststroke kick that had lingered in early variations despite the separation.^[4]

Rules and Regulations

FINA Official Rules

The butterfly stroke is defined under World Aquatics (formerly FINA) rules as requiring the swimmer to keep the body on the breast from the beginning of the first arm stroke after the start and each turn, with no rolling onto the back permitted except briefly during the turn itself. Both arms must be brought forward simultaneously over the water and backward simultaneously under the water throughout the race, while all up and down movements of the legs must be simultaneous in a dolphin-kick motion, with legs or feet not required to be on the same level but prohibited from alternating or using a breaststroke kick.^[5] At each turn and the finish, the touch must be made with both hands separated and simultaneously, either at, above, or below the water surface. Underwater swimming is limited to a maximum of 15 meters after the start and after each turn, during which the swimmer may perform one or more leg kicks and one arm pull to surface, but the head must break the surface by the 15-meter mark, after which the swimmer must remain on the surface until the next turn or finish.^[5] The 2023 World Aquatics Swimming Rules (SW 8) introduced clarifications on touch requirements, emphasizing simultaneous hand contact without specifying exact separation distance, and on kick timing, reinforcing that leg movements must remain strictly simultaneous to prevent any alternating action that could mimic other strokes.^[5] Butterfly events are contested over 50 m, 100 m, and 200 m distances in individual competitions, with the stroke serving as the first leg in individual medley events (200 m and 400 m) and the third leg in medley relay events (4 × 100 m).^[39] Long-course records and major championships, such as World Aquatics Championships, are measured in 50-meter pools to standardize conditions across international competitions.^[39]

Disqualifications and Enforcement

In butterfly stroke competitions governed by World Aquatics (formerly FINA), common disqualifications arise from violations of stroke mechanics, turns, and distance limits. Non-simultaneous arm movements, where the arms do not pull and recover together, represent a frequent infraction, as the rules require both arms to move forward over the water and backward underwater in unison throughout the race. Similarly, improper leg action, such as using an alternating, scissor, or breaststroke kick instead of the dolphin kick, or non-simultaneous leg movements, leads to disqualification, since legs must execute simultaneous up-and-down undulations without alternation. Invalid turns or finishes, including failure to touch the wall with both hands simultaneously (separated but simultaneous), also result in penalties, as does exceeding the 15-meter underwater limit after starts or turns by not surfacing the head by that point.^[5]^[40] Enforcement occurs through a team of officials, including stroke judges positioned at the pool sides to monitor arm and leg synchronization, and turn inspectors who verify wall touches and body position during transitions. In major international meets, underwater cameras and video review systems supplement live observation, allowing referees to confirm or overturn potential infractions based on recorded footage for accuracy in stroke compliance and timing. These video tools, as outlined in official guidelines, are used post-race if an official flags a possible violation, ensuring decisions align with technical rules.^[5]^[41] Penalties for infractions are strict, with immediate disqualification from the event upon confirmation by officials, nullifying the swimmer's result without appeal in most cases. Warnings are not issued during competitive races, though they may occur in training or novice sessions to educate participants; in relays, a single team member's violation disqualifies the entire team.^[5] Exceptions apply in masters swimming, where World Aquatics rules permit a breaststroke kicking movement in butterfly, limited to one per arm pull (with an additional single kick allowed before the turn or finish), accommodating older swimmers' preferences and physical capabilities.^[42] A significant 2001 rule change by World Aquatics banned the breaststroke kick in open-category butterfly, mandating exclusive use of the dolphin kick and promoting greater technique uniformity across competitors, which in turn reduced certain leg-related disqualifications while standardizing the stroke's execution.^[43]

Performance and Physiology

Speed and Efficiency

The butterfly stroke achieves high velocities in short distances, with the men's 50 m long-course world record pace averaging approximately 2.24 m/s, derived from the 22.27-second record set by Andriy Govorov in 2018.^[44] In longer events, fatigue causes a notable decline in speed; the 100 m record pace is about 2.02 m/s from Caeleb Dressel's 49.45 seconds, while the 200 m drops to roughly 1.81 m/s based on Kristóf Milák's 1:50.34.^[44] These figures, drawn from official timings at Olympics and World Championships, highlight how the stroke's intense demands limit sustained performance over distance.^[45] Efficiency in butterfly is influenced by stroke rate and hydrodynamic factors. Elite swimmers typically employ rates of 40-60 cycles per minute, with faster rates (around 50-56 for 100 m) in sprints to maintain momentum.^[46] The stroke's drag coefficient is higher than in freestyle, approximately 0.3 versus 0.2-0.25, owing to the undulating body position that increases wave and form drag during propulsion.^[47] This elevated drag contributes to the stroke's power requirements, as measured in biomechanical studies of active drag forces.^[48] Body undulation in butterfly generates additional propulsion through wave-like motion, enhancing speed relative to a rigid-body technique but at the cost of higher energy expenditure due to increased muscular activation and drag.^[17] Overall, butterfly ranks among the fastest strokes for sprints—second only to freestyle in 50 m paces—but its biomechanical intensity renders it the least efficient and sustainable for endurance events, as evidenced by performance declines beyond 100 m in competitive data.^[44]

Ergonomics and Biomechanics

The butterfly stroke imposes significant joint stresses on the swimmer, particularly at the shoulders, where torque can reach up to 100 Nm during the pulling phase due to the simultaneous bilateral arm motion and high propulsive demands.^[49] This elevated torque contributes to risks of shoulder impingement and rotator cuff injuries, as the repetitive overhead loading alters muscle firing patterns, with reduced activity in stabilizers like the serratus anterior and supraspinatus in symptomatic swimmers.^[50] Electromyographic (EMG) analyses reveal that the stroke relies heavily on core and upper body musculature for power generation, with approximately 80% of propulsive force derived from these regions during the arm pull and body undulation.^[51] In the dolphin kick phase, EMG studies indicate peak activation of the gluteus maximus and hamstrings, particularly during the up-beat and down-beat, to facilitate hip extension and wave propagation. Hydrodynamically, the undulating body motion in butterfly leverages principles of fluid dynamics to generate lift, where the propagating wave along the body creates pressure differentials akin to Bernoulli's principle, reducing drag and enhancing forward thrust.^[52] The wave speed typically exceeds the swimmer's forward velocity by a factor of about 1.5, optimizing propulsion efficiency by ensuring the caudal momentum transfer outpaces body translation.^[53] This mechanism underscores the stroke's biomechanical demands, as poor coordination can amplify resistive forces. Injury prevention in butterfly emphasizes flexibility in the shoulders and hips to accommodate the stroke's extreme range of motion and reduce strain.^[54] Inadequate shoulder mobility increases impingement risk, while limited hip flexibility disrupts undulation, leading to common lower back strains from compensatory lumbar hyper-extension.^[55] Gender differences influence these ergonomics, with women generally exhibiting greater shoulder and hip flexibility, which can enhance undulatory efficiency and lower injury incidence compared to men.^[56] These factors contribute to observed performance variations, such as slightly higher efficiency in female swimmers during undulatory phases.

Training Methods

Training methods for the butterfly stroke emphasize targeted drills to isolate key components, structured periodization to build endurance and speed, and the use of specialized tools to enhance feedback and resistance. These approaches help swimmers develop the demanding undulation and power required for the stroke while minimizing injury risks, such as shoulder strain, through progressive overload.^[2] Drills form the foundation of butterfly training by breaking down the stroke into manageable parts. Single-arm butterfly isolates the pulling motion of one arm while the other remains streamlined at the side, allowing swimmers to focus on entry, pull, and recovery without the coordination demands of full strokes; this drill improves arm efficiency and timing.^[57] Similarly, dolphin kick drills using a kickboard build leg power and undulation by emphasizing the whip-like motion from hips through feet, with two kicks per arm cycle—one on hand entry and one on exit—to synchronize propulsion.^[37] On land, undulation exercises with a medicine ball mimic the stroke's wave motion; swimmers lie prone and roll the ball under their hips or perform overhead throws to engage the core and hips, enhancing body wave transfer and reducing drag in water.^[58] Periodization in butterfly training typically involves building an aerobic base early in the cycle with sets incorporating 10-20% full-stroke butterfly to develop endurance without excessive fatigue, followed by peaking phases focused on race-pace efforts like 8x50m at 200m pace with short recovery to simulate competition demands.^[59] For longer events like the 200m, post-peak recovery emphasizes active rest and technique maintenance to address the stroke's high lactic acid buildup.^[60] Tools such as swim fins provide immediate feedback on kick propulsion by amplifying the dolphin wave, helping beginners feel the undulation's power without full stroke fatigue.^[61] Parachutes add resistance during short sprints, increasing drag to build strength in the pull and kick phases, as supported by meta-analyses showing improved velocity in resisted training.^[62] Video analysis tools, including underwater cameras, allow real-time form correction by reviewing body position and timing, essential for refining the stroke's symmetry.^[63] Progression begins with novices performing short repeats like 8x25m butterfly with ample rest to master basics, gradually increasing to 4x50m as coordination improves.^[64] Elite swimmers advance to hypoxic sets, such as 10x25m on limited breaths (e.g., every third stroke), to enhance anaerobic capacity and breath control under fatigue, a method used by professionals to boost tolerance in races.^[65] Post-2020 trends incorporate wearables like smartwatches or swim trackers to monitor stroke rate and efficiency in real-time, enabling data-driven adjustments to optimize cadence during sets.^[66] Cross-training with yoga has gained traction for improving hip and shoulder flexibility, with sequences targeting undulation mobility to support the stroke's demanding range of motion and reduce overuse injuries.^[67]

Records and Champions

Men's Events

The men's butterfly events in swimming encompass the 50 m, 100 m, and 200 m distances, contested at major competitions such as the Olympic Games and World Aquatics Championships in long-course (50 m) pools. These events highlight the stroke's demanding combination of power and technique, with the 50 m and 100 m classified as sprints that rely heavily on anaerobic energy systems for explosive starts and high stroke rates, while the 200 m incorporates greater aerobic endurance to maintain rhythm over multiple lengths.^[68] Olympic butterfly events for men debuted in 1956, with the 200 m introduced first, followed by the 100 m in 1968 and the 50 m in 2021. Early performances showed significant progression; for instance, William Yorzyk of the United States won the inaugural 200 m gold in Melbourne with a time of 2:19.3, reflecting the stroke's nascent development.^[69] By the 2024 Paris Olympics, times had advanced dramatically, with Léon Marchand of France claiming the 200 m gold in 1:51.21, and Kristóf Milák of Hungary taking the 100 m title in 49.90—illustrating a shift from over two minutes in the 200 m to sub-50 seconds in the 100 m sprint. American swimmers dominated early Olympics, winning 13 of 17 golds across distances from 1956 to 1992, including Mark Spitz's 1972 100 m victory in 54.27 and Michael Phelps' back-to-back 100 m wins in 2004 (51.25) and 2008 (50.58).^[70] Current long-course world records underscore modern elite performance: Caeleb Dressel of the United States holds the 100 m mark at 49.45, set at the 2021 Tokyo Olympics, while Kristóf Milák of Hungary owns the 200 m record of 1:50.34 from the 2022 Budapest World Championships; the 50 m record stands at 22.27 by Andrii Govorov of Ukraine since 2018.^[71] Notable swimmers include Michael Phelps, who amassed four Olympic golds in butterfly (two each in 100 m and 200 m) across 2004 and 2008, contributing to his record 23 total Olympic medals, and Ian Crocker, who became the first to break 51 seconds in the 100 m with a 50.76 at the 2003 Barcelona World Championships.^[72]^[73] Trends in men's butterfly reveal early American dominance, fueled by training innovations and physiological advantages, giving way to a rise in European and Asian competitors since the 1990s—exemplified by Sweden's Lars Frölander (2000 100 m gold), Singapore's Joseph Schooling (2016 100 m gold), and Hungary's Milák (2024 100 m gold). The pre-2009 era of high-tech polyurethane suits, such as the Speedo LZR Racer, accelerated records by enhancing buoyancy and reducing drag, with 140 world marks broken in 2008–2009 alone before World Aquatics' ban restored emphasis on pure athleticism.^[74]^[75] At World Championships, similar patterns hold, with Dressel's 2017 and 2023 100 m titles, followed by Maxime Grousset's 2025 100 m win in 49.62 for France, Luca Urlando's 2025 200 m title in 1:51.87 for the United States, and Grousset's 2025 50 m gold in 22.48, reinforcing U.S. sprint prowess amid broader international parity.^[76]

Women's Events

The women's butterfly stroke events, particularly the 100 m and 200 m distances, have featured prominently in Olympic and World Aquatics Championships since their introduction, highlighting the evolution of speed and endurance in the discipline. The 100 m butterfly debuted at the 1956 Melbourne Olympics, where times exceeded 1:10, while the 200 m event began in 1968 at Mexico City, with initial winning times around 2:24. By the 2020s, advancements in training and technique have pushed 100 m performances under 56 seconds and 200 m under 2:04, reflecting broader physiological and technological progress in women's swimming. Olympic champions in the women's 100 m butterfly have shown dominance by American and Australian swimmers in early decades, shifting toward international competition in recent Games. Key winners include Shelley Mann (USA, 1956, 1:11.00), Mary T. Meagher (USA, 1984, 59.26), Inge de Bruijn (NED, 2000, 57.33), Sarah Sjöström (SWE, 2016, 55.48), Maggie Mac Neil (CAN, 2020, 55.59), and Torri Huske (USA, 2024, 55.59). At the World Aquatics Championships, Sjöström claimed gold in 2017 (55.53) and 2019 (55.58), while Gretchen Walsh won in 2023 (56.25) and 2025 (54.73).^[77]^[78]^[79] In the women's 200 m butterfly, Olympic golds have been claimed by athletes from diverse nations, with Mary T. Meagher (USA, 1984, 2:06.90) setting a benchmark for dominance, followed by Liu Zige (CHN, 2008, 2:04.18), Mireia Belmonte (ESP, 2016, 2:04.81), Zhang Yufei (CHN, 2020, 2:05.68), and Summer McIntosh (CAN, 2024, 2:03.03). World Championship titles include Liu Zige's 2009 win (2:01.81) and McIntosh's 2025 victory (2:01.99), underscoring China's and Canada's rising influence.^[80]^[79] Current long-course world records stand at 54.60 seconds for the 100 m, set by Gretchen Walsh (USA) on May 3, 2025, in Fort Lauderdale, and 2:01.81 for the 200 m, held by Liu Zige (CHN) since October 21, 2009, in Jinan—remarkably enduring despite near-misses like McIntosh's 2:01.99 in 2025. These marks illustrate the stroke's technical challenges, with the 100 m favoring explosive power and the 200 m requiring sustained aerobic capacity.^[81]^[82]^[79] Notable swimmers have defined eras in women's butterfly. Mary T. Meagher dominated the 1980s, winning Olympic golds in both distances in 1984 and setting multiple world records, including a 59.26 in the 100 m that stood for years. Inge de Bruijn revolutionized sprint butterfly in the early 2000s with her 2000 Olympic 100 m gold and world record progression to 56.61. Sarah Sjöström extended this legacy, breaking the 100 m world record three times between 2014 and 2017 before her 55.48 Olympic triumph in 2016. Liu Zige's 2009 200 m record remains unbroken, showcasing her pioneering aerobic approach in the event. Women's butterfly saw earlier integration into competitions compared to men's events, with the stroke emerging from breaststroke variations in the 1930s and gaining official status by 1953, allowing quicker adoption in women's programs. Recent trends emphasize aerobic training for the 200 m, enabling swimmers like McIntosh to challenge longstanding records through enhanced endurance protocols, while the 100 m benefits from refined underwater dolphin kicks and starts. Major competitions prioritize the 100 m and 200 m over the non-Olympic 50 m, with the longer distances testing comprehensive stroke efficiency in elite fields.^[3]^[83]

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