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Butterfly

Butterflies are flying insects belonging to the clade Rhopalocera within the order Lepidoptera, distinguished by their typically colorful, scaled wings, clubbed antennae, and diurnal activity patterns that set them apart from their nocturnal relatives, the moths.^[1]^[2] They possess a long proboscis for feeding on nectar, three body segments (head, thorax, and abdomen), six jointed legs, and compound eyes, all adaptations that support their role as efficient pollinators in diverse ecosystems.^[2]^[3] The life cycle of butterflies involves complete metamorphosis, consisting of four distinct stages: the egg, laid on host plants; the larva, or caterpillar, which voraciously feeds and grows; the pupa, encased in a chrysalis; and the adult, which emerges to reproduce and feed.^[2]^[3] This process allows for remarkable transformations, with caterpillars serving as primary consumers of foliage and adults contributing to pollination by transferring pollen between flowers.^[2] Approximately 17,500 to 19,500 butterfly species exist worldwide, with around 750 species in the United States, showcasing immense diversity in size, color, and behavior across six major families, including Papilionidae (swallowtails), Pieridae (whites and sulphurs), Lycaenidae (gossamer-wings), Riodinidae (metalmarks), Nymphalidae (brush-footed), and Hesperiidae (skippers).^[2]^[4]^[3] Ecologically, butterflies play vital roles as pollinators, prey for birds and other predators, and indicators of environmental health, though many species face declines due to habitat loss, pesticides, and climate change.^[2] Notable examples include the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), famous for its long-distance migrations, and various species that exhibit mimicry or basking behaviors to regulate body temperature for flight.^[2]^[4] Their scaled wings not only provide camouflage and warning signals but also make Lepidoptera the only insects with such features, enhancing their evolutionary success.^[1]

Etymology and Names

Etymology

The English word "butterfly" derives from the Old English term buttorfleoge, a compound of buttere ("butter") and fleoge ("fly" or "flying insect"), first attested around the 8th century.^[5] The precise reason for the "butter" element remains uncertain, but scholarly consensus points to either the yellow coloration of common European species, such as the brimstone (Gonepteryx rhamni), resembling butter, or a folk belief that butterflies stole butter or milk from households.^[6] An alternative theory, supported by comparative linguistics, links it to Middle Dutch boterschijte ("butter-shit"), referring to the yellow excrement of butterflies, which may have influenced early Germanic naming conventions.^[7] In other European languages, similar folk etymologies tied to dairy or flight appear. The German Schmetterling, documented from around 1501, originates from East Central German Schmetten (meaning "cream" or "sour cream," borrowed from Czech smetana), based on a medieval superstition that butterflies or witches in butterfly form pilfered cream from churns.^[8] The French papillon, in use since the 16th century, stems directly from Latin pāpiliō ("butterfly"), a term possibly evoking the insect's tent-like wings spread in flight, as the word also relates to pāpiliō in the sense of a canopy or pavilion.^[9] This Latin root traces to Proto-Indo-European *pal- or *pl- ("to fly" or "to shake"), reflecting the fluttering motion.^[10] Ancient naming conventions reveal deeper symbolic layers. In classical Greek, Aristotle referred to butterflies as psychē in his History of Animals (551a13–14), using the term that also denotes "soul" or "breath," likely due to the insect's transformative life cycle mirroring notions of the soul's immortality or emergence from the body.^[11] This dual usage persisted in Greek texts, where psychē interchangeably described the butterfly and the animating principle of life, influencing later philosophical and linguistic traditions.^[12]

Common Names and Variations

Butterflies bear a rich array of common names across global regions and cultures, shaped by linguistic traditions, environmental observations, and symbolic associations. In English, the predominant term "butterfly" prevails, but colloquial variations emerge in dialects and playful usage, such as "flutterby," a spoonerism evoking the insect's wing motion and appearing in folklore and children's rhymes since the 19th century. In Romance languages, names diverge notably: French employs "papillon," derived from Latin papilio meaning a fluttering or tent-like structure, while Italian uses "farfalla," derived from Latin papiliō. In Spanish-speaking regions, butterflies are termed "mariposa," a word likely originating from the phrase "María posa," combining "María" (referring to the Virgin Mary) with the imperative of posar (to alight or rest), evoking the image of the figure descending gently like the insect.^[13] This nomenclature highlights a blend of religious reverence and natural description, contrasting with Germanic languages like German's "Schmetterling," from Middle High German smeterling, linked to "cream" (schmetten) due to associations with dairy or yellow hues in early folklore. Such regional variations underscore how local ecologies and histories influence nomenclature, with over 20 distinct terms documented across European languages alone.^[14] Indigenous North American communities often imbue butterfly names with profound cultural symbolism, viewing the insect as a harbinger of transformation, rebirth, and spiritual messages due to its metamorphic life cycle. In Lakota (Sioux), the term is "kimimila," and Native American traditions, including Lakota, often view butterflies as symbols of transformation and messengers to the Great Spirit.^[15]^[16] Similarly, in Navajo (Diné), "kʼaalógii" reflects the creature's aerial grace, while Hopi traditions include the Butterfly Dance, a ceremonial event featuring clan symbols and movements that emulate the insect, held for communal and seasonal purposes.^[17] These names, varying by tribe—such as Cherokee "kamama"^[18]—emphasize ecological and metaphysical connections, distinct from European utilitarian labels.^[19] Scientifically, butterflies are denoted through binomial nomenclature under the Linnaean system, assigning unique two-part Latinized names to species for precise identification. A prominent example is Papilio glaucus, the eastern tiger swallowtail, where Papilio denotes the swallowtail genus (from Latin for "butterfly") and glaucus references its bluish tail markings; this large, yellow-and-black species is widespread in eastern North America.^[20] Another common instance is Danaus plexippus, the monarch butterfly, named for its migratory prowess and orange hues, with Danaus honoring a Greek mythological figure and plexippus alluding to a Trojan king; this iconic species exemplifies how scientific names bridge classical roots with biological traits. These binomials facilitate global research while coexisting with the diverse vernacular names that enrich cultural appreciation of butterflies.

Classification and Evolution

Taxonomy

Butterflies are classified within the superorder Endopterygota, which encompasses insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, and belong to the order Lepidoptera, known for scaled wings.^[21] Within Lepidoptera, butterflies form the clade Rhopalocera, distinguishing them from the more diverse moth groups in the suborder Heterocera.^[22] The taxonomy of butterflies is organized into two primary superfamilies: Hesperioidea, comprising the skippers, and Papilionoidea, which includes the true butterflies.^[22] The superfamily Papilionoidea encompasses several major families, such as Papilionidae (swallowtails), characterized by their tailed wings, and Nymphalidae (brush-footed butterflies), the largest family noted for reduced forelegs.^[22] Other prominent families in Papilionoidea include Pieridae (whites and sulfurs) and Lycaenidae (gossamer-winged butterflies).^[23] As of 2023, the global butterfly fauna is estimated at approximately 19,500 species, representing an increase from prior assessments due to refined phylogenetic analyses.^[22] Recent genomic studies, particularly in biodiverse tropical regions like the Neotropics and Southeast Asia, have identified additional species and subspecies through comparative phylogenomics, contributing to ongoing taxonomic revisions.^[24] Butterflies are primarily distinguished from moths by their clubbed antennae, which are slender and end in a swollen tip, in contrast to the typically feathery or tapered antennae of moths.^[25] Additionally, butterflies exhibit predominantly diurnal activity patterns, evolving from nocturnal moth ancestors, whereas most moths are nocturnal.^[22]

Phylogeny

Butterflies constitute a monophyletic clade within the ditrysian moths of the order Lepidoptera, encompassing the superfamilies Hesperioidea and Papilionoidea.^[26] The broader order Lepidoptera originated around 200 million years ago during the late Triassic period, marking the initial divergence of major lepidopteran lineages that include both moths and the ancestors of butterflies.^[27] This early radiation laid the foundation for the subsequent diversification of Ditrysia, the clade containing nearly all advanced moths and butterflies, which achieved its crown age in the late Jurassic approximately 155 million years ago.^[27] A pivotal event in butterfly evolution occurred during the Cretaceous period, when butterflies underwent significant radiation alongside the explosive diversification of angiosperms, indicating a history of co-evolution between these insects and flowering plants.^[28] This temporal alignment suggests that the availability of nectar and host plants from angiosperms facilitated the adaptive expansion of butterfly lineages, particularly in terms of host specificity and pollination mutualisms.^[27] Phylogenomic analyses from the 2020s, leveraging whole-genome sequencing of over 160 skipper species, have solidified the position of Hesperiidae as the basal butterfly family, diverging early from other papilionoids and highlighting the deep evolutionary splits within the group.^[29] At the molecular level, Hox genes play a crucial role in shaping butterfly wing patterns, acting as key regulators in the development of serial homologous structures like eyespots, as demonstrated in species such as Bicyclus anynana where Antennapedia (Antp) is essential for eyespot formation on both fore- and hindwings.^[30] Convergence in wing mimicry further underscores shared genetic mechanisms across lineages; for instance, in the Heliconiinae subfamily of Nymphalidae, Müllerian mimicry has evolved independently between distantly related species like Heliconius melpomene and H. erato, driven by convergent changes in optix and cortex genes that produce similar warning color patterns.^[31] Updates from 2025 genomic studies on Neotropical limenitidine butterflies, including genera like Adelpha, have refined phylogenetic trees using comprehensive mitogenomic and nuclear data, revealing accelerated evolutionary rates in these lineages characterized by rapid speciation and mimicry diversification compared to temperate counterparts.^[32]

Fossil Record

The fossil record of butterflies (Papilionoidea and Hesperioidea) is sparse due to their delicate wing scales and soft-bodied structures, which rarely preserve well in sedimentary deposits.^[33] The earliest direct evidence of lepidopterans, including butterfly-like forms, comes from wing scales found in Late Triassic sediments dating to approximately 200 million years ago in northern Germany, predating the diversification of flowering plants and suggesting initial reliance on non-angiosperm nectar sources.^[34] A 2025 discovery of butterfly wing scales preserved in fossilized coprolites from Middle Triassic deposits (around 236 million years ago) in what is now Argentina further pushes back the origins of these insects, filling a significant gap in the pre-Jurassic record and indicating an even earlier emergence during the recovery phase after the Permian extinction.^[35] During the Mesozoic Era, butterfly fossils become slightly more common in exceptional preservation settings like amber. Mid-Cretaceous inclusions from Burmese amber (approximately 99 million years old) reveal early members of the Papilionoidea superfamily, including detailed wing venation and scale patterns that align with modern butterflies, supporting their diversification alongside the rise of angiosperms.^[36] These fossils illustrate a co-evolutionary relationship with flowering plants, as butterflies' elongated proboscises—evident in related lepidopteran remains—likely facilitated pollination of early blooms, though butterflies originated well before the angiosperm radiation around 130 million years ago.^[37] In the Cenozoic Era, the record expands with compression fossils from lacustrine deposits. Late Eocene impressions from the Florissant Formation in North America (about 34 million years old), such as Prodryas persephone, provide some of the earliest complete butterfly specimens, showcasing wing morphologies similar to extant nymphalids and highlighting post-Cretaceous radiation in subtropical environments. Oligocene sites in Europe, including the Aix-en-Provence deposits in France (around 25 million years old), document further diversification, with fossils of hesperiid and papilionoid taxa indicating adaptation to cooling climates and expanding grasslands.^[38] Despite these finds, significant gaps persist in the Jurassic record, with no confirmed butterfly body fossils from that period; molecular phylogenies place crown-group butterflies firmly in the Cretaceous.

Morphology and Physiology

External Anatomy

The external anatomy of butterflies is characterized by a segmented body divided into three primary regions: the head, thorax, and abdomen, which together support locomotion, sensory perception, and reproduction.^[39] This tripartite structure is typical of adult Lepidoptera, with the exoskeleton providing rigidity and protection while allowing flexibility for flight and mating.^[40] The head is the anterior region, featuring specialized appendages for feeding and sensing the environment. It bears a pair of clubbed antennae that serve as primary olfactory organs, detecting pheromones and host plant volatiles over short distances to aid in navigation and mate location.^[39]^[41] Prominent compound eyes, composed of thousands of ommatidia, provide a wide field of vision for detecting movement and ultraviolet patterns, essential for foraging and predator avoidance.^[39] The mouthparts are modified into a coiled proboscis, a tubular structure up to several times the body length in some species, used to siphon nectar from flowers; it uncoils via hydrostatic pressure for precise feeding.^[39] The thorax forms the central, muscular region responsible for locomotion, bearing three pairs of jointed legs adapted for perching, walking, and tasting potential oviposition sites. Each leg ends in tarsi equipped with chemoreceptors that detect sugars, salts, and plant chemicals, allowing females to assess host plant suitability before laying eggs.^[42] Attached to the thorax are two pairs of wings—forewings and hindwings—each consisting of a thin chitinous membrane stretched over a network of veins that provide structural support and transport hemolymph.^[43] The wings are covered with microscopic scales arranged along the veins, which overlap like shingles and contribute to coloration through structural interference and pigmentation; these scales also reduce drag during flight.^[44] Sexual dimorphism is evident in wing morphology, with variations in size, shape, and patterning; for instance, in species like the common buckeye (Junonia coenia), females are generally larger with more rounded wings, while males have more angular forewings.^[45]^[46] The abdomen is the posterior, elongate region, typically cylindrical and segmented into 10 visible parts in adults, with the terminal segments modified for reproduction. In females, the ovipositor at the abdomen's tip enables precise egg deposition on host plants, while males possess external claspers and an aedeagus on the ninth segment for securing mates during copulation.^[39]^[47] These structures are often concealed but become prominent during mating.^[48] Butterfly sensory adaptations enhance survival through external features integrated across body regions. The antennae not only facilitate olfaction but also mechanoreception for detecting air currents, while the tarsi's taste receptors provide immediate feedback on food or oviposition quality, preventing energy waste on unsuitable substrates.^[42]^[41] Wingspan varies widely among species, ranging from approximately 1 cm in the western pygmy blue (Brephidium exilis), the smallest butterfly, to up to 28 cm in the Queen Alexandra's birdwing (Ornithoptera alexandrae), the largest, reflecting adaptations to diverse habitats from arid deserts to tropical forests.^[49]

Internal Systems

Butterflies possess an open circulatory system in which hemolymph, the insect equivalent of blood, circulates freely within the body cavity rather than being confined to closed vessels. This hemolymph, comprising primarily plasma and hemocytes, transports nutrients, hormones, and waste products while also aiding in immune responses and hydraulic functions such as wing expansion after emergence. The system is powered by a dorsal vessel, consisting of an abdominal heart with ostia that allow hemolymph entry during relaxation and a thoracic aorta that distributes it anteriorly toward the head. Peristaltic contractions of the dorsal vessel, occurring at rates of 30 to 200 beats per minute, drive circulation, ensuring hemolymph bathes organs directly for efficient exchange.^[50]^[51] Respiration in butterflies occurs through a tracheal system, a network of tubes that delivers oxygen directly to tissues without relying on hemolymph for gas transport. Air enters via spiracles on the thorax and abdomen, branching into fine tracheoles that permeate muscles and organs, facilitating diffusion-based oxygen supply. Air sacs, particularly in the thorax, enhance ventilation by expanding and contracting with body movements, promoting convective airflow during flight to meet the high metabolic demands of sustained wing beating. This direct delivery system is highly efficient for active flight, as it minimizes diffusion distances and supports rapid oxygen uptake in flight muscles. The digestive tract of adult butterflies is a short, specialized tube adapted primarily for nectar consumption, reflecting their role as pollinators with limited need for solid food processing. The foregut includes a muscular pharynx and crop for nectar storage, while the midgut handles enzymatic breakdown of sugars via peritrophic matrix-lined epithelium, and the hindgut reabsorbs water before expulsion. Excretion is managed by Malpighian tubules, blind-ended structures arising at the midgut-hindgut junction, which filter hemolymph to remove nitrogenous wastes like uric acid and maintain ionic balance through active transport. In Lepidoptera, these tubules, typically six in number, efficiently process the dilute, high-sugar diet, preventing osmotic overload.^[52]^[53] The nervous system of butterflies consists of a centralized brain in the head connected to a ventral nerve cord running along the ventral body surface, with segmental ganglia coordinating sensory-motor functions. The brain, comprising protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, and tritocerebrum, integrates sensory inputs and contains approximately 100,000 neurons, enabling complex processing despite the compact size. Prominent structures include expanded mushroom bodies in the protocerebrum, which support associative learning, particularly in foraging behaviors such as color-based flower discrimination and spatial memory for nectar sources. In species like Heliconius, these regions show neuron proliferation up to 80,000 Kenyon cells per hemisphere, correlating with advanced long-term memory retention for trapline foraging routes.^[54]^[55]

Coloration and Patterns

Butterfly wing coloration arises from two primary mechanisms: pigmentary and structural. Pigmentary colors are produced by chemical compounds deposited in the wing scales, such as melanins that generate black and brown hues by absorbing specific wavelengths of light.^[56] Pterins, another class of pigments, are responsible for red and orange tones in many species, including pierids and heliconiines, where they interact with scale structures to modulate reflectance.^[57] In contrast, structural coloration results from physical interactions of light with nanoscale features in the chitin-based scales, producing iridescent effects without pigments; for instance, multilayered ridges in the scales create interference patterns that reflect brilliant blues and greens.^[58] The intricate patterns on butterfly wings, such as eyespots and bands, are governed by genetic regulatory networks that activate during wing development. The Distal-less (Dll) gene plays a key role in initiating eyespot formation by promoting scale cell differentiation at focal points on the wing disc, as demonstrated in nymphalid species like Bicyclus anynana.^[59] Similarly, the optix transcription factor coordinates red and orange pattern elements across diverse lineages, including Heliconius butterflies, by regulating pigment deposition and scale morphology.^[57] These genes enable evolutionary convergence in pattern mimicry, where unrelated species adopt similar designs for adaptive benefits. Mimicry in butterflies often involves shared color patterns that enhance survival through mutual reinforcement. In Müllerian mimicry, multiple unpalatable species converge on identical warning patterns; for example, Heliconius erato and H. melpomene in the Neotropics display parallel red and yellow bands, reducing individual recognition costs for predators across co-mimics.^[31] Batesian mimicry occurs when palatable species imitate toxic models, such as the viceroy butterfly (Limenitis archippus) resembling the monarch (Danaus plexippus) with its orange-and-black wings to deter avian predators.^[60] Ultraviolet (UV) patterns, invisible to humans but detectable by insects, serve as sexual signals in many butterflies. In pierids like Colias eurytheme, males exhibit iridescent UV reflectance on their dorsal wings, amplified by pterin pigments, which females prefer as indicators of genetic quality during mate selection.^[61] Eyespots have evolved primarily for deflection, drawing predator strikes to wing margins rather than vital body areas; experimental evidence from Bicyclus anynana shows that marginal eyespots increase survival by 20-30% against bird attacks when escape is impaired.^[62] Recent advances in nanoscale imaging have further elucidated structural coloration in Morpho butterflies. In 2025, researchers at the University of California, San Diego, utilized transmission electron microscopy and polarized light imaging on Morpho wing scales to reveal intricate photonic crystals—layered chitin nanostructures with ridge spacings of 100-200 nm—that produce angle-dependent blue iridescence, inspiring a novel, low-cost technique for detecting birefringent properties in cancerous tissues.^[63] These patterns largely develop during the pupal stage, as scale cells differentiate and deposit pigments or nanostructures.^[56]

Life Cycle

Eggs

Butterfly eggs are minute structures, usually ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 millimeters in diameter, with shapes varying from spherical and barrel-like to flattened or conical across species. The outer shell, or chorion, consists of a thin, resilient proteinaceous layer that safeguards the embryo, often adorned with longitudinal ribs, ridges, or reticulate pits formed during oogenesis in the female. These sculptural features not only strengthen the shell but also enhance permeability for respiratory gases. At the egg's micropylar end, a specialized depression houses one or more tiny openings—the micropyles—through which spermatozoa penetrate during fertilization and oxygen diffuses to support embryonic respiration.^[64]^[65] Egg coloration spans a spectrum from translucent white and pale yellow to vibrant green or mottled brown, adaptations that frequently align with the host plant's hue for crypsis against visual predators such as birds and insects. Green eggs, for example, merge seamlessly with leaf surfaces, while whitish ones may resemble droplets of dew or frass, reducing detection rates in natural settings. This polymorphic pigmentation, influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, underscores the evolutionary pressures favoring concealment during the vulnerable pre-hatching phase.^[66]^[39] Oviposition begins with precise host plant selection, mediated by contact chemoreceptors on the female's antennae and foretarsi, which detect oviposition stimulants like flavonoids and glycosides unique to suitable larval food sources. Females alight on potential plants, drumming the leaf surfaces to sample chemical profiles, thereby avoiding unsuitable or contaminated foliage that could doom the offspring. Eggs are deposited either individually, as in monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus), where each is affixed singly to the underside of a milkweed leaf using a specialized adhesive secretion, or in large clusters numbering in the hundreds, as observed in species like the small white (Pieris rapae) on brassicas, potentially diluting predation risk through mass defense. This strategic placement ensures proximity to essential nutrients post-hatching while minimizing exposure to abiotic stressors.^[67]^[68] Incubation typically spans 3 to 8 days, modulated by ambient temperature—optimal ranges of 25–30°C hasten development, while cooler conditions prolong it to enhance synchrony with host plant phenology. Within the egg, the embryo undergoes holometabolous morphogenesis, drawing nourishment from a nutrient-rich yolk that fuels segmentation, organogenesis, and appendage formation; by the end, a fully formed first-instar larva occupies most of the chorionic space, oriented head downward for eclosion. Humidity levels above 70% are critical to prevent desiccation, as the permeable chorion balances gas exchange with water retention.^[66]^[69]^[70] Certain Danainae species, such as those in the genera Euploea and Tirumala, incorporate cardenolides and alkaloids into their eggs via maternal provisioning from milkweed hosts, rendering them poisonous to predators and parasitoids like trichogrammatid wasps. These defenses manifest early, with eggs displaying bright yellow or orange aposematic hues that signal unpalatability, thereby deterring attacks and boosting survival rates in high-predation environments. Such chemical armament, evolutionarily linked to host plant specialization, exemplifies how toxicity extends protective strategies across life stages in this subfamily.^[71]

Larval Stage

The larval stage of butterflies, commonly known as the caterpillar phase, represents a period of rapid growth and development following egg hatching. Caterpillars possess a distinctly segmented body structure consisting of a well-sclerotized head capsule, a three-segmented thorax bearing three pairs of jointed true legs, and a ten-segmented abdomen equipped with up to five pairs of fleshy prolegs for locomotion and gripping. These prolegs, unlike true legs, lack joints and feature crochets—hook-like structures—that enable the caterpillar to anchor itself to foliage or silk. Additionally, a spinneret located on the labium (lower lip) allows the production of silk threads, which are used for creating trails, shelters, or attachment points during molting. Coloration in caterpillars varies widely, with many species exhibiting cryptic patterns for camouflage among host plants, while others display aposematic warning coloration, such as the bold yellow, black, and white stripes of monarch caterpillars (Danaus plexippus), signaling toxicity to potential predators.^[68]^[39]^[72] Feeding is central to the larval stage, as caterpillars are voracious herbivores that consume vast quantities of plant material to fuel their exponential growth. Many butterfly species are monophagous, restricted to host plants within a single genus or family—such as monarchs feeding exclusively on milkweed (Asclepias spp.)—while others are polyphagous, utilizing a broader range of plants from multiple families to meet nutritional demands. This selective feeding provides essential nutrients, including proteins derived from plant tissues that support the synthesis of silk fibroin in the labial glands. As they chew leaves with strong mandibles, caterpillars produce frass—compact fecal pellets—that are ejected forcefully to avoid contamination of their feeding area and may even serve ecological roles, such as masking herbivore presence from plant defenses by mimicking pathogen signals. Over the course of this stage, a single caterpillar can consume many times its body weight daily, converting plant matter into biomass while excreting indigestible components.^[73]^[74]^[75] Development proceeds through a series of 4 to 6 instars, with most species, like monarchs, undergoing exactly five, each separated by ecdysis—the hormonal process of shedding the exoskeleton to accommodate growth. Ecdysis typically occurs every 2 to 5 days, triggered by rising levels of ecdysteroids, allowing the caterpillar to expand before the new cuticle hardens; during this vulnerable period, they often consume their old skin for added nutrients. Overall, larvae can increase in mass by up to 1,000 times from hatching to the final instar, achieved through continuous feeding and efficient nutrient assimilation over 1 to 3 weeks, depending on species and environmental conditions. This dramatic growth prepares the larva for pupation once it reaches a critical size threshold.^[76]^[77]^[78] Larval behaviors are adapted for survival, including thermoregulation via basking, where caterpillars position themselves perpendicular to sunlight on leaves to elevate body temperature and accelerate metabolic processes like digestion. To evade predators, they often hide in leaf folds, silk shelters, or by dropping on silk threads when disturbed, resuming feeding once safe. Chemical defenses are prominent in some species; for instance, monarch larvae sequester cardenolides—toxic cardiac glycosides—from milkweed, rendering themselves unpalatable and emetic to birds and other predators, a trait reinforced by their aposematic coloration. These behaviors collectively enhance survival rates during this exposed, resource-intensive phase.^[79]^[68]^[80]

Pupal Stage

The pupal stage, also known as the chrysalis, represents a critical transitional phase in the butterfly life cycle where the larva undergoes complete metamorphosis into the adult form. Butterflies typically form an exposed pupa, distinct from the silken cocoons of many moths. Pupation begins when the mature larva selects a site, often a twig or leaf, and spins a silk pad using its spinneret. The larva then attaches its abdominal tip, equipped with hooks called the cremaster, to this pad, suspending the pupa head downward in a hanging position. In some species, particularly within the family Papilionidae, an additional silk girdle is secreted around the thorax to provide extra support and stability during this immobile phase. While most butterflies produce suspended pupae, certain ground-dwelling species, such as some satyrines, form pupae directly on or in the soil without suspension. During pupation, profound internal reorganization occurs through histolysis, the programmed breakdown of larval tissues, and the proliferation of imaginal discs—clusters of undifferentiated cells that develop into adult structures like wings, legs, and eyes. This process is tightly regulated by hormones: a surge in ecdysone, derived from the prothoracic glands, initiates histolysis and triggers disc growth, while declining levels of juvenile hormone prevent premature adult development and allow the shift to pupal commitment. These hormonal interactions ensure the selective resorption of obsolete larval organs, such as the gut and muscles, while imaginal tissues expand rapidly to form the adult body plan. The pupal stage generally lasts 8–15 days, depending on species, temperature, and environmental conditions, during which the butterfly remains entirely immobile and vulnerable to predation by birds, ants, and wasps. High predation rates can significantly impact population dynamics, with studies showing that up to 50% of pupae may be lost to predators in natural settings. Variations in pupal form enhance survival; for instance, swallowtail butterflies (Papilionidae) often produce chrysalises with mottled green or brown coloration and sculptured surfaces that provide effective camouflage against bark or foliage, reducing detection by predators. Research indicates that warming temperatures can accelerate larval growth rates by up to 29% and overall development in species like the cabbage white (Pieris rapae), potentially altering life cycle timing and increasing voltinism under climate warming scenarios.^[81]

Adult Stage

The adult stage, or imago phase, represents the final and reproductive portion of a butterfly's life cycle, during which the insect focuses on feeding, dispersal, and survival rather than growth. Emerging from the pupa with fully developed wings and reproductive organs, adult butterflies are highly mobile and adapted for aerial life. This stage varies widely in duration but is generally short-lived compared to earlier phases, emphasizing rapid energy acquisition and utilization for essential activities like flight and nutrient intake. The lifespan of adult butterflies typically ranges from 1 to 2 weeks under normal conditions, though this can extend significantly in species that overwinter as adults. For instance, the mourning cloak butterfly (Nymphalis antiopa) can survive up to 10–11 months by entering diapause during colder months, sheltering in crevices or leaf litter to conserve energy.^[82] Such longevity is exceptional and tied to physiological adaptations for dormancy, contrasting with the brief active periods of most tropical or temperate non-overwintering species. Feeding in adults primarily involves nectar consumption, facilitated by the proboscis—a coiled, tubular mouthpart that uncoils to siphon liquids from flowers. This organ, formed by the fusion of maxillary galeae, enables precise access to floral nectaries and operates via capillary action and muscular suction.^[83] Males often engage in mud-puddling, aggregating at damp soil, dung, or carrion to extract minerals like sodium, which are scarce in nectar and crucial for metabolic functions.^[84] This behavior enhances male vigor and indirectly supports reproductive physiology without direct involvement in mating. Flight in adult butterflies relies on asynchronous indirect flight muscles that contract at frequencies around 10 Hz, driving wingbeats through thoracic deformation rather than direct attachment.^[85] Larger species, such as those in the genus Morpho, incorporate gliding phases between flaps, optimizing energy efficiency during sustained travel by leveraging wing shape and body posture for lift. Sensory systems integrate vision—via compound eyes sensitive to ultraviolet and color cues—for navigation and obstacle avoidance, while pheromones aid short-range orientation during social interactions.^[86]^[87]

Behavior and Reproduction

Mating Behaviors

Butterfly mating begins with courtship displays that facilitate mate location and attraction. Males typically initiate these interactions by releasing species-specific pheromones from specialized scales on their wings or abdomen, which serve as chemical signals to draw receptive females from a distance.^[88] Upon closer approach, males often perform visual displays, such as rapid wing fluttering or fanning, to disperse additional pheromones and confirm the female's receptivity.^[89] In some gregarious species, such as certain ithomiines, males aggregate in leks—communal display sites where they compete through these pheromonal and visual signals, allowing females to assess and select mates from the group.^[90]^[91] Mate selection in butterflies involves female preferences that influence reproductive success, often favoring traits indicative of male quality. Females commonly exhibit a preference for males with symmetrical wing patterns, as fluctuating asymmetry may signal developmental instability or lower genetic quality; for instance, in the sphragis-bearing butterfly Luehdorfia japonica, males with lower fluctuating asymmetry achieve higher mating success.^[92] Post-copulation, sperm competition occurs through the transfer of spermatophores—nutrient-rich packets containing sperm and accessory fluids—that males deposit in the female's reproductive tract.^[93] These spermatophores not only provide fertilizing sperm but also compete for storage and usage priority in the female's spermatheca, with larger or more nutritious ones from superior males enhancing their competitive edge.^[94] Polyandry is prevalent among female butterflies, where multiple matings increase genetic diversity in offspring by allowing sperm from different males to fertilize eggs, thereby reducing inbreeding and improving larval viability.^[95] This strategy yields genetic benefits, such as enhanced offspring survivorship, though material benefits from nuptial gifts like spermatophore nutrients are less common and typically limited to specific species, such as Pieris napi, where they modestly boost female fecundity.^[96] Studies of wild populations, including monarch butterflies, reveal evidence of multiple paternity in broods, underscoring polyandry's role in maintaining population-level genetic variation.^[97]

Daily Activities

Butterflies exhibit primarily diurnal activity patterns, with foraging peaking around solar noon for the majority of species, allowing them to capitalize on optimal light and temperature conditions for nectar collection.^[98] This midday surge in activity facilitates efficient pollination while minimizing exposure to nocturnal predators. In species like the cabbage white (Pieris rapae), individuals demonstrate flower constancy, preferentially visiting and learning associations with specific flower types, such as those in the Brassicaceae family, which enhances foraging efficiency through associative conditioning.^[99]^[100] During periods of inactivity, butterflies adopt characteristic resting postures that vary by species and context; many, such as blues (Lycaenidae) and hairstreaks, fold their wings vertically over their backs to reduce visibility and conserve heat, while others spread them flat for thermoregulation.^[101] At night, butterflies engage in nocturnal roosting, often selecting sheltered sites like foliage undersides or tree trunks; solitary roosting is common in most species, but gregarious clustering occurs in others, such as monarchs (Danaus plexippus), to share body heat and deter predators.^[102]^[103] Social interactions among butterflies include aggregations for resource acquisition, such as mud-puddling, where males congregate at damp soil sites to extract sodium and other minerals essential for physiological maintenance, forming temporary clusters that can number in the dozens.^[104] In some species, hill-topping leads to social gatherings of males on elevated prominences, creating localized aggregations that facilitate non-reproductive interactions like territorial displays.^[105] Laboratory studies have revealed butterflies' capacity for learning, with Pieris rapae and similar species undergoing associative conditioning to refine flower preferences based on color and reward cues, adapting daily foraging strategies accordingly.^[106]^[107]

Migration Patterns

Butterfly migration involves seasonal, long-distance movements undertaken by certain species to exploit favorable breeding and overwintering conditions, often spanning thousands of kilometers across continents. One of the most renowned examples is the annual migration of the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), where eastern North American populations travel up to 4,800 kilometers (3,000 miles) from breeding grounds in Canada and the United States to overwintering sites in the oyamel fir forests of central Mexico.^[108] This journey, which can take up to two months and cover 80-160 kilometers per day, is completed by a specialized "super generation" of non-reproductive adults that live significantly longer than typical butterflies, up to nine months.^[109] Another striking case is the painted lady butterfly (Vanessa cardui), which performs a multi-continental circuit totaling approximately 14,500 kilometers (9,000 miles) round trip, involving successive generations moving from sub-Saharan Africa northward through Europe and the Middle East, and occasionally crossing the Atlantic to reach the Americas.^[110] Migratory butterflies employ sophisticated navigational mechanisms to maintain precise orientation over vast distances. Monarchs primarily rely on a time-compensated sun compass, where an internal circadian clock adjusts their perception of the sun's position to determine a southerly heading, with neural circuits in the brain's central complex representing directional tuning during flight.^[111] They also possess an inclination magnetic compass sensitive to the Earth's magnetic field polarity, serving as a backup on overcast days or for fine-tuning direction, as demonstrated by experiments showing disrupted orientation when magnetic cues are manipulated.^[112] Similarly, painted ladies use sun-based orientation combined with wind patterns for efficient travel, often gliding on tailwinds to cover distances with minimal energy expenditure, enabling transoceanic flights of over 6,800 kilometers (4,200 miles) in a single leg.^[113] Many butterfly migrations are multi-generational, spanning several breeding cycles rather than being completed by a single individual. In monarchs, the fall migrants do not reproduce during their southward journey but trigger breeding upon reaching Mexico; their offspring then initiate the northward return in spring, with two to three subsequent generations progressively recolonizing northern breeding areas over the summer.^[109] Environmental cues such as shortening day lengths, cooling temperatures, and declining availability of host plants like milkweed signal the onset of migration and suppress reproductive development in these generations.^[108] Painted ladies follow a comparable pattern, with population surges in source regions like the Middle East prompting successive waves of offspring to advance northward, completing the annual cycle across continents.^[114] Recent advancements in tracking technologies, including tiny GPS and radio telemetry devices comparable in size to a grain of rice, have revealed how climate change is altering migration routes as of 2025. For instance, monarch populations are showing extended northern breeding ranges and shifted flyways due to warmer, greener conditions along traditional paths, allowing earlier arrivals but potentially disrupting synchronization with host plant phenology.^[115] Painted lady migrations have similarly expanded, with transatlantic crossings and poleward extensions influenced by altered wind patterns and milder winters.^[113] These shifts highlight the vulnerability of migratory butterflies to rapid environmental changes, though habitat dependencies continue to anchor core overwintering sites.^[116]

Ecology and Interactions

Habitat and Distribution

Butterflies exhibit a predominantly tropical distribution, with approximately 90% of the world's over 18,000 known species occurring in tropical regions, where diverse climates and habitats support high biodiversity. In contrast, temperate zones host far fewer species, though many of these are adapted to seasonal changes and engage in migratory patterns to access breeding grounds and nectar sources across broader areas. Butterflies occupy a wide array of habitat types, including tropical rainforests, temperate woodlands, open meadows, grasslands, and even urban gardens, where they rely on specific plants for oviposition and nectar.^[69] Within these environments, butterflies require microhabitats such as sunny, sheltered puddles or mud spots for puddling behavior, where males congregate to extract essential minerals like sodium from damp soil to support reproduction and survival. Biodiversity hotspots demonstrate pronounced endemism in butterflies, particularly on islands where evolutionary radiations have produced unique lineages. Madagascar, for instance, harbors approximately 300-340 described butterfly species, a modest total for its size but with around 70% endemic due to long isolation, including diverse nymphalids and swallowtails adapted to its varied ecosystems.^[117] Recent climate warming has driven poleward distributional shifts in many butterfly species, with studies documenting range expansions at trailing edges through improved overwintering survival and altered phenology, as observed in European assemblages over the past decade.^[118] These shifts, often exceeding several kilometers per year in responsive taxa, highlight butterflies' sensitivity to temperature changes while underscoring the role of habitat connectivity in facilitating adaptation.^[119]

Predators and Parasites

Butterflies face significant threats from a diverse array of predators and parasites throughout their life cycle, with eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults all vulnerable to attack or infection. These natural enemies play a crucial role in regulating butterfly populations, often resulting in high mortality rates, particularly during the larval stage when individuals are most exposed and immobile.^[120] Vertebrate predators primarily target adult butterflies and larvae, with birds being among the most significant. Species such as flycatchers learn to avoid distasteful, aposematic butterflies after initial encounters, reducing attacks on chemically defended prey while continuing to consume palatable ones. Lizards, such as anoles and skinks, frequently prey on resting adults and crawling larvae in tropical and temperate habitats. Spiders, including jumping spiders, ambush butterflies at flowers or during flight, using silk and venom to subdue them quickly.^[121]^[122]^[123] Invertebrate predators and parasitoids exert heavy pressure on immature stages, especially eggs and larvae. Ants, such as fire ants and Argentine ants, are common predators of exposed eggs and early-instar larvae, consuming them opportunistically on host plants. Parasitoid wasps, including those in the families Braconidae and Ichneumonidae, lay eggs inside or on larvae, with their developing offspring feeding on the host's tissues, often leading to host death before pupation. Tachinid flies target late-stage larvae and pupae, with females depositing eggs on the host; the fly larvae then burrow inside, consuming the butterfly from within and emerging to pupate, sometimes from the pupal case itself.^[124]^[125] Pathogenic microorganisms further contribute to mortality, particularly in vulnerable larval stages. Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV), such as those in the genus Nucleopolyhedrovirus, infect caterpillars upon ingestion of contaminated foliage, causing tissue liquefaction and death, with the liquefied remains releasing more virions to infect nearby individuals. Fungal entomopathogens, including species of Beauveria and Metarhizium, are prevalent in humid environments where high moisture facilitates spore germination and cuticle penetration, leading to mummification of infected larvae or pupae.^[126]^[127] The cumulative impact of these predators and parasites is profound, with studies indicating up to 90% mortality among eggs and larvae in some butterfly populations due to predation and parasitism alone. This high attrition rate underscores the intense selective pressure on butterfly survival strategies, though some species have evolved defenses to mitigate these threats.^[128]

Defensive Mechanisms

Butterflies employ a variety of defensive mechanisms across their life stages to deter predators and parasites, including chemical, visual, behavioral, and physical adaptations that enhance survival rates. These strategies often exploit the butterfly's interactions with host plants or environmental features, providing protection without relying on aggressive countermeasures.^[129] Chemical defenses in butterflies primarily involve the sequestration of plant toxins, where larvae absorb and store harmful compounds from their host plants, rendering themselves and subsequent adult stages unpalatable or toxic to predators. For instance, monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) sequester cardenolides from milkweed plants, which disrupt cardiac function in vertebrates like birds, significantly reducing predation risk.^[71] Similarly, pipevine swallowtail butterflies (Battus philenor) sequester aristolochic acids—toxic alkaloids—from Aristolochia host plants, protecting larvae, pupae, and adults from a range of invertebrate and vertebrate predators.^[130] This sequestration comes at a metabolic cost but provides a potent deterrent, as evidenced by lower attack rates on chemically defended individuals in field studies.^[131] Camouflage and mimicry serve as visual defenses, allowing butterflies to blend into their surroundings or imitate unpalatable species to avoid detection or recognition by predators. Larvae of many butterflies, such as those of the common yellow swallowtail (Papilio xuthus), exhibit leaf-like camouflage in later instars, with body shapes and color patterns that mimic host plant foliage, reducing visibility to foraging birds and wasps.^[132] In adults, mimicry includes Batesian, where harmless species resemble toxic models, and Müllerian, where multiple unpalatable species share warning patterns; the viceroy butterfly (Limenitis archippus), for example, engages in Müllerian mimicry with the monarch by sharing a similar orange-and-black wing pattern, as both are distasteful to predators—the monarch due to cardenolides and the viceroy due to toxins from host plants like willows—exploiting learned avoidance.^[133] These adaptations are particularly effective against avian predators, which rely on visual cues for prey selection.^[134] Behavioral defenses include rapid evasion tactics and startling displays that disrupt predator attacks. Many butterflies perform erratic, high-speed evasion flights when pursued, leveraging agile wing maneuvers to outmaneuver birds and increase escape success rates by up to 50% in experimental trials.^[135] Startle or deimatic displays, such as suddenly revealing eyespots on underwings, intimidate predators; in the European peacock butterfly (Aglais io), flashing these eye-like patterns elicits freezing or retreat in birds, buying time for escape.^[136] The European swallowtail (Papilio machaon) similarly deploys a startle display with eyespots and osmeterium eversion, deterring initial strikes from wasps and birds.^[137] Physical defenses provide structural barriers against predation and parasitism, particularly in early life stages. Butterfly eggs are encased in a tough chorion, a multilayered protein shell that resists penetration by parasitic wasps and predatory insects, offering mechanical protection while allowing gas exchange.^[138] In communal larvae, such as those of certain nymphalid butterflies like the buckeye (Junonia coenia), groups produce silk mats or tents on host plants, creating sheltered resting sites that reduce exposure to ants and birds and facilitate collective vigilance.^[139] These silk structures enhance thermoregulation and defense, with gregarious feeding lowering per capita predation risk through dilution effects.^[140]

Conservation and Threats

Population Declines

Butterfly populations have experienced significant declines across various regions, with monitoring data indicating substantial losses since the 1990s. In Europe, grassland butterfly species have declined by approximately 39% since 1990, based on indicators from 16 countries that track abundance and diversity.^[141] Similarly, in North America, overall butterfly abundance has dropped by 22% between 2000 and 2020, with over 100 species losing more than half their populations, according to analyses of more than 76,000 surveys covering 554 species.^[142] These trends reflect broader patterns of species-specific reductions, particularly among habitat specialists. In tropical regions, butterfly losses are accelerating due to intensifying pressures from land-use changes and environmental shifts. For instance, in urbanizing tropical areas like Singapore, nearly half of butterfly species have disappeared over the past 160 years, with acceleration due to habitat fragmentation since the mid-20th century.^[143] Studies in tropical forests, including the Amazon basin, show that warmer temperatures combined with habitat degradation—such as from fires and logging—lead to reduced diversity, particularly for narrow-range and forest-dependent species.^[144]^[145] Habitat loss driven by agricultural expansion and urbanization represents a primary cause of these declines. Intensive farming practices have converted native grasslands and forests into monocultures, reducing essential breeding and foraging areas for butterflies across continents.^[146] Urban development further fragments habitats, isolating populations and limiting dispersal.^[147] Additionally, widespread use of pesticides, such as neonicotinoids, directly impacts larval stages by contaminating host plants and reducing survival rates, with experimental evidence showing impaired development and increased mortality in exposed monarch larvae.^[148] Climate change contributes through phenological mismatches, where shifts in butterfly life cycles desynchronize with plant flowering and host availability. For example, extreme early springs can cause larval emergence before food sources are ready, leading to starvation in species like the Karner blue butterfly.^[149] Extreme weather events, including droughts and heatwaves, further disrupt development, with studies on yucca moths and associated butterflies demonstrating altered flight periods and reduced reproductive success.^[150] Recent 2025 monitoring efforts, leveraging citizen science programs like those compiling millions of observations, highlight ongoing global concerns, with U.S. data indicating a 22% decline over two decades and suggesting broader patterns.^[142] Notably, urban butterflies in some areas—particularly generalist species—appear to have higher abundance than in rural counterparts due to localized green spaces, though overall declines are steeper in urban settings in regions like the UK, and agricultural pesticide exposure remains a key rural threat.^[151]^[152]

Endangered Species

The Schaus' swallowtail (Heraclides aristodemus ponceanus), a subspecies endemic to the tropical hardwood hammocks of the Florida Keys, is classified as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, with its limited range making it highly vulnerable to localized habitat disturbances.^[153] Populations of this species have been monitored for decades, revealing fluctuations tied to its narrow ecological niche, where even minor changes in host plant availability can threaten persistence.^[154] The Xerces blue (Glaucopsyche xerces), once inhabiting the coastal dunes of the San Francisco Peninsula, represents a stark example of extinction driven by human activities; the last individuals were observed in the early 1940s, with urban development eliminating its specialized habitat of lupine-rich grasslands.^[155] This small, iridescent butterfly's disappearance marked the first documented butterfly extinction in North America attributable to habitat loss, underscoring the risks faced by species with highly restricted distributions.^[156] In the Americas, over 30 butterfly species are federally listed as endangered or threatened in the United States alone, with broader regional assessments identifying hundreds more of conservation concern due to similar vulnerabilities.^[157] For instance, the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) was assessed as endangered by the IUCN in 2022, though a 2023 reassessment downgraded it to vulnerable based on improved population data; in late 2024, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed threatened status under the Endangered Species Act, with the comment period extended to May 2025 and no final decision as of November 2025, highlighting ongoing status evaluations influenced by breeding and migration patterns.^[158]^[159]^[160] Asian birdwing butterflies, such as the Queen Alexandra's birdwing (Ornithoptera alexandrae), the world's largest butterfly, are listed as endangered by the IUCN, with their majestic size and coloration driving intense poaching pressure for the international collector trade. This species, confined to montane rainforests in Papua New Guinea, faces additional risks from habitat fragmentation, exacerbating its susceptibility to illegal harvesting that targets rare specimens.^[161] Many endangered butterflies exhibit critically small population sizes, often estimated at fewer than 1,000 individuals, which fosters genetic bottlenecks that diminish diversity and impair adaptability to environmental changes.^[162] For example, genomic studies of the half-moon hairstreak (Satyrium semiluna), an endangered Canadian species, reveal reduced heterozygosity from historical bottlenecks, increasing inbreeding risks in its fragmented woodland habitats.^[163] The Karner blue (Plebejus melissa samuelis), federally endangered since 1992 and dependent on wild lupine, shows localized population recoveries in 2025 through habitat management, though its overall status remains endangered with persistent small, isolated colonies prone to genetic erosion.^[164]^[165]

Conservation Efforts

Habitat restoration initiatives form a cornerstone of butterfly conservation, focusing on recreating essential resources in degraded environments. For monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus), widespread planting of milkweed species—their primary host plants—has been a key strategy, with organizations like Monarch Watch distributing over 1 million free milkweed plants since 2015 to support breeding and migration across North America.^[166] Similarly, the Xerces Society collaborates with landowners to restore habitats on farms, roadsides, and natural areas, emphasizing nectar-rich plants alongside milkweed to bolster pollinator networks.^[167] In fragmented landscapes, the creation of habitat corridors enhances connectivity, allowing butterflies to move between isolated patches and maintain gene flow, as demonstrated by studies showing corridors promote population resilience even in suboptimal conditions.^[168] Legal protections safeguard butterflies from overexploitation and habitat loss through international and domestic frameworks. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) lists numerous butterfly species in Appendix II, restricting commercial trade to prevent endangerment; examples include birdwing butterflies (Ornithoptera spp.) and swallowtails (Papilio spp.), requiring permits for international movement.^[169] In the United States, the proposed Endangered Species Act listing for the monarch butterfly in 2024 would provide federal safeguards against threats, building on precedents like the recovery of the Karner blue (Plebejus melissa samuelis) through habitat protections on over 792,000 acres.^[159] Expansions of protected areas, such as the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve in Mexico, which grew to 217 square miles in 2000, further secure migration routes and breeding grounds.^[170] These measures, including national parks and wildlife refuges, have facilitated range expansions for several species by providing safe havens amid urbanization.^[171] Research and monitoring programs leverage citizen science to track populations and inform interventions. The North American Butterfly Monitoring Network coordinates standardized surveys across programs, enabling long-term data collection on abundance and distribution.^[172] Mobile apps facilitate public participation, such as AI-powered tools that identify species in real-time via smartphone cameras, contributing to biodiversity databases.^[173] For reintroductions, genetic banking preserves diversity through captive propagation; for instance, the San Diego Zoo's Butterfly Conservation Lab has reared larvae of rare species like the Quino checkerspot (Euphydryas editha quino) for release into restored habitats.^[174] Genomic tools further support these efforts by assessing diversity in reintroduced populations, ensuring viable long-term survival.^[175] Advancements in 2025 have integrated technology and community action to address emerging challenges. AI-driven predictive models now forecast threat hotspots by analyzing satellite imagery to map suitable habitats and potential declines, as seen in UK-based datasets predicting butterfly presence with high accuracy.^[176] The release of the largest AI dataset for butterfly identification, achieving 97% accuracy, enhances monitoring efficiency and supports global conservation planning.^[177] Community-led gardens in urban areas mitigate fragmentation by creating nectar corridors, serving as stepping stones that boost local populations and reduce isolation effects.^[178] These grassroots initiatives, often in underserved neighborhoods, foster biodiversity while engaging residents in ongoing stewardship.^[179]

Cultural and Scientific Significance

In Art, Literature, and Mythology

In ancient Greek mythology, the goddess Psyche, whose name translates to both "soul" and "butterfly," is depicted as a winged figure symbolizing the human spirit's immortality and transformation through trials of love and resurrection.^[180] Aztec lore features Itzpapalotl, the "Obsidian Butterfly," a skeletal warrior deity ruling over paradise and underworld realms, embodying cycles of death, renewal, and cosmic change as a ruler of destructive yet regenerative forces.^[181] In Chinese folklore, butterflies serve as joyful emissaries of harmony and marital bliss, often portrayed in pairs to invoke longevity and delight, drawing from tales like the Butterfly Lovers where transformed souls reunite eternally.^[182] Butterflies appear in Celtic tales as omens heralding personal or seasonal shifts, with their emergence from cocoons mirroring rebirth and the soul's departure to the Otherworld upon death.^[183] Similarly, in Mexican traditions during Día de los Muertos, monarch butterflies are revered as returning ancestral spirits, their autumn migration aligning with the holiday to facilitate communion between the living and the deceased through offerings and altars.^[184] Artistic representations of butterflies span millennia, reflecting themes of ephemerality and the afterlife. In ancient Egyptian frescoes, such as those in tomb decorations, butterflies symbolize the soul's journey to eternity, akin to the ba bird's flight from the body after death.^[185] During the Renaissance, vanitas paintings incorporated butterflies to underscore life's transience, as seen in works like those by Dutch masters where fragile wings contrast with skulls and wilting flowers to evoke mortality's inevitability.^[186] In contemporary culture, butterfly tattoos evoke personal metamorphosis and resilience, frequently chosen to commemorate growth or loss across diverse global influences.^[187] In literature, butterflies inspire layered metaphors of change. Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis inverts the insect's typical rebirth narrative, with protagonist Gregor Samsa's degradation into a vermin form highlighting alienation and failed evolution, contrasting the butterfly's graceful emergence.^[188] Japanese poet Matsuo Bashō employed butterflies in haiku to capture fleeting beauty and philosophical illusion, as in verses evoking Taoist dreams where the self blurs with nature's ephemeral dance.^[189]

Collecting, Rearing, and Study

The practice of collecting butterflies dates back to the Victorian era, when enthusiasm for natural history led to widespread "butterfly hunts" among enthusiasts, particularly in Europe and North America. During this period, from the mid-19th to early 20th century, collecting surged as a popular hobby, fostering the establishment of early entomological societies such as the Society of Aurelians in Britain, which promoted systematic documentation and illustration of species.^[190]^[191] Amateur and professional collectors pursued specimens for personal cabinets and scientific classification, contributing to early taxonomic advancements but often at the expense of local populations. By the late 20th century, ethical concerns grew amid rising environmental awareness, particularly post-1970s, prompting a shift from lethal collecting to non-invasive methods like photography for documentation and study.^[190]^[192] Butterfly rearing involves captive breeding to support conservation, education, and research, typically requiring controlled environments that mimic natural conditions. Techniques emphasize providing specific host plants essential for larval development, such as milkweed for monarchs (Danaus plexippus) or iridoid glycoside-containing plants for species like the buckeye (Junonia coenia), to ensure successful metamorphosis.^[193] Enclosures maintain humidity, temperature, and protection from predators, with protocols adapted for species like the Lange's metalmark (Apodemia mormo langei) to maximize survival rates during pupation. Release programs aim to bolster wild populations by introducing reared individuals into suitable habitats, though studies indicate variable success, with twelve evaluations showing benefits in some UK and US cases and research indicating that captive-reared monarchs can exhibit natural migratory orientation upon release.^[194]^[195]^[196] Scientific study of butterflies encompasses field observations, taxonomic expeditions, and laboratory analyses to elucidate their biology and evolution. Field guides, such as those covering North American species with range maps and identification keys, facilitate on-site surveys and contribute to biodiversity inventories.^[197] Taxonomy expeditions, like those in Mongolia's Chentej Mountains, have yielded new species discoveries, such as an undescribed Erebia butterfly, while historical collections from explorers like Alfred Russel Wallace continue to inform modern revisions of genera like Euptychia. In laboratories, genetic research on mimicry—where butterflies evolve wing patterns to resemble toxic models for protection—has identified key mechanisms, including supergene inversions in Heliconius species and polymorphisms in Hypolimnas misippus that decouple mimicry from phylogeny.^[198]^[199]^[200] As of 2025, trends in butterfly study emphasize non-invasive and participatory approaches, including environmental DNA (eDNA) sampling for surveys. Airborne eDNA metabarcoding has enabled the first national-scale assessments of terrestrial biodiversity, detecting insect and arthropod presence without direct capture by analyzing genetic material in air samples. Citizen science platforms like iNaturalist have accelerated research by crowdsourcing observations, with datasets used to analyze butterfly color variations, distribution shifts, and diversity patterns, as seen in comparisons of community-submitted records against traditional surveys in regions like eastern Oklahoma.^[201]^[202]^[203]

Applications in Technology

Butterfly wings have inspired advancements in biomimicry, particularly through their nanoscale structures that produce structural coloration via light interference rather than pigments. The iridescent blue scales of Morpho butterflies, formed by multilayered chitin ridges, have been replicated to develop anti-reflective coatings that minimize light scattering for improved optical devices. For instance, researchers have fabricated Morpho-inspired photonic structures using electron-beam lithography to create broadband anti-reflective surfaces, reducing reflection losses by up to 90% in the visible spectrum for solar cells and displays. These biomimetic coatings also enhance optics in sensors and cameras by mimicking the wing's ability to selectively reflect specific wavelengths, as demonstrated in prototypes for hyperspectral imaging systems.^[204]^[205]^[206] In materials science, the chitin-based nanostructures found in butterfly wings have been adapted for sensor technologies due to their high surface area and sensitivity to environmental changes. Anisotropic chitin lattices from Morpho wings enable vapor and chemical detection by altering optical properties upon analyte binding, inspiring flexible sensors for gas monitoring and biosensing with detection limits in the parts-per-billion range. These structures have been templated onto synthetic substrates to create colorimetric sensors that shift hue in response to humidity or pollutants, offering a low-cost alternative to electronic detectors. Additionally, butterfly wing-inspired chitin nanocomposites have been integrated into wearable sensors for mechanical strain detection, leveraging the natural fracture-resistant properties of the scales.^[207]^[208]^[209] In robotics, the agile flapping flight of butterflies has guided the design of micro aerial vehicles (MAVs) with improved maneuverability and energy efficiency. Butterfly-inspired drones incorporate flexible wings with vein-like reinforcements to generate lift through vortex shedding, mimicking the insect's passive stability during hovering. Prototypes developed in 2025, such as gear-driven flapping mechanisms, have achieved up to 28% higher propulsive efficiency compared to rigid-wing models by optimizing wing flexibility and clap-and-fling motions. These advancements enable quieter, longer-duration flights for applications in pollination robotics and environmental monitoring.^[210]^[211]^[212] Butterfly foraging behaviors have inspired optimization algorithms in artificial intelligence, particularly the Butterfly Optimization Algorithm (BOA), which simulates scent-based mate-finding for global search in pattern recognition tasks. BOA enhances convolutional neural networks by improving feature selection in image datasets, achieving higher accuracy in butterfly species identification with reduced computational overhead. This nature-inspired method has been applied to edge AI devices for real-time environmental pattern detection, outperforming traditional gradient descent in convergence speed by 15-20%.^[213]^[214]^[215] Bioactive compounds from butterflies, such as the cytotoxin pierisin-1 isolated from Pieris rapae pupae, have potential pharmaceutical applications as analogs to venom peptides for targeted cancer therapies. Pierisin-1 induces apoptosis in tumor cells by ADP-ribosylating DNA, showing selective cytotoxicity against gastric and cervical cancer lines at nanomolar concentrations without harming normal cells. Ongoing research integrates pierisin derivatives into bioengineered silk for localized drug delivery, enhancing anti-tumor efficacy in preclinical models.^[216]^[217]^[218]

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May 15, 2023 · We set the total number of extant butterfly species as 19,500, which is an ~8% increase compared with the butterfly species richness estimate of ...
[21]
Superfamily Papilionoidea - Butterflies and Skippers - BugGuide.Net
Skippers have often been separated into their own superfamily, Hesperioidea. Most have a narrow curved tip on the antennae, the 'apiculus,' absent in other ...
[22]
Butterfly classification and species discovery using genomics - PMC
We analyze the current taxonomic classification of butterflies in the light of genomic phylogenies and encounter clades that correspond to yet unnamed taxa. As ...
[23]
What is the difference between butterflies and moths?
Butterflies usually have 'club-shaped' antennae while most moths have feathery or tapering ones. No UK butterflies have feathery antennae.
[24]
Comprehensive gene and taxon coverage elucidates radiation ...
May 5, 2010 · The study found Ditrysia to be monophyletic, butterflies related to micro-moths, and rapid radiation in basal Ditrysia linked to flowering ...
[25]
Phylogenomics reveals the evolutionary timing and pattern ... - PNAS
Oct 21, 2019 · All 8 divergence time ... Ditrysia includes butterflies and many moth superfamilies that predominantly feed on angiosperms as larvae.
[26]
The angiosperm radiation played a dual role in the diversification of ...
Jan 22, 2024 · We found that angiosperms played a dual role that changed through time, mitigating insect extinction in the Cretaceous and promoting insect origination in the ...
[27]
Three new subfamilies of skipper butterflies (Lepidoptera ... - ZooKeys
Jul 8, 2019 · We obtained and analyzed whole genome data for more than 160 representatives of skipper butterflies (family Hesperiidae) from all known subfamilies, tribes and ...Missing: basal 2020s
[28]
Hox genes are essential for the development of eyespots in Bicyclus ...
We show that Antp is essential for eyespot development on the forewings and for the differentiation of white centers and larger eyespots on hindwings.
[29]
Convergent Evolution in the Genetic Basis of Müllerian Mimicry in ...
The neotropical butterflies Heliconius melpomene and H. erato are Müllerian mimics that display the same warningly colored wing patterns in local populations, ...Missing: Heliconiinae | Show results with:Heliconiinae
[30]
Phylogeny, systematics and evolution of mimicry patterns ... - bioRxiv
The Neotropical butterfly genus Adelpha Hübner exhibits remarkable species diversity and striking convergence in wing colour patterns ...Missing: CRISPR | Show results with:CRISPR
[31]
The fossil record and taphonomy of butterflies and moths (Insecta ...
Feb 4, 2015 · The temporal distribution of the lepidopteran fossil record shows significant bias towards the late Paleocene to middle Eocene time interval.<|separator|>
[32]
A Triassic-Jurassic window into the evolution of Lepidoptera - Science
Jan 10, 2018 · We provide the earliest evidence for Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies). The diverse scales confirm a (Late) Triassic radiation of lepidopteran lineages.
[33]
Ancient poop yields world's oldest butterfly fossils | Science | AAAS
Jun 2, 2025 · Paleontologists have found butterfly wing scales dating back to the Triassic period within a fossilized piece of dung.
[34]
Wing base morphology supports paraphyly of Papilionoidea s.s. ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Here new methods of preparation permitted the comprehensive anatomical description of insect inclusions from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber in ...
[35]
Phylogenomics reveals the evolutionary timing and pattern of ...
Oct 21, 2019 · Lepidoptera play key roles in many biological systems. Butterflies are hypothesized to have evolved contemporaneously with flowering plants, and ...
[36]
The uppermost Oligocene of Aix-en-Provence (Bouches-du-Rhône ...
Some of these latest Oligocene insects are very famous, as for example, Neorinopis sepulta, which represents the first fossil butterfly to be described (Nel and ...Missing: diversification | Show results with:diversification
[37]
Graphics - Alabama Butterfly Atlas - University of South Florida
On the head is a pair of antennae, a pair of multi-faceted compound eyes, and a proboscis. The thorax bears three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings (a pair ...
[38]
Insect Anatomy - Extension Entomology - Purdue University
The three main insect body parts are head, thorax, and abdomen. The head contains the antennae, eyes, and mouthparts. The thorax is the middle body part to ...Missing: butterfly | Show results with:butterfly
[39]
[PDF] The Anatomy Of A Butterfly
Antennae in butterflies are sensory organs that help them detect smells and navigate their environment; they are crucial for locating food sources and mates.
[40]
Neuroscience for Kids - Animal Senses
Dec 4, 2019 · Has chemoreceptors (taste receptors) on its feet. The butterfly has hairs on its wings to detect changes in air pressure. Using vision, the ...
[41]
[PDF] The Anatomy Of A Butterfly
Wing Structure and Scale Composition. Each wing is composed of a thin membrane stretched over a network of veins that provide structural support and ...<|separator|>
[42]
Insects - Reiman Gardens
Butterfly wings are made of two protein membranes that are covered in thousands of scales and tiny hairs. These wing scales are overlapping pieces of the ...
[43]
Single-nucleus transcriptomics of wing sexual dimorphism and scale ...
The sexual dimorphism of C. eurytheme butterflies manifests on the dorsal surface of their wings, where males show bright UV iridescence across the medial ...
[44]
[PDF] WING SHAPE VARIATION ASSOCIATED WITH MIMICRY IN ...
Minor sexual differences in wing shape may be predicted for Heliconius, given the dif- ferences in their life histories and the occurrence of sexual shape.
[45]
[PDF] Lab 3: INSECT EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY
Near the junction of the midgut and hindgut are long, thin structures called Malpighian tubules. These range in number from a few to hundreds, but only aphids ( ...
[46]
[PDF] The Anatomy Of A Butterfly
External Structure of Butterflies. The external anatomy of a butterfly is primarily divided into three main parts: the head, thorax, and abdomen. Each ...
[47]
Butterflies | UC Master Gardeners of San Diego County
Smallest - the Blue Pygmy has a wingspan of just over 0.5 inch. Largest - New Guinea's Queen Alexandra's Birdwing, measures up to 12 inches. Groups of ...
[48]
[PDF] Butterfly - LSU
The world's smallest butterfly is the Western Pygmy Blue, with a wingspan of 0.5 to 0.75 inch and is native to the western United States. Butterflies have a ...Missing: size range
[49]
Circulatory System – ENT 425 – General Entomology
A dorsal vessel is the major structural component of an insect's circulatory system. This tube runs longitudinally through the thorax and abdomen, along the ...Missing: butterfly | Show results with:butterfly
[50]
Comparative structural and functional analysis of the larval and adult ...
Hemolymph circulation in insects is driven primarily by the contractile action of a dorsal vessel, which is divided into an abdominal heart and a thoracic aorta ...
[51]
[PDF] Digestive system
Oct 22, 2004 · Water enters hemolymph and then is rapidly taken up by the. Malpighian tubules and excreted very rapidly as water droplets from the anus. Page ...
[52]
Diversity and Functional Roles of the Gut Microbiota in Lepidopteran ...
Jun 16, 2022 · They mediate the uptake of uric acid, water, and salts derived from Malpighian tubules, which are part of the excretory system of insects [30,35] ...
[53]
Convergent evolution of complex brains and high intelligence - PMC
The insect nervous system consists of a brain and ventral nerve cords with ganglia (cf. [2]). The brain is composed of a large protocerebrum, a smaller ...
[54]
Rapid expansion and visual specialisation of learning and memory ...
Jul 7, 2023 · This study provides evidence of extensive, mosaic expansion of an integration brain center, among closely related Heliconiini butterflies.
[55]
The Genetics of Butterfly Colors - Learn Genetics Utah
Two genes, spalt and distalless, are active in the centers of many eyespots. ... Evolutionary novelty in a butterfly wing pattern through enhancer shuffling.
[56]
Single master regulatory gene coordinates the evolution and ... - PNAS
The optix gene has been implicated in butterfly wing pattern adaptation by genetic ... Distal-less represses eyespot colour patterns. Nat Commun 7, 11769 ...
[57]
Spectral reflectance properties of iridescent pierid butterfly wings - NIH
The wings contain pterin pigments responsible for pigmentary colouration, and the stacked lamellae of cover scales create structural colouration.
[58]
Distal-less and spalt are distal organisers of pierid wing patterns
Jun 3, 2022 · Two genes, Distal-less (Dll) and spalt (sal), are known to be involved in establishing nymphalid butterfly wing patterns.
[59]
Chapter 28: Most Spectacular Batesian Mimicry | UF/IFAS
The most common example, the Viceroy butterfly (Limenitis archippus), once thought to mimic the Monarch (Danaus plexippus), has through further investigation ...
[60]
Ultraviolet signaling in a butterfly is preferred by females ... - PubMed
Jul 29, 2024 · Ultraviolet signaling in a butterfly is preferred by females and conveys male genetic quality. Evolution. 2024 Jul 29;78(8):1372-1381.Missing: patterns | Show results with:patterns
[61]
Eyespots deflect predator attack increasing fitness and promoting ...
Jan 7, 2015 · Some eyespots are thought to deflect attack away from the vulnerable body, yet there is limited empirical evidence for this function and its ...
[62]
Butterfly wings inspire new imaging technique for cancer diagnosis
Feb 21, 2025 · Using the nanostructures found on butterfly wings, scientists have developed a simple and inexpensive way to analyze cancerous tissues.
[63]
[PDF] Chorionic Sculpturing in Eggs of Lycaenidae. Part I.
There is an indication that the size of the micropylar openings may be diagnostic of some species. That is, the openings in the riodinid Emesis emesia are ...
[64]
Easter Eggs - Butterfly Conservation
Apr 1, 2015 · Typically the eggshell has a series of ridges, giving it a ribbed appearance, but those of Lycaenid butterflies (i.e. the blues, coppers and ...Missing: morphology openings
[65]
Butterfly Life Cycle - Florida Museum of Natural History
Nov 8, 2023 · Butterflies and moths undergo a complete metamorphosis, which means there are four separate stages in the life cycle (egg, larva, pupa, and adult).Missing: biology | Show results with:biology
[66]
Contact chemoreception related to host selection and oviposition ...
Jan 28, 2003 · Behavioural events during host selection by ovipositing monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus (L.), Danainae, Nymphalidae) include tapping the ...
[67]
Monarch Biology
The raised areas on an egg shell are called ridges. They are formed inside the female before she lays the egg. Butterfly and moth eggs vary greatly in shape.Missing: ribbed | Show results with:ribbed
[68]
About Butterflies - Smithsonian Gardens
Just as with a bird egg, the butterfly embryo is nourished by the yolk. The shape and color of an egg varies widely according to the species. Butterfly Life ...
[69]
Monarch Butterfly Biology - USDA Forest Service
The eggs hatch about four days after they are laid. When larvae first hatch they are less than 1 centimeter (cm) and grow to be about 5 cm. The stages between ...Missing: source | Show results with:source
[70]
Milkweed butterfly resistance to plant toxins is linked to ... - NIH
Our data indicate that major adaptations to plant toxins may be evolutionarily linked to sequestration, and may not necessarily be a means to eat toxic plants.
[71]
Papilio polyxenes - Lander University
The body is divided into three tagmata; head, thorax, and abdomen. Appendages are uniramous and a single pair of antennae is present. Three pairs of legs and ...
[72]
A checklist of European butterfly larval foodplants - PMC
Jan 7, 2024 · It would seem reasonable to define monophagous as utilising larval host plants in one plant genus (39% of European butterfly species), ...Missing: silk proteins
[73]
(PDF) Butterfly herbivory and larval ecology - ResearchGate
European butterflies are specialised herbivores that select species of only a third of the plant families as larval hosts. They are predominantly herb feeders.Missing: frass | Show results with:frass
[74]
How caterpillars use their feces to fool corn | Science | AAAS
Sep 11, 2015 · In the new study, the researchers collected the caterpillar frass and turned it into an extract, which they applied to wounded corn leaves. They ...
[75]
Life Cycle - Monarch Joint Venture
The eggs hatch about four days after they are laid. As females lay their eggs, they secrete a small amount of glue to attach the eggs directly to the plant.
[76]
Insect life cycles - Amateur Entomologists' Society (AES)
The process of moulting is called ecdysis, and the stage between successive moults an instar. Once adulthood has been reached, growth ceases and the adult ...
[77]
How a caterpillar becomes a butterfly: Metamorphosis, explained
Aug 11, 2020 · A larva's main job is to grow and molt, a process triggered by hormones. Each stage of molting is called an instar, and some insects molt up ...
[78]
Thermoregulation
Caterpillars thermoregulate by basking in the sun, using shelters to trap heat, and by utilizing metabolic heat, sometimes above ambient temperature.
[79]
Natural Enemies - Monarch Joint Venture
Monarchs become toxic to predators by sequestering toxins from the milkweed they ingest as larvae, and are brightly colored in both the larval and adult stages.
[80]
The mourning cloak butterfly | Good Growing - Illinois Extension
Feb 16, 2023 · With a 10- to 11-month adult lifespan, the mourning cloak butterfly may be the longest-lived butterfly. Mourning cloak butterflies have a ...
[81]
Physical adaptations of butterfly proboscises enable feeding from ...
Jun 17, 2021 · Butterflies use a proboscis, a microfluidic probe engineered by natural selection, to feed on nutritive fluids. The structural configuration ...
[82]
Puddling in butterflies: sodium affects reproductive success in ...
During their first mating, males transfer 32% of their abdominal sodium to females. This could be of considerable importance given that an average egg ...
[83]
Importance of body rotation during the flight of a butterfly | Phys. Rev. E
Mar 25, 2016 · The flapping frequency of butterflies is only about 10 Hz, or perhaps even smaller in some larger subjects [2] . A butterfly enhances its flight ...Missing: muscle contractions
[84]
Adaptive evolution of flight in Morpho butterflies - Science
Nov 25, 2021 · Butterflies are the only insects that regularly use flap-gliding flight, which combines periods of flapping interspersed with gliding.
[85]
Seeing the world through the eyes of a butterfly: visual ecology of ...
Oct 28, 2021 · We provide a detailed description of the males' body and head posture, viewing direction, visual field and spatial resolution, as well as the visual ...
[86]
Pheromones and Courtship Behavior in Butterflies - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · Male courtship pheromones are disseminated during the aerial phases of courtship and after the female has landed. While female butterflies ...
[87]
Courtship behaviour of butterflies - Bird Ecology Study Group
Nov 18, 2013 · ... fluttering his wings as part of the courtship ritual. He will normally position himself upwind from her and releases his pheromones. This ...
[88]
Love is in the air: how butterflies date | Natural History Museum
Both males and females give off scent to communicate with each other, releasing specific pheromones to attract the right type of mate. Zilli says, 'During the ...
[89]
Adult : Mate Location and Courtship - Learn Butterflies
Passing females are attracted by the complex fragrances, and their presence stimulates the males to open their wings and release further pheromones that entice ...
[90]
Fluctuating Asymmetry and Male Mating Success in a Sphragis ...
The relationship between fluctuating asymmetry (FA) and mating success was studied within males of the sphragis-baring butterfly Luehdorfia japonica, which.
[91]
Natural variation in female mating frequency in a polyandrous butterfly
As previous studies indicate that female fitness in P. napi appears to increase monotonically with number of mates as a result of the increase in spermatophore ...
[92]
Males Become Choosier in Response to Manipulations of Female ...
Jul 7, 2017 · ... spermatophore, given to females upon mating. Males were placed in ... Spermatophores are made up of sperm and accessory products. These ...
[93]
Material and genetic benefits of female multiple mating and polyandry
Polyandrous females get material benefits like nuptial gifts, and genetic benefits such as higher hatching success and offspring survivorship.
[94]
Material and genetic effects of female multiple mating and polyandry
Aug 8, 2025 · We discovered that females derived nongenetic benefits from mating multiply, in that the magnitude of the nuptial gift was positively, ...
[95]
Butterfly foraging is remarkably synchronous in an experimental ...
Mar 29, 2023 · We found strong niche overlap, with the frequency of foraging events peaking around solar noon for 96% of the species assessed.Missing: diurnal | Show results with:diurnal
[96]
[PDF] EXPLORING VARIATION IN LEARNING ABILITY IN PIERIS RAPAE ...
two different aspects of variation in learning ability in the Cabbage White Butterfly, Pieris rapae. First, I evaluated whether P. rapae learn two different ...
[97]
Flower Constancy: Definition, Cause, and Measurement
A pollinator that restricts its visits to one flower type, even when other rewarding types are accessible, can be said to exhibit flower constancy.
[98]
Native Insect Pollinators and Their Habitats - MU Extension
Oct 30, 2018 · At rest, blues and hairstreaks characteristically hold their wings folded over their backs. In this posture, patches of orange that decorate ...Missing: nocturnal roosting
[99]
Roosting Site Usage, Gregarious Roosting and Behavioral ...
Nocturnal roosting in butterflies varies widely in characteristic roosting locations and behaviors (Table 1). Individuals of most species roost alone, ...
[100]
[PDF] Learning about Butterflies.pdf - Cornell eCommons
Butterflies, because of their beauty and mystique, are our most visible insects. Their images appear in clothing, jewelry, advertisements,.
[101]
Mud-puddling behavior in tropical butterflies: in search of proteins or ...
We experimentally investigated the attraction of adult butterflies to moist soil and dirt places (a behavior termed `mud-puddling') in two species-rich ...Missing: sociality aggregation hill- topping mating
[102]
Population structure of a hilltopping butterfly | Oecologia
Most males appear to hilltop throughout their reproductive lives. Females hilltop only as virgins. The occurrence of hilltopping in a population is influenced ...
[103]
Innate and learnt color preferences in the common green-eyed white ...
Nov 29, 2021 · The learning abilities of the white cabbage butterfly, Pieris rapae, foraging for flowers. Researches on Population Ecology. 1996;38(1):111 ...
[104]
[PDF] Butterflies show flower colour preferences but not constancy in ...
Mar 23, 2011 · Many studies have shown that butterflies have the ability to respond to colour and learn new associations between colour and nectar rewards ( ...
[105]
Migration - Monarch Joint Venture
East of the Rocky Mountains, monarchs travel up to an astonishing 3,000 miles to central Mexico, whereas the shorter migration west of the Rockies is to the ...
[106]
Monarch Butterfly Migration and Overwintering - USDA Forest Service
Monarchs can travel between 50-100 miles a day; it can take up to two months to complete their journey. The farthest ranging monarch butterfly recorded ...
[107]
Painted Lady migration secrets revealed | Butterfly Conservation
The findings also revealed that the species undertakes a phenomenal 9,000 mile round trip from tropical Africa to the Arctic Circle – almost double the length ...
[108]
Navigational Mechanisms of Migrating Monarch Butterflies - PMC
Recent studies of the iconic fall migration of monarch butterflies have illuminated the mechanisms behind the navigation south, using a time-compensated sun ...Missing: resting postures nocturnal
[109]
A magnetic compass aids monarch butterfly migration - Nature
Jun 24, 2014 · We now show that migratory monarch butterflies have an inclination magnetic compass that allows them to orient in the proper southern direction during the fall ...
[110]
A trans-oceanic flight of over 4,200 km by painted lady butterflies
Jun 25, 2024 · Here we report a transatlantic crossing by Vanessa cardui butterflies spanning at least 4200 km, from West Africa to South America (French Guiana) and lasting ...
[111]
The secrets of butterfly migration, written in pollen
Nov 18, 2024 · The 2019 population surge of painted lady butterflies began in the Middle East. That triggered a massive, multigenerational migration that ...
[112]
Monarch Conservation: Tracking Migration with Rice-Sized ...
Feb 4, 2025 · In this episode, we discuss radio and GPS tracking technology. The trackers placed on monarchs are the size of a grain of rice and can be used to discover ...Missing: satellite | Show results with:satellite
[113]
Meet the Passionate Advocates Trying to Save Western Monarch ...
Mar 6, 2025 · Climate change is also affecting monarchs ... One project is experimenting with tiny GPS units that track butterflies as they migrate.
[114]
Dramatic recent declines in the size of monarch butterfly ... - PNAS
Here, we use a relatively unexplored citizen-scientist dataset on the size of monarch “roosts,” which are resting aggregations on vegetation, to infer changes ...Missing: postures nocturnal
[115]
https://www.xerces.org/bug-banter/monarch-conservation-tracking-migration-with-rice-sized-technology
[116]
Trait mediation explains decadal distributional shifts for a wide ...
Aug 30, 2025 · Increasing temperatures benefit species at their poleward range margin, while negatively affecting others through disturbed seasonality and more ...
[117]
Local climate change velocities and evolutionary history explain ...
Jun 24, 2024 · Butterflies shifted their centroids at a mean rate of 4.87 km year−1. The rate of centroid shift was significantly associated with local climate ...
[118]
Breeding Ecology | MonarchNet
Monarch eggs and larvae have a slim chance of reaching adulthood; several studies have documented mortality rates of over 90% during the egg and larva stages ( ...
[119]
Avoidance of an aposematically coloured butterfly by wild birds in a ...
Jun 25, 2016 · Birds are considered to be the primary selective agents for warning colouration in butterflies, and select for aposematic mimicry by learning to avoid brightly ...
[120]
Life Cycle - Alabama Butterfly Atlas - University of South Florida
Most adult butterflies live about two to four weeks if they are lucky enough to escape predators such as lizards, birds, dragonflies and spiders. Preying Mantis ...
[121]
Jumping spider vs. hairstreak butterfly – Research News
Apr 15, 2013 · From frogs and lizards to birds and spiders, butterflies have scores of enemies, so thousands of Lepidoptera species have evolved to imitate ...
[122]
Lacewings, wasps, and flies - oh my: insect enemies take a bite out ...
While natural enemies (predators, parasitoids, parasites, pathogens) are known to strongly limit the survivorship of monarch eggs and caterpillars generally ( ...
[123]
Tachinid flies - UC IPM
Larvae of beetles, butterflies, and moths are the most common hosts. Other hosts include centipedes, crickets, earwigs, grasshoppers, true bugs, and other flies ...
[124]
Ecology and evolution of pathogens in natural populations of ... - NIH
Entomopathogenic fungi differ from most other groups of insect pathogens in that they do not need to be ingested to initiate infection; they invade through ...
[125]
Entomopathogenic microorganisms: modes of action and role in IPM
May 20, 2017 · Entomopathogens are microorganisms that are pathogenic to arthropods such as insects, mites, and ticks.
[126]
Life of a Monarch Caterpillar - Journey North
In addition to eating and growing, larvae must avoid predators and parasites! Mortality is extremely high. Over 90% of all eggs laid never survive to the ...
[127]
How to escape from insect egg parasitoids: a review of potential ...
Jul 22, 2020 · Factors we consider to have led to escape from egg parasitism are parental egg care, rapid egg development, small egg size, hiding eggs.Missing: tough | Show results with:tough<|separator|>
[128]
Antagonistic, stage-specific selection on defensive chemical ...
Larvae of the pipevine swallowtail (Battus philenor) sequester toxic alkaloids called aristolochic acids from their Aristolochia host plants, rendering both ...
[129]
Cardenolides, toxicity, and the costs of sequestration in the ...
Apr 13, 2021 · We tested how variation in milkweed toxins (cardenolides) impacted monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) growth, sequestration, and oviposition ...Missing: behaviors basking hiding
[130]
Prepatterning of Papilio xuthus caterpillar camouflage is controlled ...
Apr 10, 2019 · In most swallowtail butterflies, younger larvae mimic bird droppings but change their pattern to mimic their host plants during their final molt ...Missing: chrysalis | Show results with:chrysalis
[131]
Limenitis Archippus - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Limenitis archippus, commonly known as the viceroy butterfly, is a palatable species that mimics the appearance of the unpalatable monarch butterfly (Danaus ...
[132]
Interspecific visual signalling in animals and plants - NIH
May 22, 2017 · ... Batesian mimicry. Here, one species exploits ... Gradual and contingent evolutionary emergence of leaf mimicry in butterfly wing patterns.
[133]
Aerial Predation and Butterfly Design: How Palatability, Mimicry, and ...
Evasive-Flight Ability of Butterflies in Relation to Capabilities of Their Predators. Measures of flight-muscle mass, body mass, and the maximum force on the.
[134]
Eyespot display in the peacock butterfly triggers antipredator ...
Experiments have shown that both the constant display and the startle display can discourage attacks from passerine birds (Vallin et al. ... butterfly with ...
[135]
Deimatic Display in the European Swallowtail Butterfly as a ... - NIH
Oct 8, 2012 · When the live butterfly was approached by a bird this generally elicited the butterfly's startle display, which usually caused the approaching ...
[136]
Insect Eggs - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The insect eggshell, or chorion, is a critically important structure. ... One of the more remarkable recent observations in this theme concerns the predatory ...Typical Insect Eggs · Hox Genes · Embryogenesis
[137]
Nymphalidae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
They are typically gregarious, forming communal silken webs or “tents” in trees for protection from natural enemies. Their specialized defensive hairs cause ...
[138]
Evolution of larval gregariousness is associated with host plant ...
Feb 8, 2024 · Many prey animals have evolved grouping behaviour in response to predation and resource availability. Lepidopteran larvae benefit from ...
[139]
The decline of butterflies in Europe: Problems, significance, and ...
Jan 12, 2021 · A European Grassland Butterfly Indicator from 16 European countries shows there has been a 39% decline of grassland butterflies since 1990.
[140]
Butterfly populations flutter bye | Science
Mar 6, 2025 · The data showed that at least 74 butterfly species have declined in abundance by more than 50%, although the authors only had sufficient data ...
[141]
Almost half of butterfly species in Singapore have disappeared
Jan 22, 2020 · Singapore is losing its butterflies as forests decline and building programmes boom. Insects make up about 90% of terrestrial animals but ...
[142]
Warming threat compounds habitat degradation impacts on a ...
We found that both habitat degradation and warmer temperatures led to fewer narrow-range and forest-associated species comprising the sampled communities.
[143]
Where Are All the Butterflies? | Bug Squad
Jun 6, 2025 · “Their populations declined by almost 50% from 1990 to 2011” across the EU member states….Intensification of farming is the major culprit for ...
[144]
Butterfly populations declining rapidly in U.S. with 22% disappearing ...
Mar 6, 2025 · According to the Science study, habitat loss, climate change, and pesticide use are driving their declines. Rising temperatures and changing ...Missing: tropical accelerating
[145]
Larval pesticide exposure impacts monarch butterfly performance
Sep 2, 2020 · These data collectively suggest that monarch responses to host-plant pesticides are largely sublethal and more pronounced in the adult stage, despite exposure ...
[146]
Evidence of an extreme weather‐induced phenological mismatch ...
Dec 7, 2019 · This study explored the impact of an extreme event on the phenology of spring larval emergence and the development of an endangered butterfly ...
[147]
The yucca and the moth: How extreme weather impacts the timing of ...
Mar 4, 2025 · A new study sheds light on how extreme weather events impact phenological processes, specifically the flight period of butterflies and moths ...
[148]
Urban butterfly declines 69% compared to 45% drop in countryside
Feb 16, 2017 · Urban butterfly abundance fell by 69% compared to a 45% decline in rural areas over 20 years from 1995.
[149]
Schaus' Swallowtail Butterfly | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
May 22, 2024 · The Service listed the Schaus' swallowtail as threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 1976, then changed its status to endangered in 1984 ...
[150]
Decades-long study shows this endangered butterfly benefits from ...
Feb 6, 2025 · In a new study, scientists pulled from a 35-year dataset to examine long-term population trends of the federally endangered Schaus' swallowtail butterfly.
[151]
About the Xerces Society
The Xerces blue's habitat was destroyed by development in the sand dunes of San Francisco, and the species was declared extinct by the 1940s.
[152]
Xerces Blue Butterfly: America's First Human-Caused Insect Extinction
Oct 2, 2025 · Last seen in 1941, genetic testing proved that the Xerces blue butterfly was a distinct species, and its disappearance was the first human-led ...
[153]
https://www.fws.gov/story/2024-05/schaus-swallowtail-butterfly
[154]
Migratory monarch butterfly now Endangered - IUCN Red List
Jul 21, 2022 · The migratory monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus plexippus) has entered the IUCN Red List as Endangered. The IUCN Red List now includes 147,517 ...
[155]
Monarch Butterfly Proposed for Endangered Species Act Protection
Dec 10, 2024 · Fish and Wildlife Service proposes endangered Species Act protection for monarch butterfly; urges increased public engagement to help save the species.
[156]
Queen Alexandra's Birdwing: Ornithoptera alexandrae - SBBT
IUCN Red List Conservation Status: Endangered. Queen Alexandra's Birdwing (Ornithoptera alexandrae), is the largest and arguably the most beautiful ...
[157]
Conservation genetics of a threatened butterfly - BMC Genomic Data
Nov 4, 2014 · This low genetic diversity may result from recurrent bottlenecks, a low effective population size N e and/or a genetic isolation of the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[158]
Whole‐Genome Evaluation of Genetic Rescue - Wiley Online Library
Jan 27, 2025 · In this study, we applied whole-genome resequencing and ecological niche modelling to an endangered butterfly, the Half-moon Hairstreak ( ...
[159]
Species Profile for Karner blue butterfly(Lycaeides melissa samuelis)
Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) · Taxonomy: · Listing Status: Endangered · Where Listed: WHEREVER FOUND · General Information · » Range ...
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[PDF] 2025 Status of Karner Blue Butterfly on State Lands in Michigan
Oct 6, 2025 · In 2025 we collected data on Karner blue nectar resource choice. We recorded 325 observations of 918 Karner blues nectaring on 23 plant species.
[161]
Monarch Conservation
Monarch Watch and our partner nurseries have distributed over 650,000 free milkweeds for monarch butterfly habitat restoration since the program began in 2015.
[162]
Monarch Butterfly Conservation | Xerces Society
We are working across the U.S. to protect and restore habitat for monarch butterflies on farms, in natural areas, along roadsides and rights of way, ...Keep Monarchs Wild · Western Monarch Conservation · Western Monarch...
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Corridors affect plants, animals, and their interactions in fragmented ...
Corridors are thought to facilitate movement between connected patches of habitat, thus increasing gene flow, promoting reestablishment of locally extinct ...
[164]
[PDF] Butterflies Guide d'identification CITES – Papillons Guía de ...
Only those species of butterflies protected under CITES are illustrated in this guide. All of these species belong to the family Papilionidae. This family ...
[165]
Monarch Butterfly Conservation in North America
The Biosphere Reserve was expanded to include 217 square miles in 2000. The Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve is a part of Mexico's federal system of ...Missing: expansions | Show results with:expansions
[166]
Protected areas facilitate species' range expansions - PNAS
Aug 14, 2012 · Records from intensive surveys revealed that seven bird and butterfly species have colonized PAs 4.2 (median) times more frequently than ...
[167]
The North American Butterfly Monitoring Network: Welcome to the ...
This network includes monitoring programs, informatics experts, and downstream data users. Our goals are to expand the scale at which we are collecting data.Missing: apps genetic banking
[168]
Butterfly Monitoring App – Citizen Science for Biodiversity | Team 15
Sep 24, 2025 · Our Solution · AI-powered recognition: Using the phone's camera, the app identifies butterflies in real time. · Light and understandable design: ...
[169]
Once vanished, rare butterfly reintroduced on San Diego National ...
Feb 2, 2017 · To save the butterfly, the team raised larvae in captivity in the San Diego Zoo's Butterfly Conservation Lab, where zoo entomologists cared for ...<|separator|>
[170]
Incorporating genomics into insect conservation: Butterflies as a ...
Apr 3, 2023 · Genomics brings important innovations to insect conservation. We highlight these novelties by reviewing the current butterfly population ...
[171]
Predicting butterfly species presence from satellite imagery using ...
May 14, 2025 · This paper presents a new data set for predicting butterfly species presence from satellite data in the United Kingdom. We experimentally ...
[172]
Butterflies and Conservation: Largest AI Dataset Now Released
Sep 4, 2025 · In the end, the AI model correctly identified 97 percent of butterfly species. Final fine-tuning was carried out on the LUMI supercomputer ...
[173]
Fluttering Through Concrete: The Role of Butterfly Gardens in Cities
Jul 28, 2025 · What can a butterfly garden do? Butterfly gardens or pollinator gardens act as a steppingstone for pollinators, helping them navigate through ...
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Community-based Urban Gardening for Biodiversity - Earth5R
This article aims to explore how community-based urban gardening can serve as a grassroots solution to preserve and enhance biodiversity.<|control11|><|separator|>
[175]
PSYCHE (Psykhe) - Greek Goddess of the Soul
Psyche was the ancient Greek goddess of the soul and the wife of Eros (Roman Cupid) god of love. She was once a mortal princess whose extraordinary beauty ...
[176]
Butterflies | Mesoamerican Cultures and their Histories - UO Blogs
Butterflies and the Aztecs. Itzpapalotl, the obsidian butterfly goddess of Aztec culture, seems to have been an important figure since before the Post ...
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GLOSSARY: Butterfly - Gotheborg.com
In Straits Chinese porcelain specifically, a pair of butterflies symbolizes the spirits of the forefathers. A butterfly or bird approaching a peony = a young ...Missing: bringers | Show results with:bringers<|separator|>
[178]
The History of Butterfly Magic and Folklore - Learn Religions
Feb 9, 2019 · The philosopher Aristotle named the butterfly Psyche, which is the Greek word that means “soul.” In ancient Rome, butterflies appeared on ...
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https://earth5r.org/community-based-urban-gardening-for-biodiversity/
[180]
Unit 24.01.03 | Yale National Initiative®
For the Egyptians, butterflies were a symbolic meaning related to life after death. For the Greek, they were associated with the human soul. This notion ...Missing: frescoes | Show results with:frescoes
[181]
A Brief, Fluttering History of Butterflies in Art, From Symbols of ...
Mar 18, 2022 · They have been employed as vivid symbols of death and resurrection, the fleeting nature of beauty, and even as symbols of marriage in cultures around the world.
[182]
Butterfly Tattoo Designs: Symbolism, Meanings, and Ideas
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[PDF] Freudian Interpretation and Kafka's The Metamorphosis
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Butterfly (choochoo) - World Kigo Database
Feb 22, 2005 · The butterfly it is not just an ubiquious animal in springtime, but relates to a much deeper layer of Taoist philosophy about the essence of being.
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A brief history of butterfly collecting - Insectism
Advent of the Victorian Era: The Victorian era witnessed a tremendous surge in butterfly collecting, as well as the birth of butterfly collecting societies.
[186]
The first butterfly collectors - Engelsberg Ideas
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Decline of Amateur Lepidoptera Collectors Threatens the Future of ...
Jan 13, 2021 · Lepidoptera collecting increased dramatically until the 1970s, maintained a short plateau, and has plummeted since the late 1990s (down 59.45% ...
[188]
[PDF] Development of Captive Rearing and Translocation Methods for ...
Dec 6, 2007 · Larvae readily feed on a variety of host plants that contain compounds known as iridoid glycosides, including the nonnative host Plantago ...
[189]
[PDF] Captive Rearing of Lange's Metalmark Butterfly, 2011–2015
Feb 10, 2016 · Methods. The methods used for captive breeding and release were adaptively managed to account for the difficulties and opportunities ...
[190]
Release captive-bred individuals to the wild - Conservation Evidence
Thirteen studies evaluated the effects of releasing captive-bred butterflies and moths into the wild. Nine studies were in the UK and one was in each of the UK ...Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[191]
Captive-reared migratory monarch butterflies show natural ... - NIH
The authors concluded that the activity of rearing captive monarchs for release would be an ineffective conservation practice to help boost migratory ...
[192]
Butterflies - KAUFMAN FIELD GUIDES
This compact guide covers all North American butterflies with 2,300+ pictures, range maps, and an "actual size" silhouette, and is user-friendly.Missing: taxonomy expeditions
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Scientific expedition in Mongolia: new butterfly discoveries and ...
We also discovered a previously unknown species of butterfly of the genus Erebia in the Chentej Mountains in Mongolia. We will gradually process and ...
[194]
After 150 years, butterfly collected by Alfred Russel Wallace finds its ...
Aug 13, 2025 · A monograph by a team of international researchers revised the diverse Neotropical butterfly genus Euptychia.
[195]
Butterfly Mimicry Polymorphisms Highlight Phylogenetic Limits of ...
Here, we break this correlation between mimicry mode and phylogeny by studying the genetic basis of mimicry polymorphisms in two unique species: Hypolimnas ...Missing: expeditions | Show results with:expeditions
[196]
First national survey of terrestrial biodiversity using airborne eDNA
Jun 2, 2025 · In this study, we conducted the first national survey of terrestrial biodiversity using a metabarcoding approach on airborne environmental DNA.
[197]
Citizen Scientists Are Accelerating Ecology Research, Study Suggests
Jul 28, 2025 · Researchers have used iNaturalist images to analyze color variations in butterflies and snakes, compare the flower preferences of native and ...Missing: eDNA | Show results with:eDNA
[198]
A Comparison of Butterfly Diversity Results between iNaturalist and ...
Aug 27, 2024 · We compared butterfly observations in eastern Oklahoma using a dataset obtained from the popular community science website iNaturalist and one collected during ...Missing: eDNA | Show results with:eDNA
[199]
Butterfly wing architectures inspire sensor and energy applications
In this review, the wing architecture properties such as response to temperature or mechanical forces have been applied in thermal sensors and medical sensors, ...
[200]
[PDF] Biomimicry of Blue Morpho butterfly wings
The reflection has been boosted further by utilizing a deep UV reflection coating underneath the resist, which produces very weak reflec- tions in the optical ...
[201]
Butterfly wing architectures inspire sensor and energy applications
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[202]
Chitin-Based Anisotropic Nanostructures of Butterfly Wings for ... - NIH
Aug 23, 2017 · For example, Morpho butterfly wings have been used as a vapor sensor, and Surface Enhanced Raman spectroscopy is based on its anisotropic ...
[203]
Review on the Sensing Potential and Technological Integration of ...
Sep 26, 2024 · One such nanostructure in morpho butterfly wings has attracted attention because of its vibrant uniqueness and diverse sensing properties. This ...
[204]
Switchable and conspicuous retroreflective sensors inspired by the ...
Sep 15, 2024 · Butterfly wings possess distinct micro/nanostructures that contribute to their vibrant coloration, light-trapping capabilities, ...
[205]
Sericulture as a sustainable agroindustry - ScienceDirect.com
Silk fibroin protein has the advantage of being biodegradable as it is digestible by proteolytic enzymes found in the body as well as in the environment ...
[206]
Bioengineered silkworms with butterfly cytotoxin-modified ... - PNAS
Thus, bioengineering with targeted P1A expression successfully produced silkworms with a biologically useful trait that has significant application potential.
[207]
Development of a Butterfly Inspired Micro Aerial Vehicle with Figure ...
Aug 12, 2025 · The first design features a single gear driven spur gear and flapping arm to produce a mostly vertical wing flap motion, and the second uses a ...
[208]
The effects of bio-inspired wing vein morphology on thrust ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Artificial wings in flapping-wing MAVs are essential for generating force and enabling precise flight control, inspired by the biomechanics of ...
[209]
Butterflies fly using efficient propulsive clap mechanism owing to ...
Jan 20, 2021 · Butterflies use a wing clap at the end of upstroke, creating a jet. Flexible wings form a cupped shape, increasing efficiency and thrust.Abstract · Background · Methods · DiscussionMissing: gliding | Show results with:gliding
[210]
A new meta-heuristic butterfly-inspired algorithm - ScienceDirect.com
This paper proposes a novel bio-inspired algorithm named Artificial Butterfly Optimization (ABO) algorithm. The new algorithm is based on the mate-finding ...Missing: pattern | Show results with:pattern
[211]
The Butterfly Optimization Algorithm: A Deep Dive into Nature's Most ...
Sep 27, 2025 · By using differences between randomly selected butterflies, the algorithm maintains population diversity and escape capability from local ...
[212]
A Hybrid Butterfly Optimization Algorithm for Numerical Optimization ...
Dec 24, 2021 · The butterfly optimization algorithm (BOA) is a swarm-based metaheuristic algorithm inspired by the foraging behaviour and information sharing ...3.1. Gaussian Distribution... · Table 3 · 5.2. Simulation ExperimentMissing: pattern | Show results with:pattern
[213]
Pierisin, Cytotoxic and Apoptosis-Inducing DNA ADP-Ribosylating ...
Jun 14, 2024 · Pierisin-1 was serendipitously discovered as a strong cytotoxic and apoptosis-inducing protein from pupae of the cabbage butterfly Pieris rapae against cancer ...
[214]
Pierisin, Cytotoxic and Apoptosis-Inducing DNA ADP-Ribosylating ...
Jun 14, 2024 · Pierisin-1, a protein derived from cabbage butterfly pupae, exhibits DNA ADP-ribosylating activity, inducing apoptosis in cancer cells and contributing to ...