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Cardiotocography

Cardiotocography (CTG), also known as electronic fetal monitoring, is a technique that continuously records the fetal heart rate (FHR) and uterine contractions to assess fetal well-being during pregnancy and labor.^[1] It involves placing external transducers on the maternal abdomen to detect FHR via ultrasound Doppler and uterine activity through a pressure sensor, producing a graphical trace for analysis.^[1] The primary aim is to identify signs of fetal hypoxia or distress, enabling timely interventions such as expedited delivery to prevent adverse outcomes like neonatal seizures.^[2] Developed in the 1950s and 1960s, CTG became widely used in subsequent decades as a non-invasive alternative to intermittent auscultation.^[1] Its principles rely on evaluating FHR patterns—baseline rate (typically 110-160 beats per minute), variability (6-25 bpm indicating moderate), accelerations (reactive increases ≥15 bpm for ≥15 seconds), and decelerations (early, late, or variable)—which reflect fetal oxygenation, autonomic nervous system function, and response to contractions.^[1] In cases of poor signal quality or need for higher precision, internal monitoring using a fetal scalp electrode and intrauterine pressure catheter may be employed, though this carries risks like infection.^[1] CTG is classified into three categories by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD): Category I (normal, reassuring), Category II (indeterminate, requiring close surveillance), and Category III (abnormal, requiring immediate evaluation and intervention, such as delivery, if not resolved with resuscitative measures).^[1] Recent guidelines, including a 2024 international consensus, advocate physiological-based interpretation to improve accuracy and reduce unnecessary interventions.^[3] Antenatally, from around 26 weeks' gestation, it is indicated for high-risk conditions like maternal diabetes, hypertension, or reduced fetal movements, typically performed for 30-60 minutes to screen for compromise.^[4] During intrapartum monitoring, it is recommended for high-risk pregnancies by organizations like the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), but not routinely for low-risk cases due to limited evidence of benefit.^[1] Evidence from Cochrane reviews indicates that continuous CTG reduces neonatal seizures (risk ratio 0.50, 95% CI 0.31-0.80) compared to intermittent auscultation, based on over 32,000 women across nine trials.^[2] However, it does not significantly lower perinatal mortality (risk ratio 0.86, 95% CI 0.59-1.23) or cerebral palsy rates (risk ratio 1.75, 95% CI 0.84-3.63), while increasing cesarean sections (risk ratio 1.63, 95% CI 1.29-2.07) and instrumental vaginal births (risk ratio 1.15, 95% CI 1.01-1.33).^[2] These findings highlight ongoing debates about its routine use, emphasizing the need for standardized interpretation to balance benefits and intervention-related risks.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Purpose

Cardiotocography (CTG), also known as electronic fetal monitoring, is a technique that simultaneously records the fetal heart rate (FHR) and uterine contractions (tocography) during pregnancy, labor, and delivery.^[2] This non-invasive method assesses fetal oxygenation by detecting changes in FHR patterns and evaluates maternal labor progress through the monitoring of contraction frequency, duration, and intensity.^[2] By capturing the temporal relationship between these physiological signals, CTG provides a graphical representation that clinicians use to interpret fetal responses to uterine activity.^[4] The primary purpose of CTG is to enable early detection of fetal distress or compromise, particularly hypoxia, in both antenatal and intrapartum settings.^[4] It serves as a surveillance tool in high-risk pregnancies—such as those involving maternal hypertension, diabetes, or preterm labor—to guide timely clinical interventions, including cesarean section or instrumental vaginal birth, thereby aiming to reduce perinatal morbidity and mortality.^[2] Evidence from Cochrane reviews indicates that CTG reduces neonatal seizures (risk ratio 0.50, 95% CI 0.31-0.80), though its impact on other outcomes like perinatal mortality remains inconclusive (risk ratio 0.86, 95% CI 0.59-1.23), while it is associated with increased cesarean sections (risk ratio 1.63, 95% CI 1.29-2.07).^[2] Key components of CTG include FHR detection via external Doppler ultrasound transducers placed on the maternal abdomen or internal fetal electrocardiography using a scalp electrode attached to the fetal presenting part after membrane rupture.^[2] Uterine activity is measured externally with a pressure transducer on the abdomen or internally via an intrauterine catheter for more precise recordings.^[2] These elements allow for either continuous or intermittent monitoring, depending on clinical needs. Historically, CTG evolved from intermittent manual auscultation of the fetal heartbeat, a practice dating back centuries, to continuous electronic monitoring in the mid-20th century, with widespread adoption following its development in the 1960s.^[5] This shift marked a significant advancement in obstetric care, transitioning from subjective listening to objective, real-time data analysis.^[5]

History

The assessment of fetal well-being through heart rate monitoring originated in the early 19th century with manual auscultation using the stethoscope, first described for obstetric purposes by Jean-Alexandre Lejumeau de Kergaradec in 1822, allowing practitioners to detect fetal heart sounds during labor.^[6] This intermittent method relied on direct listening with devices like the Pinard horn, a trumpet-shaped wooden stethoscope developed in 1895 by Adolphe Pinard, and remained the standard for over a century despite limitations in accuracy and continuity. In the 1950s, phonocardiography emerged as an early electronic approach, using microphones to amplify and record fetal heart sounds, laying groundwork for more advanced systems.^[7] The 1960s marked the invention of electronic fetal monitoring (EFM), pioneered by Edward H. Hon and Edward J. Quilligan at Yale University, who developed the first practical apparatus for continuous recording of fetal heart rate alongside uterine contractions, published in 1960.^[5] This innovation addressed limitations of manual methods by enabling real-time detection of fetal distress patterns, with the first commercial device, the Hewlett-Packard 8020A, released in 1968.^[7] By the 1970s, EFM achieved widespread adoption in high-risk pregnancies across the United States and Europe, transitioning practice from intermittent auscultation to continuous monitoring as obstetric technology proliferated, with over 1,000 systems in use by 1972.^[8] Shifts toward routine continuous EFM in the late 1970s and 1980s prompted scrutiny through randomized controlled trials, including the influential 1985 Dublin trial, which involved 12,964 women and found no reduction in perinatal mortality but a reduction in neonatal seizures with EFM compared to intermittent auscultation; though the trial itself showed similar cesarean rates, broader evidence from such studies highlighted an association with increased cesarean delivery rates due to overinterpretation of tracings.^[9] These findings influenced guidelines to reserve continuous monitoring for high-risk cases, curbing its universal application while affirming its role in targeted scenarios.^[10] Recent advancements include the 2024 revision of the international expert consensus on physiological cardiotocography (CTG) interpretation, developed by 44 specialists from 14 countries, which prioritizes understanding underlying fetal physiology over pattern-based classification to reduce misinterpretation.^[11] By 2025, integration of artificial intelligence, particularly deep learning algorithms trained on large CTG datasets, has enhanced automated pattern recognition, achieving superior accuracy in classifying fetal hypoxia compared to traditional methods and supporting clinical decision-making.^[12]

Methods

External Monitoring

External monitoring in cardiotocography involves the non-invasive application of transducers to the maternal abdomen to assess fetal heart rate (FHR) and uterine activity. The procedure utilizes an abdominal ultrasound transducer that employs Doppler ultrasound technology to detect fetal cardiac motion and generate FHR signals through signal modulation and autocorrelation processing.^[13] A tocodynamometer, or toco belt, is simultaneously placed on the abdomen to measure external uterine contraction pressure using a strain gauge or pressure-sensitive device that records changes in abdominal tension.^[14] These devices produce continuous tracings displayed on a monitor, allowing real-time observation without requiring maternal repositioning beyond initial placement.^[10] Equipment for external monitoring typically includes portable cardiotocography units secured by elastic belts around the abdomen to hold the transducers in place.^[14] Modern systems often incorporate wireless telemetry options, such as patch-based sensors, which enable maternal mobility during labor, including use in water immersion like baths or birth pools.^[13]^[10] This method offers several advantages, including its non-invasive nature, which eliminates the need for cervical dilation or ruptured membranes, making it suitable for antepartum fetal assessments in the third trimester and low-risk intrapartum monitoring.^[4]^[13] It provides minimal discomfort and no exposure to radiation, allowing for both intermittent and continuous application in clinical settings.^[14] However, external monitoring has specific limitations, such as signal loss or artifacts due to maternal or fetal movement, which can necessitate frequent transducer repositioning.^[13] Contraction measurements are less precise than those obtained internally, as the tocodynamometer only approximates intensity and duration without quantifying actual intrauterine pressure.^[14] Additionally, accuracy may be compromised in cases of maternal obesity, unfavorable fetal position, or excess amniotic fluid, potentially leading to inadvertent recording of the maternal heart rate.^[14]^[13] For scenarios requiring higher precision, internal monitoring serves as an alternative.^[13]

Internal Monitoring

Internal monitoring in cardiotocography involves invasive techniques to obtain more precise fetal heart rate (FHR) and uterine contraction data during labor, particularly after rupture of the amniotic membranes. This approach enhances accuracy compared to external methods by directly accessing fetal and uterine signals, allowing for better assessment of fetal well-being in high-risk scenarios.^[1] The primary procedure for FHR monitoring is the placement of a fetal scalp electrode (FSE), a thin wire electrode attached directly to the fetal scalp through the cervix. After cervical dilation and membrane rupture, a spiral-tipped electrode is gently rotated into the fetal skin using aseptic technique, typically in the dorsal lithotomy position, to record the fetal electrocardiogram (ECG) continuously. This provides a clearer signal than external Doppler transducers, reducing artifacts from maternal movement or obesity.^[1]^[15] For uterine activity, an intrauterine pressure catheter (IUPC) is inserted transcervically into the amniotic space to measure contraction intensity in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). Available in fluid-filled or solid transducer types, the IUPC connects to the cardiotocograph for real-time pressure recordings, enabling calculation of Montevideo units—a quantitative assessment of contraction efficiency summing the intensity of contractions over 10 minutes. Fluid-filled models transmit pressure via saline to an external transducer, while solid types use integrated sensors for direct measurement.^[16]^[1] Indications for internal monitoring arise when external cardiotocography yields unreliable tracings, such as in cases of maternal obesity, multiple gestation, or polyhydramnios that obscure signals. It is also employed during active labor when precise data is needed for decisions on augmentation or intervention, following initial external monitoring as the first-line approach.^[15]^[1] Specific risks associated with internal monitoring include infection, such as chorioamnionitis, which occurs at a higher rate with FSE use (5.28% vs. 2.69%). Fetal scalp trauma, including abrasions or abscesses, affects approximately 1.17% of cases with FSE, with an adjusted odds ratio of 1.62 for scalp injury. FSE use is associated with an elevated risk of cephalohematoma (adjusted odds ratio 1.57, 95% CI 1.36–1.83) in non-operative vaginal deliveries. IUPC placement carries risks of placental abruption or uterine perforation if misplaced extramembranously, though overall perinatal complication rates remain low and comparable to external methods in recent studies. Prophylactic antibiotics may be considered in high-infection-risk scenarios, like maternal group B streptococcus colonization.^[17]^[18]^[1]

Interpretation

Uterine Activity

Uterine activity, a key component of cardiotocography (CTG) tracings, is evaluated to monitor labor progression and fetal well-being. Frequency is quantified as the number of contractions in a 10-minute window, typically averaged over 30 minutes for consistency. Duration measures the time from contraction onset to return to baseline, usually in seconds, while intensity is assessed qualitatively (mild, moderate, strong) with external monitoring or quantitatively in mmHg using an intrauterine pressure catheter (IUPC) for internal monitoring.^[13] In active labor, normal uterine patterns include 3–5 contractions per 10 minutes, each lasting 30–60 seconds with moderate intensity and a resting tone below 20 mmHg between contractions. Hyperstimulation, also termed tachysystole, occurs with more than 5 contractions per 10 minutes, prolonged durations exceeding 90 seconds, or elevated resting tone above 20 mmHg, which may hinder cervical dilation or necessitate interventions like oxytocin cessation.^[3]^[13]^[19] Clinically, uterine contractions intermittently compress uterine vessels, reducing placental perfusion and correlating with fetal oxygenation levels; excessive activity heightens the risk of fetal hypoxia and is often linked to heart rate decelerations. Integration with fetal heart rate changes, such as decelerations, aids in identifying uteroplacental insufficiency.^[3]^[13] Recordings may include artifacts from maternal movement, transducer displacement, or abdominal adiposity in external monitoring, which can distort frequency or intensity; distinguishing these from true contractions requires clinical correlation, with internal IUPC offering superior accuracy despite potential infection risks.^[13]

Baseline Fetal Heart Rate

The baseline fetal heart rate (FHR) in cardiotocography is defined as the mean fetal heart rate, rounded to the nearest increment of 5 beats per minute (bpm), calculated over a 10-minute window while excluding accelerations, decelerations, and periods of marked variability or segments differing by more than 25 bpm from the overall rate.^[20] This measurement requires a minimum of 2 contiguous or non-contiguous minutes of stable rate within the 10-minute segment to establish a reliable baseline; otherwise, it is considered indeterminate.^[1] The baseline is typically reassessed every 30 minutes during intrapartum monitoring to detect any progressive changes.^[21] A normal baseline FHR ranges from 110 to 160 bpm, reflecting a healthy fetal state in most term pregnancies, though slightly lower rates (100-109 bpm) may occur in post-term fetuses without immediate concern if other parameters are reassuring.^[22] Baseline tachycardia, defined as a sustained rate exceeding 160 bpm, can arise from maternal factors such as fever, infection, hyperthyroidism, or medications (e.g., beta-adrenergic agonists), as well as fetal anemia or hypoxia.^[1] Conversely, baseline bradycardia, indicated by a rate below 110 bpm, may result from fetal head compression, maternal hypothermia, beta-blocker use, or acute hypoxia, signaling potential compromise.^[1] Physiologically, the baseline FHR represents the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous system influences on the fetal sinoatrial node, providing insight into overall fetal oxygenation, neurologic integrity, and cardiovascular adaptation.^[1] Deviations from the normal range often indicate autonomic dysregulation or external stressors, prompting clinical evaluation to prevent adverse outcomes like acidosis, though they must be interpreted alongside variability, which quantifies short-term fluctuations around this mean.^[20]

Fetal Heart Rate Variability

Fetal heart rate (FHR) variability refers to the irregular fluctuations in the fetal heart rate, serving as a key indicator of fetal neurological integrity and autonomic nervous system function during cardiotocography (CTG) monitoring.^[1] These fluctuations are primarily mediated by the interplay between the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system, influenced by central nervous system activity, baroreceptors, and chemoreceptors, which help maintain homeostasis in response to physiological changes.^[1] Moderate variability reflects a healthy, reactive fetus, while alterations can signal potential distress, such as hypoxia or central nervous system depression.^[13] FHR variability is categorized based on the amplitude of oscillations, typically assessed visually on CTG tracings. Absent variability is characterized by an undetectable amplitude range, often appearing as a flat trace. Minimal variability involves a detectable amplitude range of 5 bpm or less. Moderate variability ranges from 6 to 25 bpm and is considered reassuring, indicating intact fetal well-being without significant hypoxia or acidosis. Marked or saltatory variability exceeds 25 bpm, which may suggest underlying issues such as umbilical cord compression or deteriorating placental function.^[13]^[1] Saltatory patterns, as a form of extreme variability, are defined as bandwidths greater than 25 bpm persisting for more than 30 minutes and are associated with early fetal hypoxia.^[13] Assessment of FHR variability is performed through visual evaluation of the bandwidth amplitude—the peak-to-trough difference—in 1-minute segments of the CTG trace, often averaged over a 10-minute window to account for baseline stability.^[13]^[1] Reduced variability, particularly absent or minimal categories, signals potential fetal acidosis or central nervous system depression, warranting immediate clinical intervention such as further monitoring or delivery.^[13] Conversely, marked variability requires careful interpretation, as it can indicate compensatory mechanisms but may also precede adverse outcomes if prolonged.^[1] Several factors influence FHR variability, impacting its interpretation in clinical practice. Gestational age plays a significant role, with preterm fetuses (before 32 weeks) exhibiting reduced variability due to immature autonomic nervous system development compared to term fetuses.^[23]^[24] Medications, such as analgesics (e.g., opioids), magnesium sulfate, or beta-blockers, can suppress variability by depressing the central nervous system.^[1] Fetal sleep cycles also affect variability, with periods of quiet sleep showing decreased fluctuations due to reduced parasympathetic activity, while active states increase it.^[13]^[24] These factors must be considered alongside the baseline FHR to avoid misinterpretation of non-pathological reductions.^[1]

Accelerations

In cardiotocography (CTG), accelerations are defined as abrupt increases in fetal heart rate (FHR) above the baseline, with onset to peak occurring in less than 30 seconds, an amplitude of at least 15 beats per minute (bpm) above baseline, and a duration of at least 15 seconds but less than 2 minutes.^[20]^[25] For preterm fetuses before 32 weeks' gestation, the criteria are adjusted to an amplitude of at least 10 bpm and a duration of at least 10 seconds due to immature neurological development.^[20]^[26] Accelerations are typically spontaneous and associated with fetal movements, serving as a reassuring sign of an intact central nervous system and normal autonomic function in the fetus.^[25]^[26] While they may occasionally coincide with uterine contractions, accelerations are generally non-periodic and not directly linked to contraction timing in a repetitive manner.^[25]^[27] The presence of accelerations indicates fetal well-being and effectively excludes significant hypoxia or acidosis, providing high negative predictive value for adverse outcomes.^[25]^[20] Their absence alone is of uncertain significance and does not reliably predict compromise, but when combined with other CTG abnormalities such as reduced variability or suspicious baseline features, it raises concern for potential fetal distress requiring further evaluation.^[25]^[26] Accelerations are identified visually on the CTG trace, where the fetal heart rate pattern is recorded alongside uterine activity, typically using external Doppler ultrasound or an internal fetal scalp electrode.^[20] Their presence or absence is assessed over a 20- to 40-minute observation window to evaluate overall fetal responsiveness during monitoring.^[26]^[28]

Decelerations

Decelerations in cardiotocography refer to transient decreases in the fetal heart rate (FHR) below the baseline, typically by at least 15 beats per minute (bpm) and lasting at least 15 seconds, that occur during labor and are evaluated in relation to uterine contractions. These patterns are critical for assessing fetal well-being, as they may indicate physiological responses to labor stresses or potential compromise.^[22]^[29] Decelerations are classified into four main types based on their timing relative to uterine contractions and their shape: early, variable, late, and prolonged. Early decelerations are characterized by a symmetrical, gradual decrease and return of the FHR, with the nadir coinciding with the peak of the uterine contraction; they typically last at least 30 seconds and reflect head compression during contractions, triggering a non-hypoxic vagal reflex from increased intracranial pressure.^[22]^[30] Variable decelerations feature an abrupt onset to nadir within less than 30 seconds, a drop of at least 15 bpm lasting 15 seconds to less than 2 minutes, and variable shape, often due to umbilical cord compression that activates baroreceptors, leading to a vagal response and transient bradycardia.^[22]^[29] Late decelerations show a gradual onset and a delayed pattern, where the entire deceleration—onset, nadir, and recovery—occurs after the corresponding contraction, resulting from uteroplacental insufficiency that stimulates peripheral chemoreceptors due to fetal hypoxemia.^[22]^[31] Prolonged decelerations are defined as a decrease of at least 15 bpm from baseline lasting 2 to 10 minutes, often representing severe or sustained hypoxia from causes such as cord prolapse or abruptio placentae, and may overlap with other types if extended.^[22]^[32] Identification of decelerations relies on their temporal relationship to contractions and morphological features: early and late types exhibit gradual slopes (onset to nadir over at least 30 seconds), distinguishing them from the abrupt, V- or U-shaped profile of variable decelerations.^[22]^[29] Physiologically, variable decelerations arise from baroreceptor-mediated vagal activation following transient fetal hypertension due to cord occlusion, while late decelerations stem from chemoreceptor-mediated responses to reduced oxygen delivery from uteroplacental hypoperfusion.^[29]^[31] Management implications vary by type and recurrence. Isolated early decelerations are generally benign and require no specific intervention beyond ongoing monitoring.^[30] Variable decelerations often resolve with maternal position changes to alleviate cord compression or amnioinfusion to cushion the cord, particularly if recurrent.^[22]^[32] In contrast, recurrent late or prolonged decelerations signal potential fetal compromise, prompting intrauterine resuscitation measures such as supplemental oxygen, intravenous fluids, or scalp stimulation, with expedited delivery considered if patterns persist.^[22]^[33] These approaches align with guidelines from organizations like the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO), emphasizing prompt recognition to optimize outcomes.^[34]^[35]

Pattern Classification

Cardiotocography pattern classification involves systematic categorization of the entire fetal heart rate (FHR) tracing, integrating multiple components to determine clinical risk and guide management decisions during labor. In the United States, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) established a three-category system in 2008, classifying tracings as Category I (normal), indicating low risk with predictable benign outcomes; Category II (indeterminate), representing the majority of tracings that are not normal or abnormal and requiring further evaluation; or Category III (abnormal), signaling high risk often necessitating prompt intervention. These categories are derived from assessments of baseline FHR, variability, presence of accelerations, and types of decelerations, with uterine contractions providing contextual information on the tracing's temporal features.^[20] Internationally, a similar three-tier framework has been adopted, particularly in guidelines from the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) and the UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), labeling tracings as reassuring (normal, with all features within expected limits and minimal risk), suspicious (one non-reassuring feature, warranting close monitoring and possible conservative measures), or pathological (multiple non-reassuring features or a single severe abnormality, indicating potential fetal compromise and urgent action).^[13] This system emphasizes a holistic evaluation, where the overall pattern's implications for fetal oxygenation supersede isolated components, though uterine activity remains integral for interpreting the physiological context of FHR changes. The integration of FHR elements with uterine activity in pattern classification allows for a comprehensive assessment, as contractions can influence decelerations and variability, helping clinicians differentiate benign variations from those suggesting hypoxia or other distress. For instance, normal variability and accelerations in the presence of adequate uterine contractions support a reassuring classification, while persistent absent variability coupled with late decelerations during contractions may elevate the tracing to pathological.^[13] Since the 2008 NICHD workshop, CTG interpretation has evolved toward a physiological-based approach, particularly by 2024, with international consensus emphasizing stages of fetal hypoxia rather than rigid categorical labels to improve predictive accuracy and reduce subjectivity. This shift, outlined in a 2024 expert consensus, focuses on recognizing specific hypoxic stress patterns—such as increasing baseline, reduced variability, or progressive decelerations—to tailor interventions more precisely to underlying pathophysiology.^[3]

Clinical Guidelines

Physiological-Based Interpretation

The physiological-based interpretation of cardiotocography (CTG) shifts the focus from descriptive pattern morphology to the underlying fetal pathophysiology, particularly in detecting and classifying hypoxic stress during labor. This approach enables clinicians to identify specific types of fetal compromise, such as acute hypoxia from umbilical cord compression or subacute hypoxia due to placental insufficiency, by evaluating combinations of CTG features like decelerations coupled with reduced fetal heart rate (FHR) variability.^[36] Central to this method is the recognition of progressive hypoxic patterns, exemplified by the "coastline pattern," where shallow decelerations and loss of FHR variability mimic a flattened coastal outline, signaling advancing decompensated hypoxia. The framework classifies decelerations as "Quicklie" for abrupt, acute events (e.g., head compression or cord occlusion) and "Tardy" for gradual, subacute ones (e.g., uteroplacental insufficiency), thereby reducing dependence on rigid category systems like those based solely on traditional FHR patterns.^[36] Developed through the 2024 international expert consensus statement—the first revision of the 2018 guideline—this interpretation was crafted by 44 CTG specialists from 14 countries and published in the European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology. It prioritizes mechanistic insights into fetal oxygenation and acid-base balance, guiding interventions like expedited delivery when decompensation is evident.^[36] Key advantages include enhanced inter-observer reliability, with kappa values of 0.80 among editorial board members and 0.68 among the broader consensus panel—substantially higher than the 0.3–0.6 seen in conventional CTG systems—allowing more consistent clinical decisions. By linking CTG features directly to physiological stressors like chronic placental issues, this method improves prognostic accuracy and reduces unnecessary interventions without compromising fetal safety.^[37]^[36]

Major International Standards

The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) established consensus guidelines in 2015 for intrapartum cardiotocography (CTG), classifying fetal heart rate (FHR) traces as normal, suspicious, or pathological based on baseline rate, variability, accelerations, decelerations, and uterine contractions.^[13] Normal traces feature a baseline of 110–160 bpm, variability of 5–25 bpm, and no or early decelerations; suspicious traces lack one normal feature without pathological elements; pathological traces include baseline abnormalities (<110 or >160 bpm), reduced variability (<5 bpm for >50 minutes), or repetitive late/prolonged decelerations.^[13] Response algorithms emphasize conservative measures for suspicious traces, such as maternal repositioning and oxygen administration, with close monitoring, while pathological traces require urgent intervention, including expedited delivery if unresolved.^[13] The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) updated its evidence-based guidelines in 2025, retaining the three-category FHR classification system: Category I (normal, requiring routine care), Category II (indeterminate, the most common), and Category III (abnormal, prompting expedited delivery).^[38] For Category II patterns, which include elements like minimal variability or variable decelerations without clear hypoxia, management prioritizes intrauterine resuscitation techniques such as maternal repositioning, intravenous fluid boluses, and discontinuation of oxytocin, avoiding routine supplemental oxygen unless maternal hypoxia is present.^[39] Adjuncts like fetal scalp pH sampling may be considered in persistent Category II cases to assess fetal acid-base status, with thresholds of pH ≥7.25 indicating normality and <7.20 suggesting intervention, though not routinely recommended due to limited availability and evidence.^[39] In the United Kingdom, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines from 2022 (updated 2023) adopt a risk-stratified approach to CTG monitoring, recommending intermittent auscultation for low-risk labors and continuous CTG for those with antenatal or intrapartum risk factors, such as meconium-stained liquor, maternal pyrexia, or oxytocin use.^[21] Traces are classified using a color-coded system—white (normal), amber (suspicious, one non-reassuring feature), or red (pathological, one abnormal or multiple suspicious features)—with management escalating from conservative measures for amber traces to immediate senior review and potential delivery for red traces.^[21] The World Health Organization (WHO) integrates CTG within its 2018 intrapartum care recommendations, advising against routine continuous CTG in low-risk pregnancies to promote mobility and reduce interventions, while recommending it for high-risk cases like significant meconium or maternal sepsis.^[40] Interpretation aligns with normal, suspicious, or pathological categories similar to FIGO, emphasizing clinical context and fetal blood sampling for pathological traces, with pH <7.20 or lactate >4.8 mmol/L prompting delivery.^[40] Post-2024 harmonization efforts, led by an international expert consensus involving 44 specialists from 14 countries, seek to align these guidelines toward physiological-based CTG interpretation, incorporating features like the ZigZag pattern for autonomic instability and relative utero-placental insufficiency, while discouraging outdated adjuncts like ST-analysis.^[36] This revision promotes standardized training and reduces inter-observer variability, with early adoption in over 20 units globally to improve outcomes.^[36]

Applications and Outcomes

Indications and Benefits

Cardiotocography (CTG) is primarily indicated for fetal surveillance in high-risk pregnancies, including those complicated by preeclampsia, gestational hypertension, or diabetes mellitus. For antepartum monitoring, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends initiating non-stress tests using CTG at 32 weeks of gestation or later for most at-risk patients, such as those with gestational diabetes requiring medication (once or twice weekly) or pregestational diabetes (twice weekly, potentially earlier if poorly controlled). In cases of preeclampsia without severe features, twice-weekly CTG is advised from diagnosis, while daily monitoring is suggested if severe features are present. These indications aim to assess fetal well-being and detect potential complications like growth restriction or hypoxia in conditions that elevate the risk of adverse perinatal outcomes.^[41] During intrapartum care, continuous CTG is recommended for high-risk pregnancies and is commonly applied during active labor to monitor fetal heart rate patterns in response to uterine contractions, as outlined in ACOG's 2025 Clinical Practice Guideline on intrapartum fetal heart rate monitoring. This approach is particularly emphasized for scenarios involving preterm labor, maternal medical conditions, or abnormal antepartum testing, where intermittent auscultation may be insufficient. The guideline provides an evidence-based framework for interpreting CTG tracings to guide timely interventions, supporting its use in active labor phases to optimize maternal and fetal safety.^[34] The benefits of CTG include a significant reduction in neonatal seizures, with meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials showing a 50% lower risk compared to intermittent auscultation (risk ratio 0.50, 95% CI 0.31-0.80). This early detection of fetal hypoxia enables interventions that avert potential brain injury, such as expedited delivery, thereby improving short-term neonatal outcomes like Apgar scores; population-based studies of electronic fetal monitoring, including CTG, report a decreased risk of Apgar scores below 4 at 5 minutes (relative risk 0.54). In high-risk settings, CTG plus ST-segment analysis is cost-effective, with analyses demonstrating lower overall costs per prevented case of metabolic acidosis. The 2025 ACOG guideline emphasizes standardized, evidence-based interpretation of CTG tracings, including physiological-based approaches, to guide clinical decisions and balance benefits with risks of interventions such as operative delivery. It also recommends against the routine use of ST-segment analysis (STAN) for interpretation and management of the fetal heart rate in labor.^[2]^[42]^[43] Adjunct uses of CTG enhance its accuracy, such as integration with ST-segment analysis of the fetal electrocardiogram, which provides additional physiological data during labor to refine decision-making in high-risk cases. Similarly, fetal pulse oximetry can complement CTG by directly assessing fetal oxygenation when heart rate patterns are indeterminate, though ACOG advises against routine use without clear indications. These combinations have been shown in clinical trials to improve predictive value for acidosis and support targeted interventions.^[44]

Limitations and Risks

Cardiotocography (CTG) exhibits a high false-positive rate, with abnormal tracings indicating fetal distress in 50-60% of cases where no true compromise exists, leading to unnecessary interventions.^[45] This limitation stems from the test's low positive predictive value, often below 30% for adverse neonatal outcomes, contributing to overdiagnosis of fetal hypoxia.^[2] Inter-observer variability in CTG interpretation remains a significant challenge, with agreement levels as low as 60-80% (or up to 20-40% disagreement) on tracing classification and management decisions, particularly for category II patterns. This subjectivity arises from differing clinician experiences and guideline applications, potentially resulting in inconsistent care.^[46] Among risks, continuous CTG monitoring in low-risk pregnancies has been associated with a substantial increase in cesarean delivery rates due to heightened intervention thresholds. Maternal discomfort is also common, as the external transducers and tocodynamometer belts restrict mobility and cause skin irritation or pressure during labor. Furthermore, evidence indicates no proven reduction in perinatal mortality or cerebral palsy rates with routine use in low-risk cases.^[2] A 2017 Cochrane systematic review (with references in subsequent updates) analyzed over 30 trials involving more than 85,000 women and confirmed that continuous CTG does not decrease perinatal deaths (risk ratio 0.86, 95% CI 0.59 to 1.23) but elevates operative delivery risks, including cesareans (risk ratio 1.63, 95% CI 1.29 to 2.07).^[2] The 2025 American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) clinical practice guideline highlights ongoing concerns with overuse, emphasizing selective application and standardized interpretation to mitigate intervention escalation without outcome benefits.^[34] Alternatives to continuous CTG include intermittent auscultation using a Pinard stethoscope or handheld Doppler for low-risk labors, which avoids excessive interventions while maintaining safety, as supported by Cochrane evidence showing comparable perinatal outcomes.^[47] Adjunctive methods like fetal electrocardiography with ST-segment analysis (STAN) can reduce false positives by providing metabolic insights alongside CTG, potentially lowering cesarean rates in ambiguous cases.^[48] Emerging AI-assisted CTG interpretation tools aim to standardize analysis and improve accuracy, with models demonstrating lower false-positive rates (e.g., 12% vs. 25% clinician average) through automated pattern recognition.^[49]

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Jul 1, 1985 · The caesarean delivery rates were 2.4% for electronic fetal heart monitoring and 2.2% for intermittent auscultation but this small difference ...
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Fetal Monitoring - Evidence Based Birth®
May 21, 2018 · The rate of cerebral palsy has stayed the same over time, despite the widespread adoption of using EFM during labor. About one out of 500 ...
[10]
International expert consensus statement on physiological ... - PubMed
The first international consensus guideline on physiological interpretation of cardiotocograph (CTG) produced by 44 CTG experts from 14 countries was published ...
[11]
Development of a novel artificial intelligence algorithm for ... - Frontiers
Sep 15, 2025 · To address the existing performance gap, artificial intelligence (AI) deep-learning methods have been proposed to improve automated CTG ...
[12]
FIGO consensus guidelines on intrapartum fetal monitoring ...
Sep 30, 2015 · External FHR monitoring is more prone to signal loss, to inadvertent monitoring of the maternal heart rate (Fig. 1) [9], and to signal artefacts ...
[13]
External and Internal Heart Rate Monitoring of the Fetus
External fetal heart rate monitoring uses a device to listen to or record the fetal heartbeat through the mother's abdomen. · Internal fetal heart rate ...Missing: limitations | Show results with:limitations
[14]
Fetal Heart Rate Monitoring During Labor - ACOG
Internal monitoring can be used only after the membranes of the amniotic sac have ruptured (after "your water breaks" or is broken).Missing: CTG | Show results with:CTG
[15]
Use of intrauterine pressure catheters - UpToDate
Jul 1, 2024 · Extramembranous placement · Uterine perforation · Umbilical cord prolapse · Other complications · Risk of infection.
[16]
Neonatal complications associated with use of fetal scalp electrode
Oct 1, 2017 · We found increased neonatal morbidity with fetal scalp electrode though the absolute risk is very low.
[17]
Safety of Internal Electronic Fetal Heart Rate Monitoring During Labor
Internal FHR monitoring during labor does not increase the incidence of adverse perinatal outcomes. External monitoring was associated with FHR false ...Perinatal Outcomes · Placental Pathology · Safety Of Fse Fetal...
[18]
International expert consensus statement on physiological ...
Full length article. International expert consensus statement on physiological interpretation of cardiotocograph (CTG): First revision (2024).
[19]
Cardiotocograph-based labor stage classification from uterine ... - NIH
Fetal heart rate and uterine pressure are two inseparable contents of CTG. Though ignored earlier, uterine contraction monitoring plays a pivotal role in the ...
[20]
A Review of NICHD Standardized Nomenclature for Cardiotocography
This article is to familiarize the reader with the standardized, quantitative nomenclature recommended to describe intrapartum cardiotocography.
[21]
Recommendations | Fetal monitoring in labour | Guidance - NICE
Dec 14, 2022 · Antenatal risk factors. 1.3.1. Offer continuous cardiotocography (CTG) ... mmHg or more) or raised diastolic blood pressure (90 mmHg or more).
[22]
Countdown to Intern Year, Week 4: Fetal Heart Tracings - ACOG
Jun 15, 2020 · The interpretation of the fetal heart rate tracing should follow a systematic approach with a full qualitative and quantitative description.
[23]
Effect of Gestational Age at Birth on Post-Term Maturation of Heart ...
Preterm birth delays maturation of autonomic cardiovascular control, reflected in reduced heart rate variability (HRV) in preterm compared to term infants ...
[24]
Heart rate variability parameters and fetal movement complement ...
Mar 2, 2015 · It is well known that fetal HRV can be affected by a number of factors, including GA, maternal medication, or fetal pathology (Van Leeuwen et ...
[25]
[PDF] figo consensus guidelines on intrapartum fetal monitoring
The presence of accelerations denotes a fetus that does not have hypoxia/acidosis, but their absence during labour is of uncertain significance. *Decelerations ...
[26]
[PDF] C-Obs 1 Intrapartum Fetal Surveillance Clinical Guideline - ranzcog
The guideline was most recently updated by the Intrapartum Fetal Surveillance Guideline Development. Group, a working group of the Women's Health Committee in ...
[27]
[PDF] True vs Spurious Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Accelerations on the ...
Jun 18, 2020 · Several CTG guidelines have classified the fetal heart rate acceleration as a 'reassuring feature”. The latest version of the Intrapartum Fetal ...
[28]
S1-Guideline on the Use of CTG During Pregnancy and Labor
The purpose of CTG recordings is to identify when there is concern about fetal well-being to allow interventions to be carried out before the fetus is harmed.
[29]
Variable Decelerations - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Variable decelerations as abrupt, visually apparent decreases in the fetal heart rate. The onset of the deceleration to the nadir should be less than 30 ...
[30]
Early Decelerations - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
May 5, 2025 · Hon and Quilligan first described 3 types of decelerations—early, variable, and late—in 1967 based on the shape and timing of decelerations ...
[31]
Late Decelerations - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jan 30, 2023 · The primary etiology of a late declaration is found to be uteroplacental insufficiency. Decreased blood flow to the placenta causes a reduced ...Missing: FIGO | Show results with:FIGO
[32]
[PDF] Management of Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Tracings
Prolonged decelerations are defined as FHR decreases of at least 15 bpm below baseline that last at least 2 minutes but less than 10 minutes. Clinical ...
[33]
Intrapartum Fetal Monitoring - AAFP
Aug 1, 2020 · External monitoring involves placement of two monitors (one for FHR and the other for contractions) against the maternal abdomen. Internal ...
[34]
Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Monitoring: Interpretation and ... - ACOG
This Clinical Practice Guideline includes an overview of intrapartum FHR monitoring nomenclature and classification systems and provides recommendations for ...
[35]
Agreement and accuracy using the FIGO, ACOG and NICE ...
Nov 21, 2016 · This study compared agreement, reliability and accuracy of cardiotocography interpretation using the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics
[36]
https://www.ejog.org/article/S0301-2115(24)00528-1/fulltext
[37]
Physiological interpretation of cardiotocograph (CTG): Inter-observer ...
Nov 29, 2024 · Physiological CTG interpretation focuses on identifying specific features of different types of fetal hypoxic stress and a combination of features which are ...
[38]
ACOG Clinical Practice Guideline No. 10:Intrapartum Fetal Heart ...
In its current form, FHR monitoring may be performed externally or internally. Most external monitors use a Doppler device with computerized logic to interpret ...
[39]
ACOG Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate Monitoring - Guideline Central
18-Sept-2025 · This Clinical Practice Guideline includes an overview of intrapartum FHR monitoring nomenclature and classification systems and provides ...
[40]
Monitoring during labour - Addendum to intrapartum care - NCBI - NIH
Based on the evidence reviewed, the Committee was confident in recommending that continuous CTG should not be used for women at low risk of complications in ...
[41]
Indications for Outpatient Antenatal Fetal Surveillance | ACOG
Initiating antenatal fetal surveillance at 32 0/7 weeks of gestation or later is appropriate for most at-risk patients. However, for pregnant individuals with ...
[42]
Continuous cardiotocography (CTG) as a form of electronic fetal ...
Feb 3, 2017 · CTG during labour is associated with reduced rates of neonatal seizures, but no clear differences in cerebral palsy, infant mortality or ...
[43]
Cost‐effectiveness of cardiotocography plus ST analysis of the fetal ...
Mar 29, 2011 · This study assessed the economic consequences of two strategies of intrapartum fetal monitoring in high-risk pregnant women with an indication ...
[44]
ST Analysis of the Fetal ECG, as an Adjunct to Fetal Heart Rate ...
STAN is a system for fetal surveillance that displays the FHR and information resulting from the computerised analysis of ST interval of the fetal ECG.
[45]
Continuous cardiotocography during labour: Analysis, classification ...
... false-positive rate of the CTG is high (60%). Moreover, there has not been a demonstrable improvement in the rate of cerebral palsy or perinatal deaths ...
[46]
Large-scale analysis of interobserver agreement and reliability in ...
Feb 14, 2024 · The objectives were to evaluate the accuracy of fetal hypoxia prediction and interobserver agreement and reliability among a wide range of ...Methods · Statistical Analysis · Accuracy Of Hypoxia...
[47]
Cardiotocography versus intermittent auscultation of fetal heart on ...
Jan 26, 2017 · Description of the condition. Two common methods of monitoring the FHR are by intermittent auscultation and by an electronic fetal monitoring ( ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[48]
ST waveform analysis vs cardiotocography alone for intrapartum ...
Dec 13, 2023 · The use of CTG has been associated with a decrease in neonatal seizures ... fetal monitoring: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2012; 119 ...
[49]
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Electronic Fetal ...
Jan 31, 2024 · These fHR traces were subsequently classified via AI-based algorithm, similar to CTG. Automated AI-based systems could distinguish and ...