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Centring

Centring is a form of falsework consisting of a temporary framework, typically constructed from timber, that supports the intrados of an arch, vault, or dome during masonry construction until the structure achieves self-supporting stability with the insertion of the keystone.^[1] This essential engineering technique ensures the precise alignment and load-bearing capacity of curved structural elements, preventing collapse while the individual stones or voussoirs are laid.^[2] Originating in ancient Roman architecture, centring has been integral to bridge and building projects worldwide, adapting from simple wooden props to complex reusable systems.^[1] The historical development of centring reflects advancements in span capabilities and design efficiency for masonry arch bridges, with a notable focus in Britain from the medieval period to the early 19th century.^[1] Early examples employed basic timber supports, but a revival in the late 11th century led to more sophisticated rigid centres capable of spanning over 50 feet by the 18th century.^[1] Notable innovations include the use of folding wedges for easier striking at Grosvenor Bridge (1827–1833), which achieved a record 200-foot span, and cast iron components at Waterloo Bridge (1811–1817) to enhance rigidity.^[1] In contrast to flexible French designs, British practice favored robust, truss-based centres propped on temporary piers or piles, as seen in Westminster Bridge (1738–1750) with its 76-foot central arch.^[1] These evolutions allowed for larger infrastructure projects.^[1] In construction, centring must withstand the dead load of the masonry, live loads from workers, and any construction-induced deformations, often designed with rim-pieces, battens, and wedges for precise shaping and removal.^[1] Traditional materials include Scots fir timber for its strength and workability, though modern applications may incorporate steel, plywood, or even rebar for parabolic forms in concrete arches.^[1]^[2] For large spans, truss-work or segmented designs enable reusability, reducing costs in projects like historical bridge restorations.^[2] Failure of centring, as occurred during the construction of the Minos West Ford Bridge in Kansas (early 20th century), can result in catastrophic collapse, underscoring the need for robust engineering.^[2] The process of striking—or removing—centring is critical, involving sequential loosening of supports to transfer loads gradually to the completed arch, often using wedges or mechanical aids to avoid damage.^[1] Its principles remain foundational in architectural engineering for curved forms in bridges, cathedrals, and tunnels.

Definition and Purpose

Definition

Centring is a specialized form of falsework, defined as a temporary framework erected to support the dead load of the stones or components forming an arch, vault, or dome during construction, until the keystone or final element is inserted to lock the structure into place and ensure the proper alignment of the voussoirs.^[3] This support system maintains the curved geometry of the structure, preventing collapse under its own weight prior to achieving self-stability.^[4] The terminology reflects regional spelling conventions, with "centring" used in British English and "centering" in American English.^[5] As a subset of broader falsework systems, centring is tailored specifically for curved overhead elements, distinguishing it from general shoring or formwork used in flat or linear constructions.^[6] Key components of centring include curved ribs, which are shaped timbers or members that outline the soffit of the arch; laggings, or cross-pieces such as battens nailed perpendicularly to the ribs to form a continuous supporting surface; and vertical poles or props that elevate and brace the assembly from below.^[7] These elements collectively create a scaffold that conforms precisely to the intended curvature, allowing masons to lay components in sequence from the springing points toward the crown.^[8]

Purpose in Construction

Centring serves as a critical temporary framework in the construction of arched and vaulted structures, primarily to bear the weight of unfinished masonry until it achieves self-supporting stability. By providing vertical and lateral support, it prevents the collapse of individual components, such as voussoirs in arches, during the assembly and curing phases, ensuring that the structure can withstand imposed loads without deformation. This role is essential for maintaining the intended geometric form, as the masonry lacks inherent compressive strength until fully bonded and set.^[9] The benefits of centring extend to enabling the realization of non-linear architectural forms that would otherwise be infeasible, such as spans over openings in bridges or buildings, by distributing loads evenly and reducing the risk of material failure during the vulnerable early stages. It allows for the precise alignment of curved elements, minimizing errors that could lead to uneven stress distribution or aesthetic imperfections, and facilitates complex designs like ribbed vaults by supporting sequential construction phases. In this way, centring not only safeguards workers and materials but also unlocks innovative engineering possibilities in traditional and modern masonry projects.^[10]^[11] Regarding structural integrity, centring ensures even load distribution across the developing structure, particularly during the critical period before the keystone or final elements are placed, which locks the assembly into a cohesive unit capable of transferring forces through compression. This temporary support system must remain in place long enough—typically at least seven days, or longer based on environmental conditions and analysis—to allow mortar or concrete to gain sufficient strength, thereby averting cracks or instability upon removal. By upholding the line of thrust within safe boundaries, centring contributes directly to the long-term durability of arches and vaults as primary applications.^[9]^[10]

History

Ancient and Medieval Origins

The use of centring, temporary wooden frameworks to support masonry during construction, originated in ancient civilizations and was refined by Roman engineers for building arches and vaults. By the 3rd century BCE, Romans employed curved timber forms, known as centering, to hold voussoirs in place until the keystone locked the arch, enabling the erection of durable stone structures without permanent supports.^[12] This technique, described in detail by Vitruvius in his De Architectura (c. 30–20 BCE), involved battens spaced every two feet and secured with chains or nails to form vaults, allowing concrete or stone to cure in precise shapes.^[12] Examples include the arches of aqueducts like the Aqua Claudia (completed 52 CE), which spanned valleys over 50 meters high, and basilicas such as Trajan's Basilica (c. 98–112 CE), where centering facilitated expansive interiors with trussed roofs.^[12] In the medieval period, centring techniques advanced significantly with the rise of Romanesque and Gothic architecture, particularly for vaulted ceilings in churches and cathedrals. Norman Romanesque examples from the 11th–12th centuries, such as those in Durham Cathedral (begun 1093), utilized ribbed vaults supported by timber centering to create complex roofs, adapting Roman methods for heavier stone masonry over modest spans.^[13] By the 12th century, early Gothic builders at Notre-Dame de Paris (construction began 1163) introduced more complex sexpartite ribbed vaults, employing reusable timber frames with vertical posts, centering arches under each rib course, and lath supports for the vault shells to achieve heights of up to 32 meters and spans of 12 meters.^[14] These frameworks allowed sequential de-centering after each course set, minimizing material use and enabling the intricate intersecting ribs that defined Gothic aesthetics.^[14] Key innovations during this era included the development of modular, reusable timber centering systems, which reduced costs and sped construction across multiple projects, as analyzed in studies of medieval vault erection.^[15] In Romanesque structures like those in southern France (11th century), centering was adapted for groin vaults over rectangular bays, while early Gothic transitions, evident at Notre-Dame's choir (completed c. 1177), incorporated curved centering for double-curved shells and prefabricated ridge stones to support larger spans without excessive wall thickness.^[14] These advancements laid the groundwork for further refinements in later periods.

Renaissance and Modern Developments

During the Renaissance, significant innovations in centring techniques emerged, driven by the revival of classical architecture and the need to construct ambitious vaulted structures without the limitations of medieval methods. Filippo Brunelleschi's engineering of the dome for Florence Cathedral (Santa Maria del Fiore), spanning 42 meters and built from 1420 to 1436, exemplified this shift. Lacking sufficient timber for traditional massive wooden centring due to regional shortages, Brunelleschi developed a layered system of horizontal oak timber rings to support each successive course of masonry, enabling the dome to rise progressively without full-height scaffolding or extensive falsework. This approach, integrated with self-supporting herringbone brick patterns and internal tension rings of stone and wood to resist outward thrust, allowed for the erection of the largest unreinforced masonry dome in history at the time.^[16]^[17]^[18] Brunelleschi's method influenced subsequent Renaissance projects, such as Michelangelo's dome for St. Peter's Basilica in Rome (begun 1506, completed 1590), which adapted similar ribbed and chained designs but incorporated iron tension rings for added stability, reducing reliance on extensive timber centring. These advancements emphasized precision in design and on-site mechanics, including custom hoists and pulleys, marking a transition toward more efficient, resource-conscious construction practices.^[17]^[19] The 19th century brought transformative changes through the Industrial Revolution, as iron and steel supplanted timber in centring for greater strength and reusability. Cast-iron components, produced via coke-smelting processes pioneered by Abraham Darby in 1709, enabled the fabrication of durable supports for larger spans; by the 1770s, cast-iron columns appeared in structures like St. Anne's Church in Liverpool, providing stable bases for vault centring. Wrought-iron trusses and prefabricated elements further revolutionized assembly, as seen in the Crystal Palace in London (1851), where modular iron frameworks spanning up to 21.9 meters facilitated rapid erection of expansive vaulted enclosures without custom-built wooden forms.^[20]^[21]^[22] Steel, refined through the Bessemer process in the 1850s, enhanced centring durability for industrial-scale projects, allowing lighter, more adjustable frameworks that withstood heavier loads during vault and arch pours. Prefabrication's rise, fueled by mechanized factories, standardized components for transport and reuse, significantly shortening construction timelines and costs in 19th- and early 20th-century infrastructure like railway viaducts and factory vaults.^[23]^[24] In the 20th and 21st centuries, centring transitioned to fully adjustable steel systems, reflecting advances in modular engineering and safety standards. Post-World War II reconstruction in Europe prioritized rapid, versatile falsework; adjustable steel props and framed systems, such as those developed in the 1950s, allowed reconfiguration for diverse arch and vault geometries in rebuilding projects like bombed cathedrals and bridges. These innovations, compliant with emerging codes like Britain's BS 5975 (1982) for temporary works, emphasized load distribution and worker safety, enabling efficient erection in complex structures.

Materials

Traditional Materials

Timber served as the primary material in traditional centring due to its abundance, ease of shaping, and ability to withstand the compressive loads imposed by wet masonry during construction. Hardwoods such as oak were favored for their exceptional strength and durability, particularly in load-bearing ribs and supports, while softwoods like pine and Scots fir offered good workability and were often sourced from regional forests or imported for larger projects.^[25]^[26]^[1] Oak's heartwood exhibited natural resistance to rot and decay in humid conditions, making it suitable for prolonged exposure during the curing process of arches and vaults, though green oak was sometimes used and allowed to season in place to enhance tightness in joints. Pine, despite being a softwood, provided comparable compressive strength when slow-grown, contributing to the framework's stability without excessive weight. Scots fir was similarly valued for its strength and workability in centring applications. These properties ensured centring could reliably support structures like medieval vaulting until the permanent masonry could bear its own load.^[25] Components of the timber framework were typically assembled using mortise-and-tenon joinery, a technique that created strong, interlocking connections ideal for the curved and temporary nature of centring, often secured further with wooden pegs or iron nails rather than nails to maintain flexibility and reusability.^[25]^[26] The shift to modern alternatives like steel began in the 19th century with cast iron components, evolving to steel in the early 20th century for greater permanence and efficiency.

Modern Materials

In contemporary construction, steel and aluminum have become predominant materials for centring due to their strength and adaptability in adjustable frames, enabling efficient support for arches and vaults while allowing for multiple reuses across projects. Steel frameworks, valued for their robustness, exhibit yield strengths typically between 250 and 500 MPa, providing reliable load-bearing capacity far exceeding that of historical timber options. To mitigate environmental exposure, steel components are frequently treated with corrosion-resistant coatings, such as galvanization or epoxy, extending their service life and reducing maintenance needs. Aluminum, being approximately one-third the density of steel, offers a lighter alternative that simplifies assembly and disassembly without compromising structural performance, thanks to its inherent oxide layer that confers natural corrosion resistance. Composite and synthetic materials further advance centring efficiency by combining lightweight properties with enhanced weather resistance, ideal for temporary supports in variable site conditions. Fiber-reinforced plastics (FRPs) deliver high tensile strength and impact resistance while weighing significantly less than metals, facilitating quicker erection and reduced labor demands. Plywood sheets coated with phenolic resins provide a smooth, durable surface that withstands moisture, chemicals, and repeated concrete pours, often achieving up to 50 reuses per panel in formwork applications. Sustainability drives the adoption of these materials, as recyclable metals like steel and aluminum can be recovered and repurposed at the end of their lifecycle, substantially lowering waste generation compared to single-use alternatives. For instance, aluminum's infinite recyclability preserves up to 95% of its energy content during reprocessing, contributing to greener construction practices. Similarly, composites derived from recycled plastics or resins minimize resource depletion and emissions, aligning with broader environmental goals in modern engineering.

Construction Process

Design and Planning

The design and planning phase of centring begins with the conceptualization of the temporary support structure based on the overall architectural plans for the arch or vault. Engineers and masons use detailed drawings to determine the precise shape, dimensions, span, and rise of the centring, ensuring it matches the intended geometry of the masonry element. Scale models may also be employed to visualize the arch form and verify proportions before full-scale implementation. This initial layout focuses on achieving symmetry and proper voussoir positioning to facilitate accurate stone or brick placement during construction.^[9] Templating methods are crucial for translating the design into practical construction aids, typically involving the creation of wooden patterns or formwork known as shuttering. These templates are crafted to outline the exact positions and radial orientations of the voussoirs, often marked directly on plywood or timber frames that replicate the arch's intrados curve. By subtracting a small allowance, such as 1/4 inch from the radius, the templates allow for wedging and adjustment during erection, ensuring the centring provides a stable, conforming surface. Datum posts, established as fixed reference points, aid in vertical alignment by setting consistent levels across the site, preventing deviations in the arch's profile.^[9]^[27] Planning factors encompass site-specific assessments and logistical coordination to ensure the centring integrates seamlessly with the project. Site surveys evaluate abutment stability and potential load paths, identifying how vertical forces will transfer laterally during masonry erection to avoid structural issues. Coordination with masonry timelines is essential, as the centring must be installed prior to voussoir laying and remain in place for a minimum of seven days—or longer in adverse conditions—until the mortar achieves sufficient strength for self-support. During this phase, materials like timber for traditional wooden shoring are selected based on the arch's scale and site demands.^[9]

Assembly and Erection

The assembly and erection of centring for arches involves erecting vertical poles to establish the base shoring structure, typically positioned on stable foundations or abutments to bear the anticipated loads.^[9] These poles form the primary vertical supports, spaced according to the arch span and height requirements.^[28] Following the vertical framework, horizontal lags—longitudinal timbers—are installed across the poles to provide a level platform for the curved elements. Curved ribs, shaped to match the arch's intrados, are then fitted perpendicular to the lags, creating the precise contour that will support the masonry.^[9] Diagonal bracing is added between the poles and ribs to enhance rigidity and prevent lateral movement during construction. The components are secured using nails driven into joints or bolts for heavier sections, ensuring a firm assembly.^[9] On-site adjustments are essential for accuracy, with spirit levels used to verify horizontality of lags and plumb lines employed to check vertical alignment of poles and ribs. For arches requiring multi-course masonry support, the centring is layered progressively, adding additional ribs and bracing as higher courses are built to maintain stability.^[9] This process is guided briefly by pre-fabricated design templates that outline the rib curvatures.^[28] Common tools for the erection include handsaws for cutting timbers to length, hammers for driving nails, and scaffolding aids such as ladders or platforms to access elevated sections.^[9]

Types of Centring

For Arches and Vaults

Centring for arches typically consists of timber forms shaped to match the arch profile, such as semi-circular or segmental, supporting the masonry until it becomes self-supporting.^[10] These frameworks use ribs and lagging boards to hold the voussoirs in place during sequential laying from the springers to the keystone, ensuring proper alignment and compression.^[29] For semicircular arches, the centering provides uniform support along the curve, distributing the stones evenly.^[9] Adaptations for vaults extend these principles to larger or intersecting forms. For barrel vaults, a series of aligned semi-circular ribs spaced along the length, supported by timber posts and struts with lagging boards, forms the cylindrical shape to bear the masonry during construction.^[29] Cross vaults, a type of ribbed vault, use trussed wooden frameworks to support the primary ribs—diagonal, transverse, and wall arches—first, providing a template for the infill panels between them and stability at the groins.^[30] These designs often feature adjustability via wedges for fine-tuning the curve and spans typically ranging from 5 to 20 meters, with minimal height for low-rise structures to optimize material use and rigidity.^[10]

For Domes and Complex Structures

Centring for domes traditionally involves extensive timber scaffolding to support the spherical or curved form during masonry laying, as seen in Roman constructions like the Pantheon, where massive wooden frameworks held the rings of concrete and brick. For tall domes, the centering may include vertical masts or towers at the base to reach elevated heights and distribute loads. However, methods vary, with some designs using segmented or adjustable timber rings braced for incremental construction.^[31] A notable innovation is Filippo Brunelleschi's construction of the Florence Cathedral dome in the 15th century, where traditional full-scale wooden centering was eschewed due to the scarcity of suitable timber and the unprecedented 45.5-meter span. Instead, Brunelleschi integrated herringbone brickwork patterns into the masonry layers, enabling each horizontal course to interlock and become self-supporting as it was laid, thus minimizing reliance on extensive temporary supports. Cantilevered scaffolding platforms, anchored into the drum walls, provided worker access and material placement, while horizontal stone and wooden chains embedded within the structure resisted outward thrust, allowing the double-shell dome to rise without collapsing inward or outward during erection. This approach not only addressed material limitations but also set a precedent for efficient, scalable dome building in complex urban settings.^[18]^[32] For complex structures such as ribbed or cloister vaults, centring incorporates trussed wooden frameworks to handle intersecting geometries. In medieval ribbed vaults, the primary ribs are erected on a trussed centering scaffold, which supports them during construction and guides the infill webs. Cloister vaults, featuring square bays with crossing ribs, use similar trussed designs with additional diagonal bracing for alignment at intersections. In Byzantine-style pendentives, transitioning square bays to circular bases, centering was often minimized or omitted, relying on large flat bricks laid in curved segments that become self-supporting early, with only partial formwork for initial layers if needed.^[30]^[33] Challenges in centring for domes and complex structures include ensuring stability against thrusts and deformations during assembly, particularly in non-uniform shapes where precise alignment prevents cracking. For large spans over 40 meters, full centering becomes impractical due to timber volume, leading to partial or self-stabilizing methods. Geometric control is achieved through models and measurements to maintain integrity.^[31]

Engineering Considerations

Load-Bearing Calculations

Load-bearing calculations for centring begin with determining the dead load, which represents the self-weight of the supported structure, such as masonry or concrete. This is computed as the product of the material's mass and gravitational acceleration, or more practically, the density multiplied by the volume and acceleration due to gravity; for concrete, the unit weight is typically 150 lb/ft³ (approximately 23.6 kN/m³).^[34] For masonry arches, stone density is around 25 kN/m³, requiring adjustment for specific materials like brick or cut stone. The total vertical load on the centring then incorporates live loads from construction activities, including workers, tools, and equipment, with a minimum uniform live load of 50 psf (2.4 kN/m²) applied over the supported area when no material placement devices are used, increasing to 75 psf (3.6 kN/m²) with such devices.^[34] To ensure structural integrity, a factor of safety is applied to these loads, typically ranging from 2 to 4 depending on material and load duration; for formwork components like ties and anchors under dead and live loads, a factor of 2.0 is standard, while anchors subjected to dynamic live loads require 3.0.^[34] These factors account for uncertainties in load estimation, material variability, and construction tolerances, ensuring the centring's capacity exceeds the anticipated demands.^[35] In the US, OSHA 1926.703 requires formwork and bracing to support all vertical and lateral loads without failure, with factors of safety typically ranging from 1.2 to 4.0 as specified in ACI 347 depending on material and load type.^[36]^[37] In arch construction, centring must additionally withstand horizontal thrusts arising from the geometry and partial loading of the arch, particularly during sequential placement of voussoirs in masonry. Horizontal thrust is estimated based on arch rise, span, and loading, often using simplified methods from structural analysis for initial design, with verification through detailed calculations to ensure lateral stability.^[38] For intricate or large-scale centring, especially in non-uniform loading scenarios, advanced computational methods can model stress distributions, deformations, and overall capacity under combined vertical and horizontal forces. This approach is particularly valuable for complex geometries, integrating dead and live loads with thrust effects to optimize material use while adhering to safety factors.^[35]

Stability and Safety Measures

To ensure the stability of centring during construction, bracing techniques such as diagonal ties and cross-bracing with cables or guy wires are employed to counter lateral forces, including those from uneven loading or seismic activity.^[39] These elements anchor the structure to the ground or adjacent supports, preventing sway or overturning, particularly in tall or slender setups where wind loads can induce significant horizontal pressures.^[39] Wind load considerations are critical and must be calculated as site-specific dynamic pressures based on exposure, terrain, and gust factors per standards such as BS EN 1991-1-4, typically ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 kN/m² for temporary structures in exposed sites.^[40] Safety standards mandate compliance with codes such as BS 5975 for falsework design in the UK, which requires procedural controls including risk assessments and qualified supervision to maintain structural integrity.^[40] In the US, OSHA 1926.703 stipulates that formwork and bracing must support all vertical and lateral loads without failure.^[36] Regular inspections are enforced, focusing on deflection limits not exceeding 1/360 of the span under working loads to avoid excessive deformation that could compromise alignment or worker safety.^[41] Risk mitigation strategies include weatherproofing measures like tarpaulin covers or enclosures to protect timber centring from moisture absorption, which could significantly reduce load capacity in prolonged wet conditions.^[42] In modern applications, overload monitoring employs IoT-enabled sensors, such as strain gauges and load cells integrated into bracing members, to provide real-time alerts for eccentric or excessive loads exceeding 110% of design capacity.^[43] These systems enhance proactive maintenance, reducing failure risks in complex vault or dome constructions.^[44]

Applications

Historical Examples

One of the most iconic historical applications of centring is found in the construction of the Roman Pantheon in Rome, completed around 126 CE under Emperor Hadrian. The Pantheon's massive unreinforced concrete dome, spanning 43.3 meters in diameter and remaining the largest of its kind, required an elaborate system of timber centring to support the wet concrete during curing. This centring consisted of wooden scaffolding with trusses and formwork that formed concentric rings, allowing layers of concrete mixed with lighter aggregates to be poured progressively upward toward the oculus at the apex.^[45] The structure's success demonstrated the ingenuity of Roman engineers in managing immense loads through temporary supports, enabling the dome to achieve its hemispherical form without internal columns.^[46] In medieval Europe, centring played a crucial role in the erection of Gothic cathedrals, particularly for their complex ribbed vaults, as exemplified by Reims Cathedral in France during the 13th century. Construction of the cathedral's vaults began around 1211 and continued into the 14th century, utilizing intricate wooden centring to shape and brace the stone ribs and panels until the keystones locked them in place. These temporary forms, often reusable and designed with precise geometry, supported the vaults' expansive spans and heights—reaching up to 38 meters in the nave—while accommodating the innovative flying buttresses that distributed outward thrusts. The use of such centring allowed masons to construct the lightweight, skeletal vaults that defined High Gothic architecture, balancing aesthetic ambition with structural stability.^[47] Later historical examples include the Águas Livres Aqueduct in Lisbon, Portugal, built between 1731 and 1799 to supply water to the city. The aqueduct's 109 arches, including the 35-arched section spanning the Alcântara valley that reaches 65 meters in height, were erected using timber centring to form the pointed and round stone arches, with inscriptions on some stones marking the work of individual craftsmen. This 58-kilometer system highlighted the evolution of centring techniques in large-scale hydraulic engineering, adapting Roman-inspired methods to Baroque-era demands for durability and scale.^[48] During the Victorian era, iron centring emerged as an innovation for railway bridge construction, as seen in projects like the wrought-iron arched viaducts of the mid-19th century British rail network. Engineers employed reusable iron frameworks to support stone or brick arches during assembly, enabling faster erection of multi-span viaducts with individual arch spans of around 10-15 meters, such as those on the London and North Western Railway. This shift marked a transition toward industrialized materials in temporary supports, facilitating the rapid expansion of infrastructure while maintaining precision in arch alignment.

Contemporary Uses

In contemporary architecture and engineering, centring remains essential for supporting curved and arched elements during construction and repair, often incorporating prefabricated and hybrid systems to enhance efficiency and sustainability. Restoration projects frequently employ temporary centring to stabilize historical arches during retrofitting, ensuring structural integrity while minimizing damage to original fabric. For example, in the rehabilitation of historic masonry bridges in the United States, temporary centring and bracing support arches and walls during the installation of protective concrete aprons and other reinforcements, preventing settlement or collapse. Similarly, the restoration of the Wilts and Berks Canal in the United Kingdom utilized rolled steel beams bent to the required radius as temporary centring for brick arches, allowing precise reconstruction while reusing the supports across multiple spans to promote sustainability. These hybrid approaches, blending traditional timber elements with modern steel components, have been applied in 21st-century repairs to ancient structures like Roman-era aqueducts and bridges, where centring facilitates the insertion of stabilizing infill without extensive disassembly. In new builds, prefabricated steel centring enables rapid assembly of complex curved forms, such as stadium roofs and bridge arches, integrating seamlessly with sustainable design principles like modular reuse. For curved stadium roofs, adjustable steel centring systems provide temporary support during the erection of hyperbolic paraboloid or tensile structures, allowing for lightweight prefabricated panels that reduce material waste and construction time. In bridge construction, systems like the BEBO precast concrete arch utilize minimal steel centring for on-site placement of arch elements onto footings, achieving spans up to 102 feet with accelerated timelines and lower environmental impact through off-site fabrication. Industrial applications highlight centring's role in high-stakes environments, including temporary supports for nuclear plant containment domes. Conventional methods involve erecting timber or steel centring from the top of the cylindrical wall to form the hemispherical dome, enabling precise concrete placement while withstanding construction loads; this approach was documented in the design guidelines for pressurized water reactors. Large-scale 3D-printed masonry experiments further innovate centring usage, minimizing its extent to align with additive manufacturing. The Striatus pedestrian bridge in Venice (2021), an unreinforced 3D-printed concrete masonry arch, employed a CNC laser-cut wooden waffle falsework on DOKA adjustable steel scaffolding as temporary centring, which was progressively removed in a two-step decentering process—first activating the deck, then the balustrade arches—to establish self-supporting equilibrium without mortar or ties.^[49]

Removal and Striking

Timing and Methods

The timing for striking centring in masonry arches and vaults is primarily governed by the curing progress of the mortar and the structure's ability to bear its own weight without support. For lime-based mortars, which gain strength gradually through carbonation, centring is generally retained for at least 7 days, with longer periods in cold weather or for higher lime content to ensure adequate initial set and prevent deformation or collapse.^[9]^[50] In cases of hydraulic lime or cement-lime mixes, the minimum duration is often 7 days, though colder weather or higher lime content may extend this to 14 days or more for full stability.^[50] Prior to striking, stability is confirmed through structural analysis and engineer's assessment under expected loads.^[9] Striking methods emphasize controlled removal to minimize stress on the immature structure. The process begins with "easing," where the centring is slightly lowered immediately after the keystone is laid and before the mortar fully hardens, using wedges or screw jacks to seat the voussoirs and compress joints evenly.^[51]^[52] Full striking follows incrementally, often by gradually lowering the entire assembly simultaneously across the span with screw jacks or hydraulic systems to avoid uneven bending moments from self-weight.^[9] For larger or complex arches, removal proceeds in a controlled, gradual manner to maintain balance and prevent thrust imbalances.^[9] Key tools include wooden or steel wedges for initial adjustments, screw jacks for precise manual control, and modern hydraulic jacking systems for uniform descent in precision applications.^[51] Precautions during striking involve continuous visual and instrumental monitoring for cracks, deformations, or joint separations, with immediate re-support if any instability is detected; environmental factors like temperature and humidity are also controlled to support ongoing mortar curing.^[9]

Reuse and Sustainability

Centring, as temporary formwork in arch and vault construction, lends itself to reuse strategies that extend its lifecycle beyond a single project, thereby minimizing resource consumption. Modular steel frames, for instance, can be dismantled and relocated for use in subsequent constructions due to their reconfigurable design, allowing precise repositioning across multiple sites without significant degradation.^[53] Historically, timber centring has been recycled into other building elements, such as structural beams or flooring, drawing on traditional deconstruction techniques that preserve the material's integrity for secondary applications in timber-framed structures.^[54] Sustainability practices in centring emphasize waste reduction through the selection of durable materials that withstand repeated use, thereby lowering overall environmental impact. Timber centring generally exhibits a lower embodied carbon footprint during production and early lifecycle stages compared to steel, as wood sequesters carbon and requires less energy-intensive manufacturing, though steel offers advantages in end-of-life recyclability and circularity metrics.^[55] These material choices directly influence reusability, with steel's robustness enabling higher reuse cycles in modular systems while timber's renewability supports eco-friendly disposal or repurposing.^[56] Modern initiatives further promote sustainability by implementing rental systems for centring kits, which allow contractors to access specialized formwork without full ownership, reducing upfront costs and encouraging shared use across projects to cut waste.^[57] Regulations such as the EU Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) mandate eco-friendly disposal practices for construction waste, including formwork, by prioritizing prevention, reuse, and recycling to achieve targets like 70% recovery of non-hazardous construction and demolition waste.^[58] These frameworks align with broader circular economy goals, fostering initiatives that integrate centring reuse into sustainable construction protocols.^[59]

References

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A temporary structure, esp one made of timber, used to support an arch during construction.... Click for English pronunciations, examples sentences, video.
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[15]
The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals: A Study of Medieval Vault ...
In The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals, John Fitchen systematically walks readers through the process of erecting the great edifices of the Gothic era. He ...
[16]
How Brunelleschi Built Florence's Dome - Architecture Helper
Aug 5, 2025 · Traditional domes relied on wooden centering - temporary scaffolding to support the structure during construction. However, Tuscany's limited ...
[17]
Construction - Renaissance, Architecture, Engineering | Britannica
Oct 15, 2025 · From 1350 until 1750 much of building technology was focused on the domed church, which developed as a symbol not only of religious belief but ...
[18]
Filippo Brunelleschi, Dome of the Cathedral of Florence - Smarthistory
Harris: [2:51] Another way that Brunelleschi dealt with the downward and outward thrust was two great chains inside the dome made out of stone and wood locked ...Missing: construction | Show results with:construction
[19]
Double helix of masonry — researchers uncover the secret of Italian ...
May 21, 2020 · Since the double loxodrome technique was used after Brunelleschi by the Sangallo masters throughout Italy, including in St. Peter's Basilica in ...Missing: centering | Show results with:centering
[20]
Construction - Industrialization, Materials, Techniques | Britannica
Oct 15, 2025 · Smaller, more easily handled pieces characterized the rapid application of iron to buildings that followed. Solid cast-iron columns were used in ...
[21]
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Crystal-Palace-building-London
[22]
A Brief History of Prefabricated Architecture - Architizer
In comparison, prefabricated steel frame structures have a greater tolerance for joints and steel components that are mostly recyclable.Missing: centring elements
[23]
History of Steel in Skyscrapers & High-Rise Construction
Jun 12, 2024 · With this era introducing standardized materials and pre-fabricated components like beams, standardization, and mass production became prevalent ...Missing: centring | Show results with:centring
[24]
Iron and steel's impact on industrial revolution - Shyam Metalics
Aug 21, 2023 · The iron tracks, wheels and axels provided the strength and stability to carry heavy loads over vast distances, accelerating economic growth and ...
[25]
Hidden Above Church Vaults: The Design Evolution of Early Iron ...
This article sets out to assess the first phase of iron roof construction in Belgian churches, from the 1840s to the 1860s, and the evolution of iron roof ...
[26]
(PDF) Centring construction in the political economy of housing
May 3, 2022 · We explain the divergence into different trajectories through a policy feedback mechanism: parties in construction (export) economies tend to ...
[27]
Centering Work in Construction: Why People Matter Most - RDash
May 29, 2024 · Innovations such as adjustable formwork, lightweight materials, and advanced design software are making centering work more effective and ...
[28]
Architectural Timber: History and Conservation
Various timber species were used for construction in medieval England. Oak, elm, sweet chestnut, poplar and the many varieties of fruitwood appear in building ...
[29]
Making Medieval Vaults: Materials
Apr 11, 2021 · Wood was used extensively for roofs, scaffolding and centering, as well as occasionally for the vaults themselves. By combining the properties ...
[30]
The History of Scaffolding: From Ancient Caves to Modern Skyscrapers
Oct 29, 2025 · During this period, scaffolding was made entirely of wood and secured with rope knots. This simple yet effective wooden frame technology became ...
[31]
Arches Vaults & Domes (AVD) Construction - Auroville Earth Institute
It is essential that the arch rises with the blocks perpendicular to the centring, so as to get the last blocks parallel near the apex. Extreme care must be ...Missing: falsework | Show results with:falsework
[32]
Figuring and Building a Brick Arch Template - Pro Masonry Guide
To lay out the template, take a sheet of plywood and subtract ¼ inch from the radius, so that the arch can wedged and braced into proper position and removed ...
[33]
[PDF] Block Primer I Fr"nch Houses sri::':'l - USModernist
the men installed datum posts and mason's string lines along the path to make sure their work would be straight and follow the original walk. Prcpping tlrc ...Missing: centring | Show results with:centring
[34]
[PDF] The Basics of Building with Arches, Vaults and Cupolas - CRAterre
The building materials required for the masonry of arches, vaults and cupolas can be divided into two broad groups: solid components (adobe, stone, etc.) and ...Missing: centring | Show results with:centring
[35]
How to build a (brick) barrel vault - Construction - ResearchGate
... centering, which. has to carry the weight of the barrel vault until the. keystone is set in. A greater vaulted space is generally. also higher above ground ...<|separator|>
[36]
Dome - Buffalo Architecture and History
Byzantine architects invented a technique for raising domes on piers, permitting lighting and communication from four directions. The transition from a cubic ...
[37]
How Brunelleschi Built the World's Biggest Dome | HowStuffWorks
"It was built without any centering support which was traditionally used to support a dome during construction and it was also built without any buttresses ...
[38]
Ribbed Vaults: Gothic Geometry, Symbolism & Engineering
Sep 21, 2025 · Ribbed vaults also displayed medieval engineering at its finest. Wooden scaffolding (known as centering) held ribs in place during construction.
[39]
Thrust line analysis revisited and applied to optimization of masonry ...
Aug 1, 2020 · The thrust line concept comes into view in the structural analysis of masonry arches in relationship to the second problem referred to above, ...
[40]
[PDF] Equilibrium Analysis of Masonry Domes - MIT
Hoop forces allow ring-by-ring construction of a dome without centering, an unfeasible task for an arch.
[41]
None
### Summary of Load-Bearing Calculations for Centering or Formwork (Arches, Vaults, Temporary Supports)
[42]
[PDF] Falsework Manual, Chapter 5 - Caltrans
Sep 1, 2023 · Miscellaneous Steel Components. The adequacy of miscellaneous components (such as anchor bolts, post base plates, grillages, hangers, tie ...Missing: ribs | Show results with:ribs
[43]
[PDF] 31C - Structural Design of Semicircular Brick Masonry Arches
In determining the capacity for concentrated loads, the limiting factors were found to be bending at the center line of span, shear at the spring line (vm = 40 ...
[44]
[PDF] Avoiding Falsework Failure - PDH Online
All falsework structural elements must be true and in sound condition. Bowed or bent beams will cause great difficulty in establishing a uniform grade of the ...Missing: centring ribs lags poles
[45]
Temporary works for construction - Designing Buildings Wiki
Jul 27, 2022 · Temporary works are described in BS 5975:2019, Code of practice for temporary works procedures and the permissible stress design of falsework.
[46]
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/pantheon/pantheon-builders-estimating-manpower-for-construction/D0CFC898D62E18E6E50C2563BE8A3C8C
[47]
[PDF] Falsework Design - Iowa DOT
For the forms and falsework, deflection of sheathing and joists shall be limited to 1/360 of the span length, but there is no specification limit to the ...
[48]
Types of falsework - Concrete Society
Jun 3, 2025 · Falsework to support arches and similar elements during construction is generally referred to as 'Centring'. While the most common use for ...
[49]
A Conceptual Framework for Intelligent Scaffolding Monitoring System
This study aims to develop a conceptual framework to advance the intelligent scaffolding monitoring system based on cyber-physical systems (CPS) and digital ...Missing: falsework overload weatherproofing
[50]
IoT enabled monitoring scheme for scaffold-frame systems for ...
To help improve the negative influence from eccentric loading during construction, a falsework monitoring system utilizing IoT to detect and report ...Missing: modern overload weatherproofing
[51]
[PDF] PANTHEON 1.0 or: Reflections and Speculations on the Roman ...
The presentation reflects briefly on geometry, history, brick and Roman concrete, but the focus is on the workflow, casting, and execution of the dome and the.Missing: timber sources
[52]
The Pantheon Builders: Estimating Manpower for Construction (Six)
The real difficulties lie in attempting to reconstruct the formwork and centering used to support the concrete while it cured, which in turn affects the ...Missing: wooden | Show results with:wooden
[53]
[PDF] Vaults, centring, and formwork of the Late Gothic period in Southern ...
All these general considerations would suggest that the centring for Late Gothic vaults consisted of arches that were composed of boards rather than squared ...
[54]
[PDF] The theory, practice, and architecture of bridges of stone, iron, timber ...
Since the time of Hutton, Attwood, &c., the Theory of the. Arch has been deeply investigated in this and other countries; and as the principles of Coulomb and ...
[55]
Chapter 3: BRIDGES AND THEIR MATERIALS - Emerald Publishing
... arches and a height of 70 metres, was builr in 1943. The middle arch's centring was made with two wooden semi-arches built in a quasi-vertical position and ...Missing: components leggings poles
[56]
Águas Livres Aqueduct - Discover Baroque Art - Virtual Museum
The structure uses the pointed arch in some of the larger arches crossing the Alcântara valley. Curiously, some of the stones of the Aqueduct are inscribed with ...Missing: centering sources
[57]
WROUGHT-IRON ARCHED BRIDGES AND VIADUCTS.
Some time elapsed between the general adoption of wrought iron for girder work and its introduction into arches; and, at first sight, cast iron, the material ...
[58]
The rise and fall of cast iron in Victorian structures – A case study ...
A specific case study analysis into the demise of the Tay Bridge is used to demonstrate the value of engineering lessons to be learnt from taking a ...
[59]
Structural design and engineering of Striatus, an unreinforced 3D ...
Oct 1, 2023 · This paper describes the structural design and engineering of “Striatus”, a 3D-concrete-printed unreinforced masonry pedestrian bridge built in Venice in 2021.
[60]
[PDF] FR 50-1935 Division II, Items 200-254
No centering shall be removed from beneath any arch until the masonry has been in place at least 28 days. A longer period may be required at the ...Missing: centring | Show results with:centring<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
Tech Talk: Arches - Masonry Magazine
Feb 1, 2018 · Typically, the centering is removed at around 7 days after construction although more time may be required during cold weather or if high lime ...
[62]
Full article: Assessment of load carrying capacity enhancement of an ...
The safety of an old railway masonry arch bridge which has been in service for more than 70 years is assessed by visual inspection and dynamic load tests. The ...
[63]
Chapter VIII. Centres - Chest of Books
Easing. In building all but the very smallest arches arrangements should be made for easing the centre, so as gradually to deprive the arch of its support.
[64]
Details of arches | PPTX - Slideshare
The construction process of arches involves three steps - installing centering or formwork, laying/casting the arch, and then striking or removing the centering ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[65]
Arches | PDF - Scribd
To facilitate easing or lowering of the centering, a pair of wedges is pro- ied between the supports and the bearing piece. Procedure of construction. After ...
[66]
Robotic assembly of modular concrete shells using falsework
Modular falsework is reusable, reconfigurable and provides precise module positioning. •. Multi-staged approach with a joint feedback loop enables flexible ...Missing: centring | Show results with:centring
[67]
[PDF] Design for deconstruction and reuse of timber structures
Feb 10, 2021 · It describes the historic and contemporary building techniques of timber buildings in all project countries (Sweden, Finland, Ireland, UK, Spain ...
[68]
Environmental and circularity assessment of steel and timber ...
Sep 15, 2025 · Timber lowers embodied carbon in early life-cycle stages. •. Steel performs better in end-of-life and circularity indicators. •. Circularity ...
[69]
Timber or steel? Study helps builders reduce carbon footprint of ...
Nov 29, 2021 · While in general wood produces a much lower carbon footprint, using steel in places where its properties can provide maximum benefit can provide ...
[70]
Formwork Rental - MEVA USA
With MEVA's formwork rental services, you can obtain the equipment you need without making expensive investments. Visit us today.
[71]
Waste Framework Directive - Environment - European Commission
Discover the EU's Waste Framework Directive which sets the basic concepts and definitions related to waste management, such as recovery and recycling.
[72]
Construction and demolition waste - Environment
Find out about EU law and policy to manage construction and demolition waste (CDW), including through recycling.