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Chemical ionization

Chemical ionization (CI) is a soft ionization technique used in mass spectrometry, in which analyte molecules are ionized via gas-phase ion-molecule reactions with reactant ions generated from a reagent gas, typically producing quasimolecular ions with minimal fragmentation compared to electron ionization (EI).^[1] This method generates simpler mass spectra dominated by intact molecular species, facilitating the determination of molecular weights and structural features of organic compounds.^[2] CI was pioneered in 1966 by M. S. B. Munson and F. H. Field at Esso Research and Engineering Company, who published the foundational work demonstrating its potential as an alternative to the fragment-heavy spectra of conventional EI.^[1] The technique emerged from efforts to enhance sensitivity and reduce fragmentation in mass analysis, quickly leading to commercial instruments that combined EI and CI sources in the 1970s and 1980s.^[2] Over the decades, CI has evolved into a versatile tool, with ongoing refinements in reagent selection and instrumentation expanding its scope.^[2] The core principle of CI involves operating the ion source at higher pressures (around 1 Torr) than EI, where a reagent gas such as methane (CH₄) is first ionized by electrons to yield primary ions like \ce{CH5+} and \ce{C2H5+}.^[1] These reactant ions then interact with the analyte through mechanisms including proton transfer (forming [\ce{M+H+}]), charge exchange, or electrophilic addition, selectively ionizing molecules based on their proton affinity or other chemical properties.^[2] Negative ion CI variants employ electron-capturing reagents for electronegative analytes.^[2] CI offers distinct advantages over EI, including greater sensitivity (often by orders of magnitude for certain compounds), reduced spectral complexity, and improved selectivity for trace-level detection.^[1] These attributes make it particularly suited for applications in environmental monitoring of volatile organic compounds and pollutants, atmospheric chemistry for trace gas analysis, pharmaceutical research for drug metabolite identification, and forensic science for substance profiling.^[2]

Introduction

Definition and historical development

Chemical ionization (CI) is a soft ionization technique in mass spectrometry that involves the ionization of analyte molecules through gas-phase ion-molecule reactions with reagent ions generated from a buffer gas, such as methane, typically resulting in protonated or adduct molecular ions with reduced fragmentation compared to harder methods.^[1] This approach operates at relatively high pressures (around 1 torr) in the ion source, where the reagent gas is first ionized by electrons to form stable reagent ions that then react with the analyte to produce characteristic spectra dominated by quasi-molecular ions.^[1] The method prioritizes the preservation of molecular weight information, making it particularly useful for structural elucidation of organic compounds.^[3] The development of CI evolved from early investigations into ion-molecule reactions observed during electron ionization (EI) experiments in the 1950s, where researchers such as Tal’roze and Lyubimova, Stevenson, Schissler, and Field noted these reactions at elevated source pressures but initially viewed them as curiosities rather than analytical tools.^[3] Building on this foundation, Burnaby Munson joined the Humble Oil and Refining Company (later ESSO Research and Engineering) in 1959 and initiated systematic CI research in 1961 by operating EI sources at higher pressures (0.1–0.3 torr) to promote controlled ion-molecule interactions while minimizing impurities.^[3] The technique was formally introduced in 1966 by Munson and Frank H. Field through their seminal publication in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, which described CI as a distinct method leveraging gas-phase ionic reactions for ionization.^[1] Key publications in 1966 and 1967, including follow-up papers on specific applications like paraffin hydrocarbons, established CI's principles and demonstrated its advantages, such as simpler fragmentation patterns and higher abundances of parent-like ions (e.g., 36% relative intensity for the quasi-molecular ion of n-hexadecane versus negligible in EI).^[1] The primary motivation for CI's development was to address the limitations of EI, a hard ionization method prevalent since the 1940s that often caused extensive fragmentation and low molecular ion yields, thereby hindering molecular weight determination for complex or high-molecular-weight analytes.^[3] By the 1970s, CI had gained widespread adoption with its integration into commercial mass spectrometers, such as options developed by Finnigan for instruments like the 1015 model, marking a significant expansion in analytical capabilities.^[4]

Basic principles and comparison to other methods

Chemical ionization (CI) operates in a high-pressure ion source, typically at 0.1–2 torr, where a reagent gas such as methane or isobutane is introduced in large excess relative to the analyte.^[5]^[6] The reagent gas is ionized by an electron beam, generating primary ions that undergo exothermic ion-molecule reactions with the analyte molecules, such as protonation or association, to transfer charge efficiently while imparting minimal excess energy.^[2] This process favors the formation of even-electron ions, like [M+H]⁺, rather than odd-electron radical ions, resulting in spectra dominated by quasimolecular ions that provide clear information on the analyte's molecular weight.^[5]^[6] In comparison to electron ionization (EI), CI significantly reduces fragmentation due to the lower energy transfer in ion-molecule collisions, often producing significantly fewer fragment ions than the high-energy (70 eV) electron bombardment in EI.^[2] While EI excels at generating extensive structural fragments for compound identification through library matching, it frequently obscures or eliminates molecular ions, making molecular weight determination challenging.^[5]^[7] CI, as a gas-phase soft ionization method, preserves these molecular ions more effectively, complementing EI in hybrid approaches for both molecular mass and fragmentation analysis.^[8] CI also differs from other soft ionization techniques like field ionization (FI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI). FI achieves minimal fragmentation through quantum tunneling of electrons from sharp emitters but suffers from lower sensitivity and is less versatile for routine analyte introduction.^[9] In contrast, MALDI is optimized for large biomolecules via laser desorption from a matrix, producing singly charged ions with little fragmentation, though it is not typically used for small molecules due to matrix interference and volatility requirements.^[10] Electrospray ionization (ESI), a solution-phase method, similarly yields even-electron ions but operates at atmospheric pressure and is better suited for polar, nonvolatile compounds, whereas CI's gas-phase reactions enable analysis of volatile organics in vacuum systems.^[11]^[6]

Mechanism of Ionization

Primary ion formation

In chemical ionization (CI) mass spectrometry, primary ion formation represents the initial step where reagent gas molecules are ionized by high-energy electrons to generate reactive ionic species. Electrons, typically accelerated to energies of 70–200 eV from a heated filament, bombard the reagent gas (such as methane, CH₄) within the ion source, which is maintained at elevated pressures around 1 Torr to promote subsequent ion-molecule reactions. This electron impact process primarily produces radical cations of the reagent gas, along with secondary electrons, while the high abundance of reagent gas molecules (often 1000-fold excess over the analyte) minimizes direct ionization of the sample.^[2]^[12] The fundamental reaction for primary ion formation can be represented as:

\ce{RG + e^- -> RG^{+•} + 2e^-}

where RG denotes the reagent gas molecule and RG^{+•} is the resulting radical cation. For common reagent gases like methane (ionization potential ≈ 12.61 eV), isobutane (≈ 10.56 eV), or ammonia (≈ 10.07 eV), the electron energy far exceeds the ionization threshold (typically 10–15 eV), imparting excess internal energy to the primary ions and enabling efficient ionization despite the gas density. These primary ions, such as CH₄^{+•} from methane, are short-lived radical cations with high reactivity due to their unpaired electron and vibrational excitation.^[13]^[2] Primary ions play a crucial role in sustaining the plasma-like environment in the CI ion source, where their rapid collisions with neutral reagent gas molecules (on the order of 30–70 per ion lifetime of ≈1 μs) propagate the ionization cascade. This setup ensures that the reagent gas absorbs most of the electron flux, protecting the analyte from harsh direct electron impact and preserving molecular integrity in subsequent steps. The characteristics of these ions—high exothermicity upon formation and tendency to undergo fast charge-transfer or proton-transfer reactions—make them ideal initiators for the gentler chemical ionization process compared to electron impact alone.^[12]^[14]

Reagent ion generation and reactions

In chemical ionization mass spectrometry, reagent ions are formed via ion-molecule reactions between primary ions and neutral molecules of the reagent gas, creating a population of stable ions that subsequently ionize the analyte. These secondary reactions occur in the high-pressure ion source (typically ~1 torr), where frequent collisions promote rapid equilibration to steady-state concentrations of the reagent ions. For methane as the reagent gas, the dominant primary ion CH₄⁺• reacts exothermically (ΔH < 0) with neutral CH₄ to yield the protonated species CH₅⁺, as shown in the equation:

\text{CH}_4^{\bullet+} + \text{CH}_4 \rightarrow \text{CH}_5^+ + \text{CH}_3^\bullet

A secondary primary ion, CH₃⁺, undergoes hydride abstraction to form C₂H₅⁺:

\text{CH}_3^+ + \text{CH}_4 \rightarrow \text{C}_2\text{H}_5^+ + \text{H}_2

These reagent ions (CH₅⁺ and C₂H₅⁺) constitute approximately 90% of the total ionization and serve primarily through proton transfer or hydride abstraction mechanisms. Analogous processes generate reagent ions from other common gases. With ammonia, the primary ion NH₃⁺• reacts via proton transfer to form NH₄⁺:

\text{NH}_3^{\bullet+} + \text{NH}_3 \rightarrow \text{NH}_4^+ + \text{NH}_2^\bullet

This ammonium ion acts as a mild proton donor. For isobutane, primary ions lead to the tert-butyl cation (t-C₄H₉⁺) through hydride abstraction, which enables charge exchange or adduct formation with analytes.^[15] The choice of reagent gas is guided by its proton affinity (PA), which determines the reaction pathway and exothermicity. For instance, methane (PA ≈ 131 kcal/mol) produces highly energetic reagent ions for broader reactivity, while ammonia (PA ≈ 204 kcal/mol) and isobutane (PA ≈ 196 kcal/mol) yield softer ionization due to higher PA values, ensuring proton transfer only to analytes with sufficiently higher PA (ΔPA > 0 for exothermic reactions). This selectivity establishes a thermalized bath of reagent ions, minimizing fragmentation in the source.^[15]

Product ion formation and ion types

In chemical ionization (CI), product ions are formed through ion-molecule reactions between reagent ions and analyte molecules (M) occurring at thermal energies within the ion source, typically under pressures of 0.1–2 Torr to promote collisional stabilization. These reactions are driven by differences in proton affinity (PA), where efficient proton transfer requires PA(M) > PA(conjugate base of reagent ion), ensuring exothermic processes that deposit minimal internal energy into the product ion (approximately 0–10 eV, compared to 70 eV in electron ionization). This low-energy transfer preserves molecular integrity, with reaction efficiencies often approaching 100% for favorable analytes.^[1]^[2] The predominant mechanism for positive-ion CI is proton transfer, exemplified by methane reagent gas where CH₅⁺ ions react with M to yield the protonated molecule:

\text{CH}_5^+ + \text{M} \to [\text{M} + \text{H}]^+ + \text{CH}_4

This process dominates when the analyte's PA exceeds that of methane (≈131 kcal/mol), producing even-electron ions with little excess energy for further dissociation. Adduct formation occurs with other reagents, such as ammonia, leading to stable clusters like [M + NH₄]⁺:

\text{NH}_4^+ + \text{M} \to [\text{M} + \text{NH}_4]^+

Low-energy collisions may induce minor fragmentation, such as neutral losses (e.g., H₂O from alcohols), but these are limited to simple structural clues rather than extensive breakdown. Other pathways include electrophilic addition (e.g., [M + C₂H₅]⁺ from C₂H₅⁺ in methane CI) or anion abstraction (e.g., hydride removal to form [M – H]⁺), though these are less common and depend on the reagent-analyte pair.^[1]^[12]^[2] Common product ion types in CI are even-electron species, primarily quasimolecular ions like [M + H]⁺ (m/z = MW + 1) and adducts [M + X]⁺ (where X is a reagent fragment, e.g., NH₄⁺ or C₃H₅⁺), which provide direct molecular weight information. Cluster ions, such as solvated [M + (reagent)_n]⁺, can form under higher pressures but are often minimized by source tuning. Rare odd-electron ions (M⁺•) arise via charge exchange with reagents like NO⁺, but these are atypical in standard CI and lead to more fragmentation. For instance, in methane CI of n-hexadecane, the [M + H]⁺ ion appears at m/z 227 with 36% relative intensity, accompanied by alkyl fragments like CₙH₂ₙ₊₁⁺. These ion structures facilitate structural elucidation while avoiding the complex spectra of harder ionization methods.^[1]^[12]^[14]

Instrumentation and Operation

Ion source components and design

The ion source in chemical ionization (CI) mass spectrometry is designed to facilitate ion-molecule reactions at elevated pressures, typically 0.1 to 2 Torr, which distinguishes it from lower-pressure electron ionization (EI) sources. Key components include a filament for electron emission, which generates primary ions from the reagent gas; a repeller electrode that directs ions toward the mass analyzer; a drawout plate that extracts ions from the source; and an ion source housing that encloses the reaction volume. These elements are arranged to allow the introduction of reagent gas and sample molecules, with the filament often positioned to emit electrons across the ionization chamber.^[1]^[16] Design features emphasize containment and efficiency for high-pressure operation, including closed geometries such as a gas-tight enclosure with small apertures for electron beam entry, reagent gas inlet, sample introduction, and ion exit to maintain reaction pressures while minimizing gas leakage. Differential pumping systems are essential, using separate vacuum pumps for the ion source (at ~1 Torr) and the analyzer region (at 10^{-5} to 10^{-6} Torr) to prevent pressure buildup that could degrade mass resolution. Materials like stainless steel, often electropolished and gold-plated, provide corrosion resistance against reactive reagent gases such as ammonia or methane, ensuring longevity and minimal contamination. Open geometries, though less common in traditional CI, may employ skimmer cones in hybrid designs for better ion transmission.^[17]^[18] The evolution of CI ion sources traces back to early designs in the 1960s, but practical implementations advanced in the 1970s with Finnigan Corporation's introduction of quadrupole-based systems featuring interchangeable CI capabilities, enabling seamless integration with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) interfaces for routine analysis. Modern instruments, such as those in quadrupole or time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometers, commonly incorporate dual EI/CI sources, allowing rapid switching between hard and soft ionization modes within the same hardware by adjusting gas flow and electron energy, without needing to vent the system. These designs prioritize modularity and compatibility with automated workflows.^[19]^[20]^[21]

Operational parameters and reagent gas selection

Chemical ionization (CI) operates under specific conditions within the ion source to facilitate efficient reagent ion formation and subsequent analyte ionization while minimizing unwanted fragmentation. The source pressure is typically maintained between 0.1 and 2 Torr, with values around 0.5 Torr commonly used for methane as the reagent gas to ensure sufficient collisions for ion-molecule reactions without excessive clustering.^[22]^[23] Higher pressures in this range promote thermalization of ions but can reduce ion transmission efficiency to the mass analyzer if not balanced properly.^[24] The repeller voltage, which controls ion residence time in the source, is generally set low, between 0 and 10 V, to allow adequate time (milliseconds) for reagent ions to react with analyte molecules; higher voltages accelerate ions out too quickly, reducing reaction efficiency.^[25] Electron energy for ionizing the reagent gas is tuned to 50–200 eV, often at 70 eV, to generate primary ions like CH₄⁺• from methane while avoiding direct electron impact on the analyte.^[24] Source temperature is controlled between 100 and 250°C to manage reagent gas flow and prevent analyte decomposition, with lower temperatures favoring softer ionization but potentially lowering sensitivity due to reduced gas kinetics.^[26] Reagent gas selection is guided by the desired ionization mechanism and analyte properties, particularly proton affinity (PA), which determines the exothermicity of proton transfer reactions. Methane (PA ≈ 130 kcal/mol) is widely used for general protonation of analytes with higher PA, producing abundant [M+H]⁺ ions but with moderate energy transfer that can lead to some fragmentation.^[27]^[28] Isobutane (PA ≈ 162 kcal/mol) provides softer ionization due to its higher PA, resulting in less fragmentation and enhanced molecular ion stability for compounds like hydrocarbons.^[29]^[30] Ammonia (PA ≈ 204 kcal/mol) is selected for selective ionization of basic compounds, such as amines, where it yields [M+H]⁺ ions with minimal energy deposition, though it may suppress signals from less basic analytes.^[31]^[28] Reagent gases must have high purity (>99%) to prevent impurity ions that could interfere with spectra.^[29] Optimization involves balancing sensitivity and specificity by adjusting flow rates, typically 0.5–2 mL/min for the reagent gas, to maintain stable source pressure and ion yields without overwhelming the vacuum system.^[24] Higher flow rates enhance reagent ion abundance but may increase clustering, reducing transmission to the analyzer, while lower rates improve specificity at the cost of signal intensity.^[2] These parameters are tuned empirically for each analyte to maximize [M+H]⁺ abundance while minimizing fragments, often using the proton affinity difference as a guide for gas choice.^[2]

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages in molecular ion preservation

One of the primary advantages of chemical ionization (CI) lies in its ability to produce abundant intact molecular ions, such as the protonated species [M+H]⁺, which facilitates accurate determination of molecular mass for unknown compounds. Unlike electron ionization (EI), where molecular ions often exhibit low relative intensities (typically less than 10% of the base peak) due to extensive fragmentation, CI can yield [M+H]⁺ ions with relative intensities approaching 100% under optimal conditions, such as with isobutane as the reagent gas.^[32]^[14] This preservation stems from the exothermic ion-molecule reactions in CI, which deposit limited internal energy (approximately 5 eV) into the analyte, minimizing bond cleavage and fragmentation compared to the high-energy (70 eV) electron bombardment in EI.^[33] The high abundance of preserved molecular ions in CI enhances quantitative analysis, particularly for trace-level detection, by improving signal-to-noise ratios through reduced spectral interference from fragments. This allows for more reliable peak identification and measurement in complex mixtures, where the focused ion current on the molecular species boosts sensitivity without the dilution of signal across numerous fragments seen in EI spectra.^[34] Furthermore, the reproducibility of molecular ion peaks remains high despite variations in reagent gas pressure or composition, as the ion-molecule reactions are governed by well-characterized gas-phase equilibria, ensuring consistent ionization efficiency.^[2] CI's selectivity further aids molecular ion preservation by favoring analytes with higher proton affinity than the reagent gas, thereby reducing ionization of matrix components and interferences that could obscure the target molecular signal. For instance, using ammonia as a reagent selectively ionizes compounds with proton affinities exceeding that of ammonia (approximately 204 kcal/mol), suppressing background ions from less basic species and maintaining a clean spectrum dominated by the analyte's molecular ion.^[2]^[35] This targeted approach not only preserves the molecular ion but also enhances its utility for exact mass measurements in high-resolution mass spectrometry, enabling precise elemental composition assignments for structural elucidation.^[36]

Limitations in spectral complexity and sensitivity

One major limitation of chemical ionization (CI) mass spectrometry lies in its spectral complexity, primarily arising from background ions generated by the reagent gas, which can obscure signals from low-mass analytes. For instance, in methane CI, the primary reagent ion CH₅⁺ at m/z 17, along with other species like C₂H₅⁺ at m/z 29, contributes to a noisy low-mass region, complicating the detection of small molecules or fragments below m/z 50.^[37] This interference is exacerbated in complex spectra where overlapping peaks from reagent-related ions hinder accurate peak assignment, often requiring higher mass resolving power (typically 4000–14,000 in CI instruments) that may still fall short for deconvolving elemental compositions.^[38] The variability of CI spectra further compounds spectral complexity, as ion formation depends on factors such as reagent gas type, source pressure, and temperature, leading to inconsistent fragmentation patterns across instruments and conditions. Unlike electron ionization (EI), which produces highly reproducible spectra enabling extensive standard libraries like NIST, CI lacks comprehensive, standardized spectral libraries due to this inherent variability, limiting its utility for unknown compound identification.^[39]^[40] As a result, while CI is widely used in specialized applications such as real-time trace gas analysis, it has historically been underutilized in routine library-based identification due to the scarcity of standardized spectral libraries and variability in spectra, often requiring custom calibrations or tandem MS for validation as of 2025.^[39]^[40]^[2] Sensitivity in CI is another challenge, particularly for non-basic analytes, where ion yields are lower due to inefficient proton transfer or association reactions with reagent ions like NH₄⁺ from ammonia. For example, detection limits can reach 4 pg for basic compounds like histamine but degrade significantly for neutral or acidic species, often by orders of magnitude.^[41] In complex samples, matrix effects further suppress ionization efficiency, as co-eluting interferents compete for reagent ions or alter reaction kinetics, necessitating sample cleanup or isotopic dilution for reliable quantification.^[42] However, recent advances as of 2025, including integration with high-resolution analyzers and specialized variants for atmospheric applications, have mitigated some of these limitations, enhancing CI's utility in targeted analyses.^[2]^[43] The soft nature of CI, while preserving molecular ions, also limits structural elucidation by producing minimal fragmentation, yielding spectra dominated by [M+H]⁺ or adduct ions with few diagnostic fragments. This scarcity of structural information contrasts with harder ionization techniques like EI, often requiring supplementary methods such as collision-induced dissociation for detailed characterization.^[22] Moreover, continuous reagent gas consumption—typically 1 mL/min for ammonia or methane—elevates operational costs and requires frequent gas cylinder replacements, adding to the practical burdens of CI implementation.^[44]

Applications

Structural elucidation and quantitative analysis

Chemical ionization (CI) mass spectrometry excels in structural elucidation by generating protonated molecular ions ([M+H]⁺) and simple adducts, which provide accurate molecular weight information with minimal fragmentation compared to electron ionization (EI).^[1] This soft ionization approach, introduced by Munson and Field in 1966, relies on ion-molecule reactions in a high-pressure source, preserving the integrity of labile compounds and yielding spectra dominated by quasimolecular ions rather than extensive fragments.^[1] As a result, CI complements EI by offering clearer molecular mass data, while EI provides detailed fragmentation for substructure analysis, enabling comprehensive characterization of complex organics.^[1] In applications to natural products, CI has proven effective for identifying alkaloids and steroids through low-fragmentation patterns that highlight diagnostic ions. For instance, isobutane CI spectra of steroidal amino alcohols reveal stereochemical and conformational influences via prominent [M+H]⁺ ions and limited losses, facilitating differentiation of isomers without the extensive breakdown seen in EI.^[45] Similarly, positive and negative ion CI using NH₃ and OH⁻ reagents on trimethylsilyl derivatives of pyrrolizidine alkaloids produces characteristic protonated or deprotonated species with few fragments, aiding rapid structural confirmation in mixtures.^[46] These patterns underscore CI's utility in organic synthesis and natural product isolation, where preserving molecular ions establishes key skeletal features.^[45] For quantitative analysis, CI coupled with gas chromatography (GC-CI-MS) delivers high precision in measuring volatile compounds, particularly through selected ion monitoring of [M+H]⁺ ions, achieving reproducibility often below 10% relative standard deviation.^[47] Isotope dilution methods enhance accuracy by using deuterated standards to compensate for matrix effects, as demonstrated in the quantitation of pharmaceuticals like paroxetine at nanogram levels using negative CI GC-MS.^[48] Detection limits typically reach ~1-10 ng for pesticides and drugs, with negative CI offering enhanced sensitivity for electron-capturing analytes like organochlorines in environmental or residue samples.^[47] Integration of CI with chromatography has been pivotal since the 1970s, when GC-CI-MS emerged for routine pharmaceutical analysis, enabling separation and detection of drug metabolites and impurities.^[49] For polar compounds, liquid chromatography (LC) variants using particle beam interfaces couple CI to handle non-volatiles, extending applicability to hydrophilic pharmaceuticals.^[50] In regulatory contexts, such as FDA approvals, CI-MS supports impurity profiling by identifying and quantifying trace contaminants at parts-per-million levels, ensuring compliance with quality standards for drug substances.^[51]

Environmental monitoring and atmospheric studies

Chemical ionization mass spectrometry (CI-MS), particularly in negative chemical ionization (NCI) mode, enables selective detection of halogenated compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides due to their high electronegativity, which facilitates electron capture and formation of stable negative ions.^[52] This selectivity is advantageous for environmental monitoring, as demonstrated in gas chromatography coupled with NCI-MS analyses of soil and sediment samples contaminated with these persistent organic pollutants.^[53] For instance, NCI-GC-MS has been applied to simultaneously quantify OCPs and PCBs in environmental matrices at parts-per-trillion levels, minimizing interference from co-eluting compounds.^[54] Portable CI-MS systems support real-time analysis of water and soil samples in field settings, allowing on-site assessment of pollutant dynamics without extensive sample preparation.^[55] Transportable high-resolution CI-MS platforms have been deployed for continuous monitoring of volatile organics in catchment waters, providing insights into spatiotemporal contamination patterns. These systems achieve detection limits in the low nanograms per liter range for targeted analytes, enhancing response times for remediation efforts.^[56] In atmospheric studies, chemical ionization mass spectrometry (CIMS) excels at measuring volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ammonia, and amines, which play key roles in aerosol formation and air quality.^[57] Proton-transfer reaction CIMS variants, operating with H3O+ reagent ions, offer high sensitivity for oxygenated VOCs and amines in urban and forested environments, with time resolutions under 1 second.^[58] Ammonium ion-based CIMS further quantifies ammonia and low-molecular-weight amines, revealing their contributions to secondary aerosol nucleation in the boundary layer.^[59] Between 2020 and 2025, advancements in proton-transfer CIMS have improved urban air quality assessments by enabling real-time profiling of VOC precursors to ozone and particulate matter during pollution episodes.^[60] Integration of CIMS with aerial platforms facilitates boundary layer sampling, capturing vertical gradients of trace gases and aerosols inaccessible to ground-based systems. Recent preprints from 2025 highlight enhanced sensitivity in CI-TOF-MS instruments like the Vocus B for very low-volatility compounds (VICs), achieving sub-parts-per-quadrillion detection for aerosol precursors in complex matrices.^[61] These developments support climate modeling by providing molecular-level data on aerosol precursors, such as oxidized VOCs, which influence radiative forcing and cloud formation processes.^[62]

Variants and Extensions

Negative chemical ionization

Negative chemical ionization (NICI) is a mode of chemical ionization mass spectrometry that generates negative ions from analyte molecules, particularly those that are electronegative, acidic, or possess high electron affinity, through processes such as electron capture or proton abstraction. In this technique, reagent gases like methane or sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆) are introduced into the ion source to facilitate the formation of negative reagent ions, including CH₃⁻ or OH⁻, by thermalizing electrons emitted from the filament via collisions with the gas molecules.^[14]^[63] Methane serves primarily to moderate electron energies for capture, while SF₆, with its high electron affinity, efficiently forms SF₆⁻• radicals that can participate in subsequent ion transfers.^[63] This approach contrasts with positive ion modes by emphasizing soft ionization that preserves molecular integrity for selective detection.^[14] Key reactions in NICI involve direct electron capture by the analyte, especially for compounds like halocarbons, where the thermal electron (near 0 eV) attaches to form a stable radical molecular anion:

\text{M} + \text{e}^- \rightarrow \text{M}^{-\bullet}

This resonance capture is favored for molecules with positive electron affinity, enabling the production of M⁻• ions with minimal fragmentation.^[14] Alternatively, proton abstraction occurs via reaction with reagent anions such as OH⁻, generated from trace water or specific additives in the source:

\text{OH}^- + \text{M} \rightarrow [\text{M-H}]^- + \text{H}_2\text{O}

This pathway yields deprotonated ions [M-H]⁻, which are particularly useful for acidic analytes, providing structural information through abundant pseudomolecular ions.^[64] The technique exhibits higher selectivity for compounds with sufficient electron affinity, as low-affinity molecules do not efficiently capture electrons, reducing background noise.^[14] NICI offers significant advantages, including ultra-high sensitivity down to femtogram (fg) or attomole levels for trace analytes, making it ideal for detecting environmental pollutants such as halogenated compounds in complex matrices.^[63] It provides 100- to 1000-fold greater sensitivity compared to positive ion chemical ionization, with reduced interference from co-eluting positive ions or matrix components, which enhances signal-to-noise ratios in low-concentration samples.^[63] Since the 1980s, NICI has become a staple in environmental mass spectrometry for monitoring persistent organic pollutants, owing to its ability to produce clean spectra dominated by analyte-specific negative ions.^[63]

Charge-exchange chemical ionization

Charge-exchange chemical ionization (CE-CI) is a variant of chemical ionization that involves the direct transfer of charge from a reagent ion to the analyte molecule, producing radical molecular cations (M⁺•) without protonation or other adduct formation. This process relies on the recombination energy (RE) of the reagent ion exceeding the ionization potential (IP) of the analyte, enabling selective ionization based on energy thresholds. Common reagents include noble gases such as argon (Ar⁺, RE ≈ 15.8 eV), xenon (Xe⁺, RE ≈ 12.1 eV), or krypton (Kr⁺, RE ≈ 14.0 eV), as well as alkenes and aromatic compounds like benzene or chlorobenzene, which generate reagent ions at source pressures of 15–80 Pa and electron energies of 100–600 eV.^[12]^[2] The key reaction in CE-CI is exemplified by:

\text{Ar}^{+} + \text{M} \rightarrow \text{M}^{+•} + \text{Ar}

This charge transfer occurs efficiently when the IP of the analyte (typically 9–12 eV) is lower than that of the reagent ion, imparting low internal energy to the resulting M⁺• and yielding spectra with reduced fragmentation compared to electron ionization (EI). CE-CI thus provides an intermediate level of fragmentation between the extensive breakdown seen in standard EI (70 eV electrons) and the minimal dissociation in proton-transfer CI, allowing preservation of molecular ions while enabling some structural information through controlled fragment ions. The degree of softness can be tuned by selecting reagents with varying RE values; for instance, higher-RE reagents like He⁺ (RE ≈ 24.6 eV) promote more fragmentation, while lower-RE options like Xe⁺ favor intact M⁺• formation.^[12] Applications of CE-CI are particularly suited to non-polar or low-basicity compounds where proton-transfer is inefficient, such as aromatic hydrocarbons in complex mixtures like petroleum or fuels. For example, chlorobenzene as a reagent selectively ionizes substituted benzenes and naphthalenes, aiding in their identification and quantification by producing characteristic M⁺• ions with minimal interference from aliphatic components. It has also been employed in studies of fullerenes, such as C₆₀, C₇₀, and C₈₄, to investigate relative stabilities through charge-exchange reactions that generate intact radical cations for subsequent collision-activated dissociation analysis. Though less common than other CI variants due to the need for precise reagent selection, CE-CI proves valuable for generating radical ions in gas-phase studies, enabling insights into ion thermochemistry and reaction mechanisms without the spectral complexity of protonated species.^[12]^[65]^[66]

Atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization

Atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization (APCI) is a variant of chemical ionization that operates at approximately 760 torr, allowing direct interfacing with liquid chromatography systems without the need for vacuum differentials typical of low-pressure techniques. In APCI, a corona discharge from a high-voltage needle generates primary ions, primarily from nitrogen and oxygen in ambient air, which then react with trace moisture to form reagent ions such as hydronium clusters (H₃O⁺·(H₂O)ₙ). Liquid samples introduced via high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) are nebulized using a pneumatic nebulizer and heated to 400–500°C for rapid vaporization, converting analytes into the gas phase where they undergo ion-molecule reactions with the reagent ions, predominantly proton transfer to yield protonated molecules ([M+H]⁺).^[67] A key ion formation pathway begins with the ionization of N₂ by the corona discharge to produce N₂⁺•, followed by reaction with water: N₂⁺• + H₂O → H₂O⁺• + N₂, and subsequent protonation H₂O⁺• + H₂O → H₃O⁺ + OH•, leading to stable hydronium clusters that serve as proton donors for analytes with proton affinities higher than water. This process results in softer ionization compared to electron impact (EI) methods, preserving molecular ions with minimal fragmentation, though it is harder than electrospray ionization (ESI) due to the thermal vaporization step, which can induce some in-source dissociation for thermally labile compounds. APCI has been coupled to LC-MS since the 1980s, enabling robust analysis of nonpolar to moderately polar compounds like pharmaceuticals and pesticides that are poorly ionized by ESI.^[68]^[69]^[70] Recent developments from 2020 to 2025 have enhanced APCI for ambient mass spectrometry applications, particularly in electrochemical analysis, where nanoelectrode-based APCI sources enable real-time monitoring of electrode reactions by integrating corona discharge directly with electrochemical cells for volatile reaction products. Additionally, portable APCI systems have advanced field-deployable analysis of volatiles, such as organic aerosols in atmospheric studies, using compact Orbitrap mass spectrometers for high-resolution detection without sample preparation. These innovations expand APCI's utility beyond traditional LC-MS to on-site environmental and reactive monitoring.^[71]^[72]^[73]

References

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Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry. I. General Introduction
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**Summary of Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry (CI-MS)**
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Sep 12, 2016 · This year is the 50th anniversary of the publication of Munson and Field's seminal paper of Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry (CIMS) [ (1)].Missing: original | Show results with:original
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[PDF] Thermo Fisher Scientific: A Legacy of Over 70 Years of Innovation in ...
A Chemical Ionization. (CI) option for the. Finnigan 1015 was developed by M ... organization's first commercial QqQ instrument and, after the acquisition.
[5]
3.2: Chemical Ionization - Chemistry LibreTexts
Jul 3, 2022 · Chemical Ionization (CI) is a soft ionization technique that produces ions with little excess energy. As a result, less fragmentation is observed in the mass ...
[6]
Chemical Ionization Mass Spectroscopy - ScienceDirect.com
Chemical ionization mass spectrometry (CIMS) is defined as a technique where ionization of gaseous analytes occurs through gas-phase ion–molecule reactions, ...
[7]
Comparison of electron ionization and chemical ... - ScienceDirect.com
Comparison of electron ionization and chemical ionization ... More molecular ions were produced by CI than protonated molecules, despite the greater fragmentation ...<|separator|>
[8]
https://www.waters.com/nextgen/us/en/education/primers/the-mass-spectrometry-primer/common-ionization.html
[9]
2.3: Ionization Techniques - Chemistry LibreTexts
Feb 11, 2023 · One of the major advantages of MALDI is that it produces singly charged ions almost exclusively and can be used to volatilize extremely high ...
[10]
A Beginner's Guide to Mass Spectrometry: Types of Ionization ...
Aug 23, 2023 · Chemical Ionization (CI) The first step is for the reagent gas to undergo electron ionization, generating a molecular ion. This molecular ion ...
[11]
3.3: Atmospheric Pressure Ionization and Electrospray Ionization
Jul 3, 2022 · Atmospheric Pressure Ionization (API) sources ionize the sample at atmospheric pressure and then transfer the ions into the mass spectrometer.
[12]
[PDF] 7 Chemical Ionization - Mass Spectrometry
Munson, M.S.B.; Field, F.H. Chemical. Ionization Mass Spectrometry. I. General. Introduction. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1966, 88,. 2621- ...
[13]
Methane - the NIST WebBook
Ionization energy determinations. IE (eV), Method, Reference, Comment. 12.61 ± 0.01, PI, Berkowitz, Greene, et al., 1987, LBLHLM. 12.6 ± 0.4, EI, Chatham, Hils, ...Gas phase ion energetics data · References
[14]
[PDF] Ionization Methods in Organic Mass Spectrometry
Chemical ionization uses ion-molecule reactions to produce ions from the analyte. The chemical ionization process begins when a reagent gas such as methane, ...
[15]
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Electron Ionization Sources: The Basics | Spectroscopy Online
Jul 1, 2006 · In the ion source, ions are created from gas-phase neutral sample molecules, or preformed ions are extracted from solutions, and then sent into ...
[17]
Instrumentation and vacuum aspects of chemical ionization mass ...
These modifications include a gas-tight ion source for operation at 1 torr, a differential pumping system, a gauge for source pressure monitoring, an inlet ...
[18]
U.S. Patent for Mass spectrometer ionization source and related ...
An improved ionization source for a mass spectrometer is constructed of stainless steel, electropolished, and electroplated with gold.
[19]
Professor D.F. Hunt relationship with Finnigan Corporation and His ...
Jul 16, 2025 · To increase capability for the analytical laboratory market, in 1970 Finnigan introduced a quadrupole instrument with a chemical ionization (CI) ...
[20]
Electron Ionization - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Besides electron impact ionization (EI) and photoionization (PI), a number of different methods are used in mass spectrometry including chemical ionization ...
[21]
Performance Evaluation of an EI&CI Dual Ionization TOFMS ...
Jul 22, 2024 · The use and compatibility of a dual-ionization TOFMS operating an EI source and a CI source in parallel using a single TOF mass analyzer with flow modulated ...Introduction · Methods and Materials · Results and Discussion · Conclusion
[22]
Chemical Ionization - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
In chemical ionization (CI) ions are formed by reaction of the sample molecules with a known preselected set of reagent ions. These reagent ions are produced by ...
[23]
Chemical Ionization - GulfLINK
A"tight" ion source (pressure=0.1-2 torr) is used to maximize collisions which results in increasing sensitivity. To take place these ion molecule reactions ...
[24]
None
### Summary of Chemical Ionization Operational Parameters (Agilent 5977 Series MSD)
[25]
Minimisation of pressure dependent mass discrimination in the ion ...
Nov 30, 2017 · Effect of the repeller voltage Of the 13 source parameters listed in Table 1, those having the strongest influence on pressure dependent mass ...Missing: ionization operational
[26]
Temperature: How Hot Should I Run the Chemical Ionization (CI) Ion ...
Mar 24, 2025 · The source temperature affects the reagent gas motion and ionization chamber pressure. The sensitivity is lower at lower temperatures and the ...Missing: optimization | Show results with:optimization
[27]
Chemical Ionization - MASONACO
The proton affinity (PA) of methane is 129.9 kcal/mol, lower than that of most other organic compounds, therefore CH5+ is a highly reactive ion, and CI ...
[28]
[PDF] Evaluated Gas Phase Basicities and Proton Affinities of Molecules
Oct 15, 2009 · kcal/mol) if the proton affinity lies in the region of the scale ... >.G = 2.6 kcal/mol to iso-C3H,NHz at 600 K. 2,5-Dimethylpyrrole ...
[29]
https://www.agilent.com/cs/library/support/documents/a20749.pdf
[30]
Chemical ionization mass spectrometry technique for detection of ...
Sep 28, 2002 · NH3 has a proton affinity (PA) (204 kcal/mol) higher than water (166 kcal/mol) and lower than DMSO (211 kcal/mol) [Hunter and Lias, 2000].
[31]
Application of Chemical Ionization in the Analysis of ...
Mar 3, 2024 · ... chemical ionization mode which is one of the analytical techniques ... molecular ion with significant abundance is observed, which is ...
[32]
Chemical Ionization - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
CI relies on a reagent gas to assist in the ionization process of the compounds of interest. Typical reagent gasses commonly used in CI are ammonia and methane.
[33]
Gas chromatography positive chemical ionization and tandem mass ...
The GC/PCI/MS/MS method offers improved selectivity when analyzing real world samples containing interfering products and matrix noise thereby improving ...Gas Chromatography Positive... · Introduction · Gc/pci/ms/ms Method...
[34]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0039914005000561
[35]
Mass calibrants for positive chemical ionization-high resolution ... - NIH
May 9, 2023 · PFK is a viscous molecule widely used for mass calibration under EI conditions but has a low ionization efficiency in CI mode. PFK is usually ...Introduction · Low Resolution Mass... · High Resolution Mass...
[36]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10167574/
[37]
Evaluating the performance of five different chemical ionization ...
Apr 17, 2019 · This study explores and highlights both benefits and limitations of currently available chemical ionization mass spectrometry instrumentation
[38]
Mass Spectral Reference Libraries: An Ever-Expanding Resource ...
Jun 22, 2012 · The basic principles, practices, and pitfalls in the process of compound identification by searching mass spectral reference libraries are presented.
[39]
A New Outlook on Soft Ionization for GC–MS | Spectroscopy Online
This article discusses the reasons for this limitation as well as new developments that make lower-energy electron ionization possible without the ...
[40]
https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/new-outlook-soft-ionization-gc-ms
[41]
Investigation of chromatographic peak broadening in supercritical ...
Dec 17, 2019 · We observed a significant chromatographic peak broadening effect in atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mode during supercritical fluid chromatography- ...
[42]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0123693977000686
[43]
[PDF] Implementation of Ammonia Reagent Gas for Chemical Ionization ...
Jun 13, 2006 · This note describes the operating procedures for using ammonia as a CI gas on 5975 inert MSD platforms. Introduction. Ammonia is a particularly ...
[44]
Electron Spin Resonance Study of Oxygen-17 Enriched p-Benzosemiquinone Anion Radical
**Summary of Chemical Ionization (CI) for [M+H]+ Ions and Advantages Over EI:**
[45]
Chemical ionization mass spectrometry of complex molecules. XI ...
Strategy for structural elucidation of drugs and drug metabolites using (MS) ... Chemical ionization mass spectrometry of steroids and other lipids.
[46]
Positive and negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry of ...
Positive and negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry of trimethylsilyl derivatives of pyrrolizidine alkaloids using NH+ and OH− as the reactant ions.
[47]
Gas Chromatography Comparison: GC-MS vs GC-MS/MS Pesticides
Sep 9, 2008 · The developed GC-EI/SIM, GC-NCI/SIM, and GC-NCI/SRM are suitable for the determination of pesticides in air sample extracts at concentrations <100 pg μL −1.Missing: CI- drugs
[48]
Stable isotope dilution negative ion chemical ionization gas ...
Aug 6, 2001 · Stable isotope dilution negative ion chemical ionization gas chromatography–mass spectrometry for the quantitative analysis of paroxetine in ...
[49]
Development of Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry
Aug 6, 2025 · In 1966, Munson and Field introduced chemical ionization as a new analytical technique (34,35). Unlike ionization with highly energetic ...Missing: original | Show results with:original
[50]
Liquid chromatography/particle beam/mass spectrometry of polar ...
Identification of pesticides by liquid chromatography–particle beam mass spectrometry using electron ionization and chemical ionization. Journal of ...
[51]
[PDF] Impurity Profiling of Pharmaceutical Starting Materials Using Gas ...
The impurity profiling process (defined as compound detection, identification and quantitation) is currently a mandatory step in the manufacturing of ...
[52]
Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry: Fundamental Principles ...
Sep 25, 2025 · The review examines the evolution of chemical ionization mass spectrometry (CI-MS), a technique developed in 1966 by Field and Munson.
[53]
Selective and comprehensive analysis of organohalogen ... - NIH
Additionally, we report the selective detection of organohalogens by using negative chemical ionization (NCI) on GC × GC–HRTofMS and comparison of the results ...
[54]
Simultaneous analysis of organochlorinated pesticides (OCPs) and ...
OCPs and PCBs were simultaneously determined in a single chromatographic run using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry-negative chemical ionization (GC–MS-NCI) ...
[55]
Portable Mass Spectrometry System: Instrumentation, Applications ...
This review discusses the basics and recent advancements in the development of key components of portable mass spectrometers including ionization source, mass ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[56]
(PDF) Transportable Automated HRMS Platform “MS 2 field ...
Apr 17, 2021 · The fully automated mobile unit MS 2 Field was used to collect and analyse water samples at the catchment outlet by means of high-resolution ...
[57]
[PDF] Method 8265: Volatile Organic Compounds in Water, Soil, Soil Gas ...
1.1. This method uses direct sampling ion trap mass spectrometry (DSITMS) for the rapid quantitative measurement, continuous real-time monitoring, ...
[58]
Atmospheric amines and ammonia measured with a chemical ... - ACP
Nov 19, 2014 · We report measurements of ambient amines and ammonia with a fast response chemical ionization mass spectrometer (CIMS) in a southeastern US ...Missing: studies VOCs
[59]
Measurement of atmospheric amines and ammonia using the high ...
This instrument is based on the chemical ionization mass spectrometers (CIMS) that have been utilized previously for quantification of atmospheric NH3 (Nowak et ...
[60]
[PDF] Chemical ionization mass spectrometry utilizing ammonium ions (NH
Xn. (ligand X = NH3 and H2O, n = 0,1,2) and H3O+ · (H2O)n, are generated from the ion source and can potentially serve as reagent ions. H3O+ + NH3 → NH. +. 4. + ...
[61]
Long-range transport and airborne measurements of VOCs using ...
VOC concentrations were measured in urban, industrial, and long-range transport scenarios using proton transfer reaction-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MS) ...Missing: CIMS | Show results with:CIMS
[62]
Advancing Aerosol Chemical Characterization and Vertical Profiling ...
Sep 16, 2025 · Combined AMS and chemical ionization mass spectrometry analyses detected amines, amides, and amino acids. PM above the planetary boundary layer ...Missing: drones | Show results with:drones
[63]
Advancing Aerosol Chemical Characterization and Vertical Profiling ...
Sep 20, 2025 · Airborne flux measurements of ammonia over the southern Great Plains using chemical ionization mass spectrometry ... surface-layer, boundary layer ...
[64]
Validation and Versatile Applications of a Novel Chemical Ionization ...
This study introduces and comprehensively evaluates a novel Vocus B Chemical Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometer (CI-TOF-MS), an improved “all-in-one” ...
[65]
[PDF] Machine Learning Assisted Chemical Characterization and Optical ...
Oct 18, 2024 · Abstract: The light-absorbing organics, namely brown carbon (BrC), can significantly. 19 affect atmospheric visibility and radiative forcing ...
[66]
Atmospheric organic aerosols: online molecular characterization ...
Aug 16, 2025 · This review critically assesses recent progress in widely used analytical techniques for molecular characterization of OA and their applications ...
[67]
[PDF] Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry. - DTIC
Jan 30, 1980 · The birth of Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry. (CIMS) took place when Field (3) and Munson (3a) realized that an ion such as Cfi+ could ...
[68]
Chemical Ionization - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Chemical ionization (CI) relies on gas-phase chemical reactions that take place between the analyte of interest and ions generated from a reagent gas.
[69]
Mixed charge exchange-chemical ionization mass spectrometry of ...
Mixed charge exchange-chemical ionization mass spectrometry of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ... ChemInform Abstract: MIXED CHARGE EXCHANGE‐CHEMICAL IONIZATION ...
[70]
Occurrence and fragmentation of high-mass fullerenes - ScienceDirect
The relative stabilities of C60, C70 and C84 were investigated by charge exchange and collision activated dissociation experiments. All the fullerene ions ...
[71]
Review on atmospheric pressure ionization sources for gas ...
Jan 15, 2023 · ... Principles and Requilements ... atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry for high-throughput analysis of 16 PAHs.
[72]
A corona discharge atmospheric pressure chemical ionization ...
The change of the working gas from zero air to N2 allows us to change the major reactant ions from NO+·(H2O)n to H3O+·(H2O)n. In this paper we present the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[73]
Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization - ScienceDirect.com
Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) is defined as a gas-phase ionization technique that utilizes ion–molecule reactions between reactant ions ...Missing: review | Show results with:review
[74]
The Top 10 Milestones in MS - The Analytical Scientist
Nov 5, 2021 · Francis Karasek at the University of Waterloo first employed drift tube ion mobility for analytical applications in the 1970s and IMS came into ...
[75]
Nanoelectrode Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization Mass ...
Jun 25, 2024 · A small ionization needle with an ultrasharp, ultrafine tip is introduced. It is lab-fabricated from tungsten wire and serves as a corona discharge emitter.
[76]
Real-time organic aerosol characterization via Orbitrap mass ... - AMT
Sep 18, 2025 · In this study, we demonstrate the field applicability of a high-resolution (Orbitrap) mass spectrometer with Atmospheric Pressure Chemical ...
[77]
Portable Digital Linear Ion Trap Mass Spectrometer Based ... - MDPI
May 30, 2022 · This work developed a portable digital linear ion trap mass spectrometer based on separate-region corona discharge ionization source to meet this need.